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Researching and Documenting Innovative Responses to Urban Pressures
Amanatidou (2014)argues forcritical recognitionandqualificationofawiderangeofperspectivesonwhat’socialinnovation’mightmean,including’innovationtomeetsocialneedsandcreatenewsocialrelationshipsorcollaborations’;’innovationsthataresocialinboththeirendsandmeans’;’innovationstosatisfysocialneedsofdisadvantagedpeopleorcommunitiesthroughhelpingtodeveloptheircapacities’;and’innovationtodevelopalternativestothemarket-basedeconomymodeladopting[social]principles’.Shethusproblematisestheover-simplificationofinnovationasjustbeingeither’bypeople’or’forpeople’.Ratherthanasingleconceptualisationor theory clearly defining social innovation, it is therefore left to awide range of potential interpretationsthatlinkinnovationtosocietalissuesandagency.Lietal.(2012)suggestthatsocialinnovationstudiesenableresearchers to“address the need to strengthen human relations in forms of association, collaboration, andcooperationbetweenagents,inordertochangetheinstitutionalbasedinfrastructureinthecircumstancesofeverydaylife”(ibid.:57).ThislinkssocialinnovationbacktotheSchumpeterianideathatinnovationmustinvolveachangeinthefactorsofproduction,namelyinputs,orinthesocialcontext,thesocialsystems,toproducenewordifferentproducts,theoutputs,orinthesocialcontext,increasedwell-being.
‘Systems of Innovation’ Approach
Defining innovation on its own, however, is not sufficient for the purposes of urban or city development.Importantly,innovationisconsideredtobesystemic:itisaninnovationsystemasopposedtomerelyaseriesof innovations. It systemically considers thediffusion, absorptionanduseof innovation (Lundvall, 1992).The‘Systems of Innovation’ (or‘innovation systems’) approach locates innovation as the result of complex andmultipleinteractions,forexample,flowsoftechnologyandinformation.Theseinteractionsincludeavarietyofactorsandtheirenvironment,producingavirtuoussystemofnetworking,learningandcollaborationamongthemultipleactorsoftheinnovationsystem.Thesedynamicsresultinsystemiclearninganddistributeknowledgethroughoutthesystem,leadingtostrengtheningdevelopmentalcapabilitieswithinit(Lundvall,Joseph,ChaminadeandVang,2009:2-3ascitedinKaruri-Sebina,2014:3).Thisapproachalsoconsiderstheframeworkconditionsthatrepresenttheoverallconditionsintheeconomy,governance,educationandinfrastructure.Theseconditionsaredeemednecessaryforinnovationsystemstofunction(Karuri-Sebina,2014).Thesystemsapproachenhancesthelinkbetweeninnovationandeconomicdevelopment,astrategybelongingtoeducationalinstitutions,researchanddevelopmentdepartments,anduniversitiesthatprovidethenecessaryimpetusforinnovationandgrowth(Niosi,2008).
Thesearethefourdistinctcontributorstotheconceptof‘SystemsofInnovation’(Lundvall,1992):
• Thedistinctroleofactors,suchasgovernmentdepartments,politicalstructures,companies,academicandresearchinstitutionsandcivilsocietyorganisations.
• Thenatureandtypesofinteractionbetweentheactors.• Theunderpinningroleofpoliciesandinstitutions.• Theconstitutedknowledgebasesofthesystem.
Itisusefultoconsiderhowsocialinnovation,inallitsvariety,playsouteffectivelyinthestoryofsuccessfulcities.Thevarietyincitiescreatesthespaceforinnovation,startingwiththedemandside,expressedinthecomplexrangeofkeycityissuesdescribedbyRavetzandMiles(2015):
• Social:housing,health,education,poverty.• Technical:transport,communications,innovation.• Economic:localjobs,businesses,investment,regeneration.• Environmental:energy,water,climate,habitats,waste,pollution.• Policy:localgovernance,organisationsandnetworks.
