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Republican China (1911-1949)
Teacher Resource Guide
East Asia National Resource Center
By Kelly Hammond
Republican China: Changes and Continuities
China was in a state of disarray after the
Qing Dynasty collapsed in 1911. The
Republic of China was established and
people went from being subjects to
citizens, but many of them did not
understand what these changes meant for
them or their new nation-state. For the
next forty years, the new citizens of the
Republic grappled with what it meant to
be Chinese while they were still at war
with one another and with their neighbors.
It was a tumultuous time that brought
monumental changes to the people who
lived in China. Yet, the end of imperial
rule in China did not mean a complete
break from the past; although new
developments occurred, many things
remained unchanged. Today, historians
ponder about what would have meant to
be “modern” in the early twentieth-
century China. Did modernity create new
traditions, or did it draw on tradition to
legitimate itself? Can modernity be
explained without taking tradition into
account? How did the Chinese people who
lived in the cities and the countryside
react differently to the changes taking
place around them, and in what ways were
these changes mediated through their past
experiences and knowledge? It is
important to keep in mind that
throughout the forty years between the
end of the Qing Dynasty and the
establishment of the Communist regime in
1949, China was rarely unified as a nation,
and was often divided into a number of
regions that were ruled by different
powers. In order to understand the
Republican period, it is also crucial to
examine some of the successes and
failures of governments, political groups,
warlords, occupiers, and imperialists
during this time and think about how they
contributed to the development of China
that we know today.
Map of Republic of China in 1917. Source: New
Zealand History Online
Revolution and the New Republic
There is debate among historians about
whether the events of 1911 constitute a
revolution. The last imperial dynasty was
overthrown and a new Republic was
established, but how far-reaching the
“revolution” was in society is debatable.
Chinese elites and regular subjects were
unhappy with the Qing rule and this
growing resentment towards Manchu rule,
combined with new expressions of Han
chauvinism, contributed to the increasing
numbers of revolts and uprisings in the
last years of the nineteenth and early years
of the twentieth centuries. On October 10,
1911, yet another revolution broke out in a
city called Wuchang. Essentially, China
was a powder keg waiting to explode, and
when an arsenal blew up in Wuchang, it
sparked a revolution. Once things were set
in motion in Wuchang, other
revolutionary groups followed, and one by
one, Chinese provinces declared
independence from the Qing. On
December 29, 1911, Sun Yat-sen was
elected as the first provisional president
and on January 1, 2012, the Republic of
China was officially established. On
February 12, 1912, the young Emperor
Puyi abdicated his throne. The assembly of
the Republic of China adopted a new
national flag with the “five races under
one nation” slogan. The less conservative
republicans realized that if they wanted to
maintain the territorial integrity of the
Qing Empire, the new Republic needed to
be less “Han-centric” and incorporate
ethnic minorities into the new nation. This
way, the five peoples of the Qing Dynasty
became the five peoples of the new
Republic: the Tibetans, the Manchus, the
Mongols, the Muslims, and the Han.
Xinhai Revolution in Shanghai. Source: U.S.
Department of State Office of the Historian
After the Qing Dynasty’s power got
transferred to a new provisional
government, Yuan Shikai assumed control
and Sun Yat-sen took a backseat. However,
the new government failed to consolidate
power and the new Republic quickly fell
into a period of political division, known
as the Warlord Period. In many ways, the
ideals of the Revolution were altruistic: to
develop nationalism, republicanism, and
modernization to a united nation-state for
Chinese people. Nevertheless, in practice,
it was extremely difficult to unite such a
big empire. In the meantime, China saw
an emergence of a new class of
intellectuals. After the abolition of the
imperial examinations system in 1905, the
Qing encouraged Chinese students to
study abroad, especially in Japan, and
established new schools. Consequently,
students were “awakened,” and began to
see the differences between Meiji Japan
and their own Qing China.
Sun Yat-sen and People’s
Democracy Sun Yat-sen was born in 1866 in southern
China’s Guangdong province. When he
was ten, Sun moved to Hawaii with his
family and continued his education there,
and is today revered as the founding
father of the Republic of China. Despite
being remembered as one of the greatest
leaders of Modern China, Sun constantly
struggled throughout his political career
and had to endure frequent exile as he fell
out of power after the revolution in the
newly founded Republic of China.
