Post on 27-Oct-2015
description
transcript
Satellite CommunicationLecture-1
Dr Shahab Ahmad Niazi
Satellite CommunicationsIntroduction bull General conceptsbull Needs advantages and
disadvantagesbull Satellite characteristicsbull Orbitsbull Earth coveragebull System components and designbull Power sourcesbull Communication characteristics
Spectrum and Bandwidth Channel capacity Frequency and Wavelength Path losses
Antennas and beam shaping
Text
bull Course BookSatellite Communications 4th Edition
Dennis RoddyReference Books
1 Satellite Communications 2nd Edition T Pratt C Bostian and J Allnut
2 Satellite Communications Systems 5th Ed
Gerard Maral Michel Bousquet
Why Satellite Communication
bull The Earth is a sphere amp The microwave frequencies travel in straight line but to connect two regions very far away on the two side of the sphere the link requires lot of repeaters because of Earthrsquos curvature
bull A single satellite can do the magic linking the continents with one repeater
Motivation to use the Sky
Regions of Space
Space is defined as a place free from obstacles
It can be divided into three regions
bull Air Space -gt region below 100 km from earthrsquos surface
bull Outer Space -gt also called cosmic space and ranges from 100 km up till 42 000 km It is mostly used by
communication satellites
bull Deep Space -gt Regions beyond 42000 km fall in this category
Satellite
bull It is a repeater which receives signal from Earth at one frequency amplify it amp transmit it back to Earth at other frequency
EARTH STATION
bull There are two earth station in a simple Satellite communication link One transmits the signal to satellite called transmitting Earth station
bull The other receives the signal from satellite called receiving Earth Station
UPLINK amp DOWN LINK
bull The communication link from Transmitting earth station to satellite is called Up-link
bull The communication link from satellite To receiving earth station is called Down-link
What is a satellite system
bull A satellite system consists of one or more satellites a ground-based station to control the operation of the system and a user network earth stations that provides the interface facilities for the transmission and reception of terrestrial communications traffic
How a satellite works
bull A satellite stays in orbit because the gravitational pull of the earth balanced by the centripetal forceof the revolving satellite
bull One Earth station transmits the signals to the satellite at Up link frequency Up link frequency is the frequency at which Earth station is communicating with a satellite
bull The satellite transponder process the signal and sends it to the second Earth station at another frequency called downlink frequency
Advantages of Satellite Communications over Terrestrial Communications
bull The coverage area greatly exceedsbull Transmission cost of a satellite is independent
of the distance from the center of the coverage area
bull Satellite-to-satellite communication is very precise
bull Higher bandwidths are available for use
Disadvantages of Satellite Communications
bull Launching satellites into orbits is costly
bull Satellite bandwidth is gradually becoming used up
bull The propagation delay is larger
Active and Passive Satellites
bull Active satellites are used for linking and also for processing the signals
The linkage is known as bent pipe technology where processing like frequency translation power amplification etc take place
Active satellites employ lsquoRegenerative Technologyrsquo which consists of demodulation processing frequency translation switching and power amplification are carried out Block used for this purpose is called transponder
bull Passive satellites do-not have on-board processing and are just used to link two stations through space
Low cost - Loss of power ndash not useful for communication applications
Historical Overviewbull 1945 Theorist named Clarke studied that satellite orbiting in equatorial orbit
at radius of approx 42000 km would look as if stationary if moving at a specific speed 3 satellites at a space of 120 degree apart can cover the whole world Evolution of the concept of GEO
1950rsquos ndashPutting the pieces together
10487081956 -Trans-Atlantic cable opened (about 12 telephone channels per operator)
10487081957 First man-made satellite launched by former USSR (Sputnik-1 LEO) It was used to identify atmospheric density of various orbital layers It provided data about radio signal distribution in ionosphere
10487081958 First US satellite launched (SCORE) First voice communication established via satellite (LEO lasted 35
days in orbit)
bull 1960rsquos ndashFirst satellite communicationsbull 10487081960 First passive communication satellite (Large
balloons Echo I and II)bull 10487081962 First active communication satellite (Telstar I
MEO)bull 10487081963 First satellite into geostationary (GEO) orbit
(Syncom1 communication failed)bull 10487081964 International Telecomm Satellite Organization
(INTELSAT) createdbull 10487081965 First successful communications GEO (Early
Bird INTELSAT 1)
Historical Overview
bull 1970rsquos ndashGEO Applications Development DBS10487081972 First domestic satellite system operational (Canada)10487081975 First successful direct broadcast experiment (USA-India)10487081977 A plan for direct broadcast satellites (DBS) assigned by the ITU10487081979 International Mobile Satellite Organization (Inmarsat) established
Historical Overview