However,havingarguedthatcitiesarethepremier innovativespaces, Johnson(2008)alsoproposesthatnoteverycityis,infact,innovative.Acityneedsacombinationofspecificfactorsandconditionsforurbaninnovationtohappenonthesupplyside.Heproposesthatthefollowingarekeyconditionsforinnovationtothriveinacity:
• Acreativeclassthatdrivesinnovation.• Certainqualitiesthatattractandkeepthecreativeclassinthecity
-Accesstogoodpublicservices -Qualitypublicspacesandopportunitiesforrecreation -Diversity -Potentialforhigherincomes -Politicalwill
• Appropriateinstitutionalcapacity.• Anunderstandingoftheprocessofinnovationinacity.• Policythatsupportsinnovation.• Developedknowledgeinfrastructure,especiallyknowledgeinstitutionsandinformationtechnology
hardwareandsoftware(ibid.)
Consideringaninnovationecosystemsapproach,however,itisusefultonotethatotherauthorsextendtheideaofinnovationactorsininnovationbeyondtheideaofaprivileged’creativeclass’andformalknowledgeworkers.Thisintroducesmoreinclusiveideasofcitizenengagementinco-productionandalsoofinformalor‘grassroots’innovation.Beyondtraditionalnotionsofuniversity-basedresearch,Forsyth(2007)arguesthatnumerousactorsmustbeinvolvedintheproductionofknowledgetodevelopinnovativesolutionstoproblems.However,thecomplex factors involved in developing innovative solutions, in the importance of research in finding thesealternatives,andinvolvingarangeofactorstodoso,arereal.Social,economicanddesignaspectsarederivedfromreal-worldpractice.
TheexistenceoftheGuangzhouUrbanInnovationAwardsprogrammeitselfisindicativeofthescaleoffocusandambitionthatChinahasregardingurbaninnovationatasub-nationallevel.TheSouthChinacityofGuangzhouisthecapitalofGuangdongProvince,andisreportedtohaveinexcessof7millioninhabitants.Drivenbypressureto be innovative and competitive, the city embarked upon what is probably now the most internationallyrepresentativeurbaninnovationcompetition.
Theawardsprogrammeisonethatallowsthecityto invitepeers fromaroundtheworldtodocumentandsubmit their innovative practices to a technical review and jury process.Through this, international expertsselecttopurbaninnovationpracticesaccordingtoregionalandglobalstandards.Inadditiontosignallingthecity’sinterestinurbaninnovationlocallyandglobally,theconceptputsthecityintoanadvantageousposition.Itisherewhereinnovativecitiesaroundtheworldwillinglysharetheirideas.
Thecityessentiallyhasthepositionandstructuresinplacetoscanandscrutinisethebestideasintheworldfortheirownconsideration.TheGuangzhouUrbanInnovationAwardsplatformhasdrawnstrongparticipationinitstwoinauguralrounds(2012and2014),inwhichitattractedatotalofover400applicationsfromover150citiesfromover50countries.The2014submissionsweresimplythematisedincrementally,andthenclustered,basedonkeywordsandapplicationdescriptions.Best-fitassignmentswerebasedontheresearcher’sjudgement.Whereprojectscoveredmorethanonetheme, theywereassignedtobothasduplicationwasallowed.Thepurposeoftheexercisewastoestablishfrequencyofthethemes.AnanalysisoftheAwardcontestantsinthemostrecentroundwasconductedbytheauthorofthischapter,toidentifypatternsinurbaninnovationtrendsregionally,asrepresentedbythisdataset.Inorderoffrequency,thetopthemesofthesubmissionswere:
• Environment:issuesofecology,sustainabilityandbiodiversity,climatechange,resilience,emissions.• Governance:citygovernanceandadministration,corruption,democratisationandparticipation.• InformationSystems:informationtechnologysystems,dataandsmarttechnologies.• Socialissues:familyandcommunity-buildinginitiatives.• [Public]Transport.• Urbanandneighbourhoodregeneration.