Consequently, Sun led successive
revolutionary governments and
challenged the warlords who were
controlling most of China at the time. Sun
was also one of the founders of
Guomindang (also spelled as Kuomintang)
or the Nationalist Party, but he died before
he could see his dream of a unified China
being fulfilled. Overall, Sun’s most
important legacy is his political
philosophy, which is known as the ‘Three
Principles of the People.’ The three
principles refer to: nationalism,
democracy, and the people’s livelihood
(sometimes translated as ‘socialism,’ but
that is not accurate).
Sun Yat-sen. Source: U.S. Department of State
Office of the Historian
Sun had an international upbringing,
which enabled him to see some of the
deep-seated problems within Chinese
society at the end of the nineteenth
century. He originally studied medicine in
Hong Kong but changed the path and
began to engage in politics after realizing
that his country needed better leadership.
While in Hong Kong, which was a British
colony at the time, Sun met many people
who wished to overthrow the Qing
Dynasty. After the Sino-Japanese War
(1894-1895), these men with cosmopolitan
mindset sought to bring about a revolution
to modernize China. Because Sun held a
similar view, the Qing court exiled him,
forcing him to stay in Japan. During his
second exile, Sun went to the United
States and Canada, raising funds from the
wealthy overseas Chinese to prepare for
revolution.
When the Republic of China was
established in 1912, Sun was appointed as
the President of the Provisional Republic
until official elections could be organized.
Acknowledging his lack of experience in
running a government, Sun handed his
power over to Yuan Shikai, a warlord
whose private militia was too strong for
the revolutionaries to defeat. Yuan died
suddenly in 1946 after having declared
himself as the Emperor of the new
Republic. The situation quickly
degenerated into chaos and the period of
the provisional government gave way to
the ‘Warlord Period,’ during which China
was politically fragmented under the
leadership of individual warlords. The
period between Yuan Shikai’s death in
1946 and Chiang Kai-shek’s establishment
of the Nanjing Government in 1928 is
generally referred to as the ‘Warlord Era’
or the ‘Warlord Period.’
Yuan Shikai. Source: Militaryace
Sun’s definition of nationalism was
freedom from imperial domination. Sun
believed that in order to develop a true
nationalism, China needed to embrace all
peoples of China—the Han, the Mongols,
the Manchus, the Tibetans, and the
Muslims—and bring them together under
the roof of one nation. For democracy, Sun
wanted to create a Western-inspired
constitutional government, mostly based
on the American model with three
branches separating the power of the
government and thus the checks-and-
balances system. Finally, Sun sought to
improve ‘the people’s livelihood’ by
implementing a social welfare system that
would ensure the quality of living, such as
basic education and medical care. These
three principles served as the foundation
for the political ideology of Guomindang.
Sun Yat-sen married Soong Ching-Ling,
and her sister Soong May-Ling was
married to Chiang Kai-Shek, so the two
leaders were brothers-in-law by marriage.
China and WWI China enjoyed a respite from Western
pressure between 1914 and 1918, when
European powers were preoccupied by
World War I in continental Europe.
Chinese industries expanded, and a few
cities, especially Shanghai, Canton,
Tianjin, and Hankou (now part of Wuhan),
became industrial centers. However,
European powers’ preoccupation with the
war at home gave Japan an opportunity to
infiltrate deeper into mainland China. In
1915, Japan presented China with the
Twenty-One Demands, attempting make
China a Japanese protectorate. Yuan
Shikai's government yielded to a modified
version of the demands, agreeing, among
other concessions, to the transfer of the
German holdings in Shandong to Japan.
After the death of Yuan Shikai in 1916, the
central government in Beijing lost most of
its power, and for the next decade,
different warlords and their cliques ruled
China. In 1917, China entered World War I
on the side of the Allies (which included
Britain, France, and the United States)
hoping to gain a seat at the peace talks and
for a new chance to halt Japanese
ambitions on the mainland. China offered
to send 40,000 soldiers to France, but
France and the Great Britain deemed this
to be impractical. Instead, China sent
laborers to man to docks and take care of
construction in Europe whilst most of
their laborers were on the front lines. By
1918, there were almost 100,000 Chinese
laborers in France alone.
Chinese labor battalions ready to leave for
France. Source: W. Reginald Wheeler
Manpower was not the only area in which
the Chinese made a difference in WWI.
When China entered the war, all German
ships in Chinese ports were seized by the
Chinese state, as were the assets of
German banks, notably the Deutsche Bank
in Shanghai, dealing a blow to German
economic capacity. Despite their
contributions, China did not receive the
recognition and respect it had expected
after the war and China's demands at the
Paris peace conference were unfulfilled,
resulting in Chinese refusal to sign the
Treaty of Versailles.