bull 1980rsquos ndashGEO Applications Expanded Mobile10487081981 First reusable launch vehicle flight10487081982 International maritime communications made operational10487081984 First direct-to-home broadcast system operational (Japan)10487081987 Successful trials of land-mobile communications (Inmarsat)10487081989-90 Global mobile communication service extended to land mobile and aeronautical use (Inmarsat)
Historical Overview
bull 1990+rsquos NGSO applications development and GEO expansion1990-951048708Proposals of non-geostationary (NGSO) systems for mobile communications1048708Continuing growth of VSATs around the world1048708Spectrum allocation for non-GEO systems1048708Continuing growth of DBS DirectTV created19971048708Launch of first batch of LEO for hand-held terminals (Iridium)1048708Voice-service portables and paging-service pocket size mobile terminals launched (Inmarsat)1998-2000 Mobile LEO systems initiate service and fail afterwards (IridiumGlobalstar)
Historical Overview
Altitudes of orbits above the earth
bull There are 3 common types of satellite based on altitude ie GEO MEO amp LEOOrbit Altitude Missions possible
Low-Earth orbit LEO 250 to 1500 km
Earth observation meteorology
telecommunications (constellations)
Medium-Earth orbit MEO
10000 to 30000 km Telecommunications
(constellations) positioning science
Geostationary Earth orbit GEO
35786 km Telecommunications positioning science
Elliptical orbit Between 800 and
27000 km Telecommunications
Hyperbolic orbit Up to several million
km Interplanetary missions
ITU Frequency Spectrum Allocations
Communication Satellites
bull Another issue is the presence of the Van Allen belts - layers of highly charged particles trapped by the earths magnetic field
bull Any satellite flying within them would be destroyed fairly quickly by the highly-energetic charged particles trapped there by the earths magnetic field
bull Hence there are three regions in which satellites can be placed safely - illustrated in the following figure
Communication Satellites
Communication satellites and some of their properties including altitude above the earth round-trip delay time and number of satellites needed for global coverage
Communication Satellites
Geostationary Satellites
bull Each downward beam can be focused on a small geographical area so multiple upward and downward transmissions can take place simultaneously
bull Typically the spot beams are elliptically shaped and can be as small as a few hundred km in diameter
bull A communication satellite for the United States typically has one wide beam for the contiguous 48 states plus spot beams for Alaska and Hawaii
VSAT systems
bull VSAT (Very Small Aperture Terminal) ndash a satellite communication system that serves home and business users for data voice and video signals
bull Tiny terminals have 1-meter or smaller antennas (versus 10 m for a standard GEO antenna) and can put out about 1 watt of power
bull A VSAT end user has a box that interfaces between the users computer and an outside antenna with a transceiver
bull The tranceiver receives sends a signal to a satellite transponder
Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull The MEO (Medium-Earth Orbit) satellites are between the two Van Allen belts
bull Takes something like 6 hours to circle the earthbull As MEO are lower than the GEOs (typically
16000 km above Earth) they have a smaller footprint on the ground and require less powerful transmitters to reach them
bull Currently they are not used for telecommunications but in navigation systems
Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull The 24 GPS (Global Positioning System) satellites orbiting at about 18000 km are American but free to use by anyone
bull Russia is using Glonass ndash 24 satellites orbiting at 19100 km
bull European Union works on Galileo ndash 30 satellite MEO navigation system orbiting at 23200 km - global navigation satellite system (GNSS) (2019)
bull China is building Compass ndash 35 satellites ndash 5 GEO and 30 MEO at 21100 km (10 in use and offering services now) (2020)
Low-Earth Orbit Satellitesbull A Low Earth Orbit (LEO) is generally defined as
an orbit below an altitude of approximately 2000 kilometers and above 160 kilometers ndash almost all human spaceflights have taken place in LEO
bull (-) large numbers of LEO are needed for a complete system due to their rapid motion (26000 to 27000 km per hour)
bull (+) satellites are very close to the earth so the ground stations do not need much power
bull (+) the round-trip delay is only a few milliseconds
Low-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull Because these LEO orbits are not geostationary a network (or constellation) of satellites is required to provide continuous coverage
bull LEOs are used for a variety of civil scientific and military roles including Earth observation radar optical telecoms and demonstrator
bull Some use as many as 66 satellites (Iridium ndash satellite phones)
Low-Earth Orbit Satellitesbull The Iridium satellite constellation - group of
satellites providing voice and data coverage to satellite phones pagers and integrated transceivers over Earths entire surface
bull Originally developed in 1992 services started in 1998 bankrupted in August 1999 and subsequently restarted in March 2001 (513 000 subscribers in 2011)
bull Satellites are at a height of approximately 781 kmbull Customers include the maritime aviation and oil
exploration industries as well as people traveling in parts of the world lacking a telecommunications infrastructure (eg deserts mountains jungles and some Third World countries)