Otherrecurringthemeswhichemergedtoa lesserextent,werewastemanagement,vulnerablepopulations,particularlyissuesofgenderanddisability,arts,cultureandheritage,health,economicissuesincludingpoverty,architectureandthebuiltenvironment,education,emergencyservicesanddisasterresponse,housingandhumansettlements,safetyandsecurity,water,innovation,agricultureandfoodsecurity,andenergy.
China: Guangzhou Award for Urban Innovation
TheGuangzhouUrbanInnovationAwardsanalysisforAsiashowsamainfocusonpublicandNon-MotorisedTransport, and on environmental issues, likewaste or resourcesmanagement. Some examples of theAsiansubmissionsthatwereshortlistedorwinnersare:
• Ahmedabad,India:Janmarg–BusRapidTransitSystem• ChiangRai,Thailand:UrbanEcosystemandBiodiversityConservationtowards
SustainableCityandClimateChangeResilience• Kaohsiung,Taiwan:1999Anytime,Anything,Anywhere• Sakhnin, Israel:TAEQ’s (TownsAssociation for EnvironmentalQuality)Green
BuildingofSakhnin:CenterforEnvironmentalResearchandEducation• Seoul, Korea: Healthy Seoul Free from Internet Addiction of Children and
Adolescents• Sylhet, Bangladesh:A Disaster Resilient Future: Mobilizing Communities and
InstitutionsforEffectiveRiskReduction
2012
• AbuDhabi,UnitedArabEmirates:Tailor-madecuttingedgegreenbuildingsystem
• Gwangju,Korea:‘Incentivising’householdstoreduceGHGthroughdevolvedtargets
• Hangzhou,China:Innovationinalarge-scaleoperationandmaintenanceofpublicservicedelivery
• Jakarta,Indonesia:Engagementofpoliticalleadershipinpro-poorparticipatoryprocess
• Kunming,China:FreeBusServicebytheElderlyinKunming
• Phitsanulok,Thailand:PhitsanulokLowCarboncity
• TelAviv,Israel:TheTelAviv-YafoMunicipalityResidentsClub–‘Digitel’
2014
2014
2012
• Bristol,UnitedKingdom:Bristol’sBigGreenWeek-InspiringChange,Europe’sBiggestFestivalofSustainability.
• Düsseldorf,Germany:DevelopmentConceptfortheSouth-easternInnerSuburbs(EKISOor‘EntwicklungsgebietInnenstadtSüd-Ost’)–JointActionforaStrongLocalCommunity.
• Kocaeli,Turkey:PrepareBeforeIt’sTooLate:LearnToLiveWithEarthquake
• Perm,Russia:‘TransformingtheCity’–PermStrategicMasterplanandtheImplementationEngineoftheTransitionfromIndustrialCitytotheLiberalCreativeCommunity.
• Salerno,Italy:Sustainableenergynow.
• Tallinn,RepublicofEstonia:FreePublicTransportinTallinn–ABraveSteptowardstheGreenCapital.
• Vienna,Austria:StartWien–AProgrammeforNewMigrantstoHelpThemSettleInandFacilitateTheirIntegrationinVienna.
• Bremen,Germany:Liveablestreets,liveablecity!
• Bristol,UnitedKingdom:Citizen-centricapproachtotheSmartcity.
• Eskisehir,Turkey:EskisehirCityMemoryMuseum.
• Hamburg,Germany:Socially-inclusiveapproachtobuildingazero-carbondistrict.
• Linköping,Sweden:Long-termconsensusdrivenalignmentforattainingcarbonneutrality.
• Malmo,Sweden:ClimateSmartHyllie.
• Sabadell,Spain:Sabadellsmartcityasacatalystforbuildingthecityofthefuture.
TheGuangzhouUrban InnovationAwards analysis showed European applications tomainly focus on threebroadareas:smartcities;climateprogrammes,greenprogrammesandemissions;andprojectsinparticipatorygovernance.Someoftheleadingprojectswere:
Europe: European Union
IntheGuangzhouUrbanInnovationAwardsanalysis,SouthAmericaemergedashavingapplicationsthatmainlyconcentratedonsocialprogrammes,safetyprogrammes,mainlycrimeanddisasterresponse,andInformationandCommunicationsTechnologyandbigdatainitiatives.Someoftheleadingprojectswere:
Latin America: Brazil, Colombia
2012
• Aguascalientes,Mexico:TheGreen Line: SocialDevelopmentComprehensivePlan.
