Chapter 3

Perceiving

Others

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Perception as a Process

Perception is the process of selecting, organizing,

and interpreting information from our senses.

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The Process of Perception

Figure 3.1

The first step of perception is selection—focusing our

attention on certain sights, sounds, tastes, touches, or

smells in our environment.

• Salience: the degree to which something is

noticeable and significant to us

Selecting Information

The second step of perception is organization—

structuring selected information into a coherent pattern.

• Punctuation: structuring information into a

chronological sequence that matches how you

experienced the order of events

Organizing the Information

You’ve Selected

The final step of perception is interpretation—

assigning meaning to selected information.

• Schemata: mental structures containing

information that defines concepts’

characteristics and interrelationships

Interpreting the Information

(Left to right) © Royalty-Free/Corbis; Steve Cukrov/Shutterstock; Royalty-Free/Corbis; Hero Images/Corbis

Attributions are explanations for others’ comments or

behaviors.

Attributions take two forms:

• Internal attributions

• External attributions

Interpreting the Information

(cont.)

Three errors in attribution:

1. Fundamental attribution error

2. Actor-observer effect

3. Self-serving bias

Interpreting the Information

(cont.)

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Reducing Uncertainty

According to Uncertainty Reduction Theory, our

primary compulsion during initial interactions is to

reduce uncertainty about others.

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Reducing Uncertainty (cont.)

Uncertainty can be reduced in several ways:

1. Passive strategies

2. Active strategies

3. Interactive strategies

Influences on Perception

Powerful forces outside of our conscious

awareness shape our perception, including culture,

gender, and personality.

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Perception and Culture

Culture affects whether you perceive others as

similar to or different from yourself.

• Ingroupers: fundamentally similar •

Outgroupers: fundamentally dissimilar

Perception and Gender

Although we’re socialized to believe in gender

differences, studies show that only about 1% of

communication behavior is influenced by gender.

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Perception and Personality

Personality is our characteristic way of thinking, feeling,

and acting based on the traits we

possess.

• The “Big Five”(OCEAN):

1. Openness

2. Conscientiousness

3. Extraversion

4. Agreeableness

5. Neuroticism

Perception and Personality

(cont.)

Implicit personality theories are beliefs about

different personality types and the ways in which

personality traits cluster together.

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Forming Impressions of

Others

Interpersonal impressions are mental pictures of

who people are and how we feel about them.

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Constructing Gestalts

Gestalts are general impressions of people,

either positive or negative.

• Positivity bias: the tendency for Gestalts to

be positive when first formed

• Negativity effect: the tendency to

emphasize the negative information we

learn

Constructing Gestalts (cont.)

• Halo effect: positively interpreting what

someone says or does because we have

a positive Gestalt of him or her

• Horn effect: negatively interpreting the

communication of people for whom we

have negative Gestalts

Calculating Algebraic

Impressions

Algebraic impressions are the most accurate

and refined of impressions.

• We weight some information more heavily

than other information, depending on its

importance and positivity or negativity.

Using Stereotypes

Stereotyping involves overly simplistic

interpersonal impressions.

• While flawed, stereotypes streamline the

impression process and are almost

impossible to avoid.

Improve your perception:

• Offer empathy.

• Embrace world-mindedness.

• Engage in perception-checking.

Improving Your Perception

of Others

When we experience empathy, we “feel into” others’

thoughts and emotions.

Two components:

• Perspective-taking

• Empathic concern

Offering Empathy

© Mika/Corbis

Checking Your Perception

Perception-checking:

1. Check your punctuation.

2. Check your knowledge.

3. Check your attributions.

4. Check perceptual influences.

5. Check your impressions.