Post on 23-Dec-2015
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Public PolicyPublic policy is the result of interactions and dynamics
among actors, interests, institutions and processes.
The formation of policy agendas, the enactment of policies by Congress and the president, and the implementation
and interpretation of policies by the bureaucracy and the courts are all stages in the policy process.
Students should also investigate policy networks and issue networks in the domestic and foreign policy areas. the
study of these will give students a clear understanding of the impact of federalism, interest groups, parties, and
elections on policy processes and policymaking.
Students should be familiar with major public policies.
Vocabulary Public Policy: Governmental plan of action designed to address a
problem Difficult to implement and evaluate
Rarely solves problem completely
Political Agenda: Issues that people believe require government action Shaped by popular attitudes, elite interests, media, critical events, &
government actions
Actors : groups, institutions, & media
Legitimacy: what the people believe is proper for government to do Role of gov’t has grown over time under both parties
Policymaking :formation of public policy Status quo is most likely outcome of any policymaking attempt
Limited by power of actors involved
Limited by economic reality
Policymaking Steps
1.Agenda-Setting
2.Policy Formulation
3.Policy Adoption
4.Policy Implementation
5.Policy Evaluation
1. Agenda-Setting
Problems are recognized and characterized Spurred by a crisis lobbying group media campaign Politician technological change
Policy Problems – why are some problems acted on and others neglected? Defined not just by the problem itself, but the objective
Tractability – how difficult will the problem be to fix?
2. Policy Formulation
Proposals are discussed among government officials & the public
Many solutions debated Almost always stalls here
3. Policy Adoption Official acceptance of policy Specific strategy is chosen Often takes form of legislation Very unlikely! Support dependent on:
Resources of involved parties Strength of belief Positions held by supporters Actions of policy proponents (grassroots, media,
etc.)
4. Policy Implementation
Gov’t action taken by bureaucracy, courts, police, & individuals to put the policy into place
Usually only partly successful Legislative policy goals are difficult for
bureaucracy to carry out
5. Policy Evaluation Studies conducted to assess success or
failure of policy Congressional oversight Areas of focus
Effectiveness Negative or unintended effects Necessary changes
Costs vs. Benefits Costs: any burden that people bear from a policy Benefits: any satisfaction people expect to receive
from policy Remember: it is the perception of costs & benefits
that affect politics People debate if it is legitimate for a group to benefit from a
policy
Classification Distributed Costs Concentrated Costs
Distributed Benefits Majoritarian Politics Entrepreneurial Politics
Concentrated Benefits Client Politics Interest Group Politics
Cost-Benefit Classification Majoritarian Politics
Many benefits, many pay
Debate is public & ideological
Social Security, military, cancer research
Entrepreneurial Politics
Many benefit, targeted group pays
Promoted by lobbyists
Environmental protection
Client Politics
Targeted group benefits, many pay
“clients” organize for benefits
Farm subsidies, welfare
Interest Group Politics
Small group gains at others’ expense
Labor unions vs. business firms
Questions Why are some issues addressed by public
policy while others are not? Who sets the political agenda? Why do most policies stall at the formation
stage? Why are Social Security payments to the
elderly popular while payments to unwed mothers are unpopular?
Does the fact that policies are rarely adopted suggest an inherent conservatism or inefficiency in government?
Current Areas of Concern Healthcare
Rising Costs – US pays more of its GDP towards healthcare than many other nations
Expensive diagnostic testing
inflation
Medicare & Medicaid
Uninsured
Environmental Policy
Pollution
Emissions Caps
Transformed over time from conservation to preservation to pollution
Media brings attention to the problem
Energy Policy
How much energy is needed & used
Environment
Nuclear power
Alternative approaches
Poverty & Welfare
Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF)
Supplemental Security Income (SSI)
Food Stamps
Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC)
Welfare controversial
Anti-work
Anti-marriage
Current Areas of Concern Immigration
Effect on present & future society – positive or negative?
1M immigrate to US annually
Illegal immigrants use public services without contributing (public education, emergency rooms, etc.) raising their costs
Fence?