• BuenosAires:PublicParticipationinCommune8.
• Curitiba,Brazil:TheGreenAreasofCuritiba–linkingenvironmentalpreservationtourbandevelopment.
• Medellin,Colombia:MedellinDigital.
• Mexico City, Mexico: Support for Social Participation in Action for theConservationandRestorationofEcosystems.
2014
• Antioquia,Colombia:Knittingregionalterritorythroughinnovationineducation
• Bogotá,Colombia:ZeroWasteProgram:afocusinreusewithsocialinclusion
• BuenosAires,Argentina:Dialoguefordecisionmakingforurbanprojects
• PortoAlegre, Brazil:Datapoa – the open data project of theCity of PortoAlegre
• Recife,Brazil:Recife,partforlife–urbansafetymanagement)
• RiodeJaneiro,Brazil:Usingbigdataforintegratedriskmanagementandaction
• São Paulo, Brazil: State Program for Prevention of Natural Disaster andMitigationofGeohazards
ThebalanceoftheregionsapplyingtotheGuangzhouUrbanInnovationAwards(Africa,NorthAmericaandOceania)hadrelativelyfewapplications,totallinglessthan10%oftotalapplications.Theywerethereforetoosmallasample,coveringtoowidearangeofthemes,forgeneralisinganytrends.
ForNorthAmerica,theleadingprojectswere:
TheUnitedStatesofAmericaisprobablythemostrenownedregionoftheworldforinnovation,havinghadaprovenabilityandtrackrecordtogivebirthtowholenewrangeofindustriesoverarelativelyshorthistory.Examplesincludeinnovationsinsteel, logistics,electricity,food,financialsystems,InformationTechnology(IT),warfare,corporatestructure,governance,andsoforth.Somewhatreflectiveofthis,theAmericansubmissionstoGuangzhouawardswere,whilefew,interestinghybridsofpublicandprivateinvolvement,andmostwithastronglocalfocus.
North America
2012 • Vancouver,Canada:VisionaryVancouver:Creatingawelcomingandsustainableplaceforall.
2014
• Boston, United States ofAmerica: Empowering youth through participatorybudgeting.
• Dubuque,UnitedStatesofAmerica:SmarterSustainableDubuque.
• Ottawa,Canada:Ottawa’sInnovativeSpirit:Transforminganeconomythroughdiversificationandentrepreneurship.
• Vancouver,Canada:WestEndCommunityPlan.
GOVERNMENT ACADEMIA PRIVATE SECTOR COMMUNITIES
• Politicalwillandalignmentofintentand action
• Policy experimentation
• Commitmentto evidence based policy
• Long-termvision andconsistency
• Horizontal coordination and policycoherence
• Promotesocial innovation and address barriers toentry
• Demand-driven education and research
• Newtypesof scientists that understandsocialneeds.Inter-andtrans-disciplinarity
• Creativeinnovationsandreformsinthe education and researchsystems
• Collaborationandlearningwithoutboundaries (using InformationandCommunicationTechnologies,regionalcollaboration,mobility,diaspora)
• Identifyandnurtureentrepreneurship fromanearlystage
• Mentorandcoach• Alignskillformation
to business needs• Identifyandpursuesocialimpactmarkets
• Recognisenon-technologyandnon-research-and-development-basedinnovation
• Brokerageacrossinnovationcycle
• Bridgethegaptothemarket
• Promotevaluechain upgrading and integration
• Beactiveactorsforinnovation;raiseawarenessandcapacitytoarticulate
• Creativeapproachesforknowledgeappropriation and open innovation
• Communicationstrategiesforthedissemination ofresearchand innovation achievements
• Support”learningcommunities”orlearningplatforms