China expected the United States to be on
its side during the negotiations in
Versailles, but President Woodrow Wilson
withdrew U.S. support for China on the
Shandong issue. Because of this, the
Chinese delegation refused to sign the
Treaty of Versailles, sending shockwaves
among the Chinese youth. When the news
about the peace conference reached China
on May 4, 1919, more than 3,000 students
from universities in Beijing assembled to
protest. The Beijing governor suppressed
the demonstrators and arrested student
leaders, but these actions set off a wave of
protests around the country in support of
the Beijing students and their cause.
Members of the Chinese labor corp during WWI.
Source: Miscellany.kovaya.com
The May Fourth Movement
The May Fourth Movement was
precipitated by the decisions of the Great
Powers in Versailles after WWI to not
return certain concessions to China, even
though the Chinese had fought on the side
of the Allies. What began as a small
protest at Tiananmen Square on May 4,
1919 against imperialism grew into a
cultural and political movement that had a
formative impact on emerging Chinese
nationalism in the early twentieth century.
The protesters were mostly upset that the
Shandong peninsula, once a German
colony, had been ceded to Japan rather
than returned to the mainland. It was the
empty rhetoric of ‘Wilsonian Democracy’
and the promises of self-determination
that upset the Chinese. The Chinese
people felt that they had made a large
contribution to the war effort (sending
almost 200,000 labourers to the front
lines to dig trenches) and were not
impressed when the Great Powers snuffed
off their promises to them after the war
was over.
May Fourth Movement. Source: Totally History
The movement’s leaders, who were mostly
elite students from Western-style schools
in Beijing and Shanghai, felt that the
“traditional” Confucian values were
responsible for China’s weakness as a
nation and that this weakness had allowed
foreign imperialists to take advantage of
China for the past one hundred years.
These student leaders set in motion some
changes in the structure and makeup of
Chinese society, including the
modernization and standardization of the
Chinese language. The students called for
a boycott of all Japanese goods and ended
up burning down the residence of a
Japanese official in Beijing. A few students
were severely beaten by the police and
imprisoned as recourse. However, the
events sparked a widespread movement
and students in large cities across China
began to demand action. They saw the
outcome of the Paris peace talks as
evidence of China’s prolonged weakness; it
had been almost a decade since the
establishment of the Republic and yet the
Western powers still controlled much of
China. As the movement became more
widespread, it attracted more and more
people, and those who worked in
Japanese-owned companies went on
strike. The May Fourth Movement served
as an intellectual turning point in China.
Western-style liberal democracy had
previously appealed to Chinese
intellectuals, but from the May Fourth
Movement onward, China lost interest in
it, as Woodrow Wilson’s fourteen points
were seen as Western-centric and
hypocritical. Consequently, China turned
its attention to other political tools and
theories, such as Marxism and Marxism-
Leninism, hoping that could potentially
resolve some the many issues it was facing.
If you are familiar with more current
events in China, you will recognize the
date May 4. On May 4, 1989, students in
Beijing occupied Tiananmen Square and
demanded democratic reforms in China.
Most of us remember June 4, 1989
because that is the day the tanks rolled
into the square, but students had already
been there for a month. The choice of the
date to start their protest on May 4 was no
coincidence; it was a direct harkening
back to the student leaders of the May
Fourth Movement exactly seventy years
before who had risked their lives to bring
about change and reform in China.
The Warlord Era
Map of China in 1925. Source: U.S. Army
The Warlord Era is usually defined as the
tumultuous years after the founding the
Republic of China (1916-1928). During
this time, China was divided and fractured
along the lines of different military cliques
that ruled different areas, roughly around
the size of a province. The Warlord Era
lasted from the death of Yuan Shikai in
1916 until the consolidation of power by
Chiang Kai-shek in 1928. After Yuan
Shikai died rather suddenly, his powerful
army split into multiple factions and
military leaders began to control regions
on their own. There was tacit recognition
from Beijing that these warlord leaders
ruled certain areas because it allowed
Beijing to maintain order and collect taxes.
Although the country was fragmented, it
was not in complete chaos, unlike what
the name “Warlord Era” suggests. In 1928,
Chiang Kai-shek established the so-called
Nanjing government after leading the
North Expedition and defeating infamous
warlord Zhang Zuolin, bringing an end to
the Warlord Era.