Iridium
bull The Iridium satellites are in circular polar orbits
bull They are arranged in north-south necklaces with one satellite every 32 degrees of latitude
bull With six satellite necklaces the entire earth is covered
bull Each satellite can support up to 1100 concurrent phone calls and weighs about 680 kg
Iridium
bull Each satellite has a maximum of 48 cells (spot beams) with a total of 1628 cells over the surface of the earth
bull Each satellite has a capacity of 3840 channels or 253440 in all
bull Some of these are used for paging and navigation while others are used for data and voice
bull An interesting property of Iridium is that communication between distant customers takes place in space with one satellite relaying data to the next one
bull A caller at the North Pole contacts a satellite directly overhead - the call is relayed via other satellites and finally sent down to the called at the South Pole
Globalstar
bull Globalstar - based on 48 LEO satellites but uses a different switching scheme than that of Iridium (relays calls from satellite to satellite which requires sophisticated switching equipment in the satellites)
bull Globalstar uses a traditional bent-pipe design - a call originating at the North Pole is sent back to earth and picked up by the large ground station
bull The call is then routed via a terrestrial network to the ground station nearest the callee and delivered by a bent-pipe connection as shown
bull Advantage - puts much of the complexity on the ground where it is easier to manage (412300 subscribers in 2010)
Teledesic
bull Teledesic was as high-speed wireless switched global network -an IP-based system designed to support data voice and video at the same quality level as fiber-based terrestrial systems - a global Internet-in-the-Skyldquo providing broadband and Internet access
bull Originally (1995) planning 840 active satellites with in-orbit spares at an altitude of 700 km
bull Scaled (1997) to 288 active satellites at 1400 kmbull Officially suspended its satellite construction work on
October 1 2002bull Funding from Microsoft (investing US$30 million for an
85 stake) Craig McCaw Bill Gates Paul Allen and Saudi prince Alwaleed bin Talal and for achieving allocation on the Ka-band frequency spectrum for non-geostationary services
Highly elliptical orbit
bull HEO ndash an elliptic orbit with a low-altitude (about 1000 kilometres) perigee and a high-altitude (over 35786 kilometres) apogee
bull Advantage - long dwell times at a point in the sky during the approach to and descent from apogee - phenomenon known as apogee dwell (acts like GEO) (3-4 hours can receive signal with 06 m antenna)
bull Used by Sirius Satellite Radio (operating in North America) the Molniya communication satelites (at least 3) (Russia)
Satellite Applications
bull Communication The main application for satellites today is in communication Communication satellites act as relay stations in the sky and permit reliable long-distance communication worldwide
bull Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS) service This is a TV signal distribution system designed to distribute signals directly to consumers
Satellite Applications
bull Satellite Cell Phones Satellite-based cellular telephone service is under development The proposed new systems use low-earth-orbit satellites to perform the relay services to the main telephone system or to make connection directly between any two cellular telephones using the system
Satellite Applications
bull Digital Satellite Radio One of the newest satellite applications is in digital satellite radio or the digital audio radio service (DARS) ndash This service provides hundreds of channels of
music news sports and talk radio to car portable and home radios
ndash It provides full continuous coverage of the station you select wherever you are in the United States
ndash Its digital transmission techniques ensure high-quality stereo sound that is immune to noise
ndash The satellites transmit other information such as song title and artist type of music and other data which are displayed on a LCD screen
Satellite Applications
bull Surveillance satellites can look at the earth and transmit what they see back to ground stations for a wide variety of purposes including military intelligence meteorological applications and mapping
bull Satellite navigation systems can provide global coverage unavailable with land-based systems satellites
Global Positioning System
bull The Global Positioning System (GPS) also known as Navstar is a satellite-based navigation system that can be used by anyone with an appropriate receiver to pinpoint his or her location on earth
bull GPS was developed by the US Air Force for the Department of Defense as a continuous global radio navigation system
bull The GPS system consists of three major segments the space segment the control segment and the user segment
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentndash The space segment is the constellation of
satellites orbiting above the earth that contain transmitters which send highly accurate timing information to GPS receivers on earth
bull The GPS consists of 24 main operational satellites and 3 active spare satellites arranged in six orbits of 3 or 4 satellites each
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentbull Each of the satellites contains four highly accurate
atomic clocks
bull These clocks are used to generate a unique pseudorandom code identifying the specific satellite that is transmitted to earth