Crime
Lower than other countries, but still a problem
Juvenile crime – lowering (tried as adults, curfews, detention centers)
School shootings
Prison population
Incarceration rate
Drug policy
terrorism
Policymaking in the Federal System
Public Policymaking in the US Fundamentally shaped by federalism Division of authority & responsibility affects
development of public policy Bureaucrats and government officials at different
levels have diff. interests & ideas of how particular policies should be developed & implemented
Two dimensions helpful to understanding: Constitutional Dimension
Financial Dimension
Constitutional Dimension Structures & practices of American federalism are in the constitution
Focuses primarily on structure & authority of national government
Enumerated powers
Clauses raise possibility that national government might engage in activities beyond enumerated powers
Necessary & proper
General welfare
Interstate commerce
Equal protection of the laws
State governments are NOT given specific powers or responsibilities
Reserved powers
Supports limited role of national government
Each state also has its own constitution describing structure & roles within its government
Financial Dimension Financial spending pattern in
policy areas
Complicated by intergovernmental transfer of money between levels of government
Chart Questions: What level of government has
the most influence over education?
What level of government has the most influence in Social Security?
How does state and federal funding affect welfare?
Social Security & Pensions
Healthcare
Education Welfare
Total Expenditure
$840B $906B $859B $498B
Level of Gov’t
National 79% 44% 2% 57%
State 17% 43% 28% 26%
Local 4% 13% 70% 17%
Policymaking in a Federal System All 3 levels of government play some role in
policy process Creates high degree of interdependence Sometimes cooperative Also competitive & conflictual Fosters debate & tension among government
officials Develop strategies to ‘work the system’
Grantsmanship
Extension: Education or Healthcare
Explain how federalism shapes this policy area.
Evaluate the role of federalism in this policy area.
Policy Networks
Policy Networks
Definition: clusters of actors, each with a stake in given policy & capacity to help determine success or failure
Modern democratic governance occurs only rarely via traditional hierarchies or pure ‘markets’
Instead, policy is made via some hybrid arrangement involving a variety of actors Some private, non-governmental institutions
Includes issue networks and iron triangles
Issue Networks Definition: policy-making alliance among loosely
connected participants that comes together on a particular issue, then disbands
Approximates how policy is made on high-profile issues
Assumes that the issue has been brought to the attention of the public & that policy-formulation is already taking place in the public forum
Roles:
Mass media is the ‘gatekeeper’ of public agenda
Interest groups always in search of favorable policy & influence public perceptions of the issue using the media
Policy experts (think tanks) conduct studies on policy alternatives
Congressional committees actually draft details of legislation, reacting to the media, interest groups, & experts
Bureaucratic agencies have to implement the policy, maintaining confidence of the public and Congress (oversight)
Bureaucratic
Agency
Interest Groups
Policy Experts
Congressional Committees
Mass Media
Iron Triangles Emphasizes mutually beneficial roles played by interest
groups, congressional committees, and bureaucratic agencies in formulating & implementing policy
Each influences & is influenced by the others
Roles
Interest groups lobby Congress
Congress provides interest groups with friendly legislation
Congress pressures bureaucrats to implement policy in a way interest groups favor (oversight)
Congress’s budget decisions impact bureaucratic agencies & persuade them to do their job a certain way
Bureaucrats choose to execute policy in a way favorable to Congress
Interest groups lobby bureaucrats
Bureaucrats implement policies in a way to please interest groups, keeping them & Congress happy
Noticeably absent: president’s role [term limit makes presidents somewhat transient + job focuses primarily on the big picture, not minute details of individual policy]
Congressional Committees
Bureaucratic Agenci
es
Interest
Groups
The Policymaking Process : Examined
Agenda-Setting Limited resources & time = choosy about what problems to act
on
Problems converted into issues
Two agendas Systemic (discussion): issue has attention of the public
Powerful groups agree it is a concern
Groups involved have jurisdiction over the issue
Institutional (action): government is prepared to intervene
What agency…
What actions…
Clues found in presidential addresses & things in the media
Agenda-Setting Process Multiple Streams Approach
3 mostly independent streams occasionally come together (problems, proposals, & policies)
Opens a policy window allowing the issue to come onto the agenda
Alternative View
Agenda-building is competitive
Interest groups try to maintain equilibrium & react if threatened
Other factors
Political leadership
Presidential agenda
Electoral benefits
Historical achievement
Concepts of good policy
Policy entrepreneurs
Supreme court
Protest activity
Media attention
Formulation of Policy Proposals Development of proposed courses of action for dealing with public problems
Typically incremental in nature
Actors
President & Advisors
Government Agencies
Presidential Organizations
Legislators
Interest Groups
Universities
Citizen Organizations
2 activities involved
Decisions on what (if anything) should be done
Adoption of legislation or rules
Institutional Limits on Policy Formulation
Constitutional Limits
Separation of powers
Federalism
Bicameralism
Checks & balances
Existing Policy Relationships
Drive for predictability
Networks of contacts & interactions
Change is possible – normally incrementally
Extension
Choose one article:
How is this article related to what you’ve learned about policy agendas?