Chiang Kai-shek. Source: NNDB
Throughout the Warlord Era, some
warlords tried on numerous occasions to
gather supporters and unify China. At one
point, there was an alliance between
Zhang Zuolin and another warlord named
Feng Yuxiang. These two warlords from
the north wanted to reunify northern and
southern China, but they did not have
much in common with generals in the
south. By 1927, Chiang Kai-shek had
amassed enough power to march north
with the support of the Communists and
succeeded in defeating the northern
warlords. This collaboration between
Chiang’s army and the Communists is
known as the First United Front.
Nonetheless, Chiang began to purge the
Communist party members and
assassinated thousands of them in an
event known as the White Terror. This
event marked the end of the cooperation
between Chiang’s nationalist forces and
the Communists. In the meantime, Zhang
Zuolin tried to escape north China, but he
was killed by the Japanese and his son
Zhang Xueliang assumed power. Zhang
Xueliang submitted to Chiang Kai-shek a
few months later.
The Establishment of the Chinese
Communist Party In July 1921, Li Dazhao and Chen Duxiu
founded the Chinese Communist Party
(CCP). Following WWI was a time of
intense intellectual foment in China,
during which young students came into
contact with new ideas from the West and
looked for ways to improve their own
country. Marxist ideas quickly spread
across China, especially after the 1917
Russian Revolution. In June 1920, the
Comintern sent agents from the Soviet
Union to China to establish a Marxist-
Leninist party in China. Li Dazhao was an
important figure at Beijing University and
knew Mao Zedong, who was working as
the university’s librarian at the time. Mao
joined the Communist Party as one of the
representatives from Hunan, his home
province.
The CCP soon gained many new members
and quickly grew in size. The Comintern
had a heavy hand in the early years of the
establishment of the CCP and often
negotiated with Chiang Kai-shek’s
Nationalists behind the CCP’s back. The
CCP did end up allying with the
Nationalists in what is known as the First
United Front. However, after the death of
Sun Yat-sen in 1925, Chiang Kai-shek
grew increasingly spiteful of the CCP and
began to assert his anti-Communist
agenda. There were instances of
Communist success, but Chiang’s army
was far superior. The CCP had to leave on
what is now known as the Long March to
escape persecution at the hands of the
Nationalists.
Li Dazhao, Founder of the Chinese Communist
Party. Source: Encyclopedia of Marxism
During the Long March, the CCP began to
look at its party organization and Mao
formulated his ideas about the role of
peasants in revolution. Mao realized that
given China was primarily an agrarian
society, he needed to find ways to adapt
Marx’s ideas to fit the conditions in China
in order to succeed in bringing about
Chinese Communist Revolution. This is
where the doctrine of rural revolution
comes from, and it has inspired
Communist leaders in non-industrial,
agrarian nations in South Africa and
South America.
Mao Zedong in his youth. Source: China Mike
Mao succeeded because he was able to
relate his political ideology to the majority
of people in China, who lived in rural
areas. Mao also wrote seminal works on
the use of guerrilla warfare, a strategy that
the Communists heavily relied on
throughout the Sino-Japanese War (1937-
1945) and the Civil War. Like his political
doctrine, Mao’s ideas about guerrilla
warfare inspired many insurgents, such as
the Shining Path in Peru. Although Mao is
often remembered for some of his later
campaigns, such as the Cultural
Revolution, he was an influential political
thinker of the twentieth century and his
impact on society goes far beyond the
Chinese borders.
Japanese Encroachment in
China By 1931, the Japanese were increasing
their presence on the mainland, especially
in Manchuria. Wanting more land and
power in the region, the Japanese staged
the Mukden Incident. In this instance, the
Japanese planted a bomb on a section of
railroad in north China. When it
detonated, Japan claimed that the Chinese
had set the bomb, and used the detonation
as a pretext to launch a full invasion of the
region. They seized control of the
government and installed a pro-Japanese
government with Puyi, the last Qing
emperor, as regent. After the invasion of
Manchuria in 1931, Japanese militarists
moved forward to separate the region
from Chinese control, and on February 8,
1932, Japan officially proclaimed the state
of Manchukuo. China, of course, did not
recognize the government in Manchukuo,
but the two nations established ties to
conduct trade.
Skeptical of Japanese encroachment in the
region, the League of Nations sent a
commission to investigate the Mukden
Incident and the situation on the ground
in Manchuria. This commission released
the Lytton Report and declared that the
League would not recognize the Japanese
state of Manchukuo as a sovereign nation
and that the region remained part of
China. The Japanese were furious and
withdrew from the League of Nations.
Some scholars claim that this incident was
the catalyst for prompting the
militarization of Japan and their
involvement in WWII.
Japanese occupation of Beijing.
Source: Wodu Media
After the Marco Polo Bridge Incident and
the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese
War, Manchukuo was officially
incorporated into the Japanese empire
and remained under Japanese influence
until the end of the war. The impact of the
Japanese occupation had a lasting
influence on the region. Cities in north
China, such as Dalian, still retain a
Japanese colonial feel in their layout and
architecture.
The Chinese Communists and the Long March
The Long March (1934-1935) was a
military retreat by the Communist Red
Army to evade pursuit and destruction by
the Nationalist Party of China
(Guomindang, or Kuomintang). The
Nationalists and the Communists had
tried to work together to establish order in
the country, but soon after the
Nationalists managed to consolidate their
power, they purged the Communists. The
Communists, facing destruction, were
forced to flee to the distant countryside,
where they regrouped and reworked their
strategy for fomenting revolution in China.
There was not one Long March, but a
series of marches, as various Communist
armies in the south escaped to the north
and west. The most well-known one is the
march from Jiangxi province on the coast
of China (near Shanghai) that began in
October 1934.
The Long March. Source: Anarkismo.net
The Communists were under the
command of Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai,
and they managed to retreat north and
west, reportedly traversing around 8,000
miles before they arrived almost starved
and desperate in Shaanxi province over a
year later. Once they established
themselves in Shaanxi, Mao began to work
on his political philosophy, developing
some of the most important treaties he
would write about peasant revolution and
guerrilla warfare. It was also during the
Long March that Mao solidified his assent
to power. The bitter struggles of the Long
March, which was completed by only
about one-tenth of the force that left
Jiangxi, would come to represent a
significant episode in the history of the
Communist Party of China, and would seal
the personal prestige of Mao and his
supporters as the new leaders of the party
in the following decades.
Japanese Invasion and WWII in China
On July 7, 1937, a war broke out at the
Marco Polo Bridge just outside of Beijing.
There was a skirmish between some
Chinese and Japanese soldiers, and the
Japanese demanded that they be able to
search the walled city of Wanping for a
missing Japanese soldier. The Chinese
refused and this led to a war on the
mainland. The Japanese quickly occupied
most of the major cities in China,
including Shanghai, Nanjing, and Wuhan,
wreaking havoc and bringing destruction.
As they moved south and west, the
Nationalist government retreated to
Chongqing far inland in China. The
Communists were still holed up in the
northern provinces and began honing
their guerrilla warfare techniques in
battles against the Japanese Imperial
Army on the border of Manchuria. After
the Japanese got what they wanted—
access to all treaty ports and the main
north/south railroad in China—the war
came to a stalemate by the end of 1938.
The Nationalists were shipping in goods
and ammunition to southern China
through Burma on the Burma Road, but
the Japanese stopped advancing.
Marco Polo Bridge Incident. Source: Chinafolio
However, the Japanese attack on Pearl
Harbor quickly changed Japan’s position
from that of offense to defense in the war,
especially after its massive loss at the
battle of Midway in the Pacific; Japan lost
almost half of its fleet. Yet, the Japanese
still had a stronghold over most of the
urban centers in China and in 1944, they
launched a new offensive called ichigo,
aiming to link Manchukuo to Vietnam
(which was also under Japanese control)
to send war supplies up and down through
China on the railways without
interruption. This offensive was successful
but the Japanese soon lost the war and
were forced to withdraw all of their troops
from China. In the meantime, another war
was to emerge in China. Neither the
Nationalists nor the Communists were
ready to concede and while both had spent
the past eight years fighting the common
enemy—the Japanese—it was now time for
them to have it out over who would rule
China.
Civil War and the Defeat of the Nationalists
Following the end of the WWII, China
quickly fell into a devastating civil war that
lasted until the establishment of the
People’s Republic of China (PRC) in
October 1949. As Mao Zedong claimed
victory, the Nationalists fled to the island
of Taiwan and declared it the Republic of
China (ROC). The Chinese civil war was
also fueled by the emerging Cold War; the
Americans aided the Nationalists and the
Soviets supported the Communists. The
United States did not want to see China
become a Communist state, while the
Soviets did not want to see a pro-
American regime in China.