What problems are evident in the formation of policy in the article?
What do you propose the government do to fix the problem?
Foreign Policy & Defense Spending
Foreign Policy Carefully weigh costs & benefits in domestic and international spheres
Takes many forms Use of force
Military alliances
Treaties
Nuclear test ban treaty
Strategic arms limitation agreement
International trade
Foreign aid
Reflect interest group politics Tariff decisions
Client politics Aid to corporations doing business abroad
Policy toward Israel
Military-Industrial Complex = alleged alliance between military & corporate leaders Shapes defense budget
The President & Foreign Policy American public instinctively feels president is in charge of foreign
affairs – but Congress really is! Constitutional Roles – shared war powers
President can send troops, but Congress declares war
President negotiates treaties, but Congress ratifies them
President can make executive agreements without Congress
President wins more when asking for congressional support on foreign matters than domestic
Checks on power: War Powers Act
Intelligence Oversight
CIA supposed to report to House & Senate Intelligence Committees about covet action
Office of the Diector of National Intelligence (created post-9/11) coordinates FBI, CIA, Defense Intelligence Agency, & intel. Units of other gov’t agencies
Who creates foreign policy? Often made & almost always carried out by Secretary of State from Jefferson to the 20th century – but
no more!
Commitments overseas increased after WWII President put foreign policy at top of agenda
Larger role directing it
Policy shaped by scores of agencies with overseas activity
Today Defense Dept.
CIA
Dept. of Agriculture, Commerce, Labor – all have missions abroad
FBI
DEA
Agency for International Development
US Information Agency – runs libraries & educational programs abroad
National Security Council – committee that coordinates foreign policy
Sect. of State Today Still always promise to coordinate & direct foreign policy – but cannot
Job is too big for one person
Agencies owe no political or bureaucratic loyalty to secretary of state
Machinery Affects Substance of Policy Issues are endlessly agitated & rarely settled Rivalries within exec. branch intensify rivalry between
executive & Congress
Congress has steadily increased influence over foreign policy
Interests of organizations affect positions they take State Dept. likes diplomacy, so it resists bold or controversial
new policies
CIA has stake in gathering information, making it skeptical of other agencies’ claims of success abroad
Air force optimistic about military operations, while army has more doubts
Public Opinion
Broad outlines of foreign policy are shaped by public & elite opinion
Public poorly informed in most cases, but want US to play active role internationally
Political elites are better informed, but opinions change more rapidly
Generally, leaders have more liberal & internationalist outlook than the public
“Rally around the flag” in times of trouble
People are less leery of overseas military expeditions until they start
4 Worldviews Worldview = opinion on how the US should respond to world problems
Isolationism = US should withdraw from foreign affairs Response to WWI
Led to rise of dictators & WWII
Ended with attack on Pearl Harbor
Containment = US should resist expansion of aggressive nations Cold War mentality
Rationale for intervention in Korea & Vietnam
Disengagement = US was harmed by Vietnam, so they should avoid supposedly similar events Resulted from experience of younger foreign policy elite that rose in 1970s
Vietnam led to military defeat & domestic political disaster
“No more Vietnams”
Critics called it “New Isolationism”
Affected foreign policy for decades
Carter (reluctant for military intervention) Reagan (containment) Bush (involved in Kuwait, stirring controversy) Clinton (lack of interest in foreign policy)
Human Rights = try to improve lives of people in other countries Began in early 1990s – Kosovo (Serbian leader Slobodan Milosevic sent troops to suppress ethnic
Albanians in Kosovo)
Generally supported by liberals, while conservatives prefer disengagement in these instances
Extension What Would You Do? Activity [textbook p.550]
6 American hostages held in Middle East for 2 years now
Undergoing torture
Policy is not to negotiate with terrorists
Criticism heard by hostage families & their sympathizers
Terrorist groups demand US end its support of Israel
Your Options
Maintain “no negotiations” policy, but use quiet diplomacy with friendly nations in the region
Secretly exchange arms for the release of Americans
Use military units to find & free the hostages