Chiang Kai-shek on TIME cover. Source: TIME
The Nationalists received a large amount
of aid from the United States, but their
economic policies were extremely
inefficient and the KMT never gained
respect from the large peasant population
in China. The Communists, on the other
hand, had managed to maintain the
popular support of the locals wherever
they went, mainly because the CCP treated
them fairly and equally. The Communists’
land reform policies, which promised poor
peasants access to farmland, also helped
the CCP garner support. The United States
also became weary of supporting the
Nationalists as their degree of corruption,
disorganization, and ineptitude became
apparent.
Mao Zedong. Source: Mao Biograph
Although the Chinese civil war eventually
came to an end, no armistice or peace
treaty was ever signed. The relationship
between the PRC and ROC remained tense
throughout the decades that followed. The
Communists refused to recognize the
government in Taiwan, claiming that the
island was part of mainland China and
thus the legitimacy to rule solely belonged
to the CCP.
Useful Websites Attempting Analogy: Occupied Manchuria and the Invasion of Iraq by Jonathan Dresner http://hnn.us/article/5247 The Long March http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/china_1900_mao_march.htm Article about Modern China from China Folio http://www.chinafolio.com/modern-chinese-history-1927-1937/ Chinese Communists who’s who from Marxist.org http://www.marxists.org/subject/china/whos-who.htm Writings by Mao Zedong (1939) about the May Fourth Movement http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/mao/selected-works/volume-2/mswv2_13.htm May Fourth Movement Political Posters http://chineseposters.net/themes/may-fourth-movement.php Before and After the so-called May Fourth Movement http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/china_1750_mayfourth.htm Sun Yatsen Classical Chinese Garden in Vancouver http://vancouverchinesegarden.com/
Story about the Last Warlord for History Today by Rana Mitter http://www.historytoday.com/rana-mitter/last-warlord Website for the Sun Yatsen Museum http://www.lcsd.gov.hk/CE/Museum/sysm/en/ Historical maps of China from the University of Texas http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/historical/history_china.html Gallery of Chinese Propaganda Posters http://chineseposters.net/gallery/index.php Republican China Library from The Fairbank Library http://www.cnd.org/fairbank/fair-rep.htm Fordham University History sourcebook—primary sources online http://www.fordham.edu/HALSALL/eastasia/eastasiasbook.asp#Imperial China Google online archive of Life Magazine photos http://images.google.com/hosted/life Modern Chinese Literature and Culture website—hosted by the Department of East Asian History and Languages at Ohio State University http://mclc.osu.edu/ University of Washington—Guide to modern Chinese clothing http://depts.washington.edu/chinaciv/clothing/clotweb.htm University of Washington—Guide to modern Chinese graphic art http://depts.washington.edu/chinaciv/graph/9gramain.htm Cultural guide to understanding how Chinese people say “hello” to each other https://www.mtholyoke.edu/courses/jlipman/chifanlemeiyou.htm
Suggestions for Further Reading
Adshead, S.A.M. The Modernization of the
Chinese Salt Administration, 1900-1920. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1970.
Averill, Stephen (2007) “The cultural politics
of local education in early twentieth-century China.” Twentieth-Century China 32, no. 2 (April): 4-32.
Barlow, Toni. The Question of Women in
Chinese Feminism. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2004.
Barrett, David, and Larry N Shyu, eds.
Chinese Collaboration with Japan, 1932-1945: the Limits of Accommodation. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2001.
Bastid, Marianne. Educational Reform in
Early Twentieth-Century China. Ann Arbor, MI: Center for Chinese Studies, 1987.
Bergère, Marie-Claire, and Janet Lloyd. Sun
Yat-Sen. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1998.
Bergère, Marie-Claire. The Golden Age of the
Chinese Bourgeoisie, 1911-1937. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989.
Bianco, Lucien. Origins of the Chinese
Revolution, 1915-1949. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1971.
Brook, Timothy, and B. Michael Frolic. Civil
Society in China, Studies on Contemporary China. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1997.
Brook, Timothy. Collaboration: Japanese
Agents and Local Elites in Wartime China. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005.
Buck, David B. Urban Change in Tsinan,
Shandong, 1800-1949. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1978.
Buck, Peter. American Science and Modern China, 1876-1936. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1980.
Carroll, Peter. Between Heaven and
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