bull The satellite also transmits a set of digitally coded ephemeris data that completely defines its precise orbit
Global Positioning System
The GPS space segment
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentndash The control segment of the GPS system
refers to the various ground stations that monitor the satellites and provide control and update information
bull The master control station is operated by the US Air Force in Colorado Springs
bull Four additional monitoring and control stations constantly monitor the satellites and collect range information from each
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentbull The information is sent back to the master
control station in Colorado where all the information is collected and position data on each satellite calculated
bull The master control station then transmits new ephemeris and clock data to each satellite on the S-band uplink once per day
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash A GPS receiver is a complex superheterodyne
microwave receiver designed to pick up the GPS signals decode them and then compute the location of the receiver
ndash The output is usually an LCD display giving latitude longitude and altitude information andor a map of the area
ndash The most widely used GPS receiver is the popular handheld portable type not much larger than an oversized handheld calculator
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash The receiver performs a time multiplexing
operation on the four satellites within view of the receiver
ndash The data is extracted from each of the four satellites and stored in the receiverrsquos memory
ndash Data from three satellites is needed to fix the receiverrsquos position
ndash If data from a fourth satellite is available altitude can be calculated
Global Positioning System
GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
How triangulation works to locate a GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications ndash The primary application of the GPS is
military and related navigationndash GPS is used by all services for ships
aircraft and ground troopsndash Most civilian applications also involve
navigation which is usually marine or aviation-related
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications
ndash Commercial applications include surveying mapmaking and construction
ndash Vehicle location is a growing application for trucking and delivery companies taxi bus and train transportation
ndash Police fire ambulance and forest services also use GPS
ndash A new hobby called geocaching uses GPS receivers In this sport one team hides an item or ldquotreasurerdquo and then gives the other team coordinates to follow to find the treasure within a given time
Design of the Satellite Link
bull The satellite link is probably the most basic in microwave communications since a line-of-sight path typically exists between the Earth and space
bull This means that an imaginary line extending between the transmitting or receiving Earth station and the satellite antenna passes only through the atmosphere and not ground obstacles
bull Such a link is governed by free-space propagation with only limited variation with respect to time due to various constituents of the atmosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull Free-space attenuation is determined by the inverse square law which states that the power
received is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
bull The same law applies to the amount of light that reaches our eyes from a distant point source such as an automobile headlight or star
bull There are however a number of additional effects that produce a significant amount of degradation and time variation
bull These include rain terrain effects such as absorption by trees and walls and some less-obvious impairment produced by unstable conditions of the air and ionosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull It is the job of the communication engineer to identify all of the significant contributions to performance and make sure that they are properly taken into account
bull The required factors include the performance of the satellite itself the configuration and performance of the uplink and downlink Earth stations and the impact of the propagation medium in the frequency band of interest
Satellite CommunicationsIntroduction bull General conceptsbull Needs advantages and
disadvantagesbull Satellite characteristicsbull Orbitsbull Earth coveragebull System components and designbull Power sourcesbull Communication characteristics
Spectrum and Bandwidth Channel capacity Frequency and Wavelength Path losses
Antennas and beam shaping
Text
bull Course BookSatellite Communications 4th Edition
Dennis RoddyReference Books
1 Satellite Communications 2nd Edition T Pratt C Bostian and J Allnut
2 Satellite Communications Systems 5th Ed
Gerard Maral Michel Bousquet
Why Satellite Communication
bull The Earth is a sphere amp The microwave frequencies travel in straight line but to connect two regions very far away on the two side of the sphere the link requires lot of repeaters because of Earthrsquos curvature
bull A single satellite can do the magic linking the continents with one repeater
Motivation to use the Sky
Regions of Space
Space is defined as a place free from obstacles
It can be divided into three regions
bull Air Space -gt region below 100 km from earthrsquos surface
bull Outer Space -gt also called cosmic space and ranges from 100 km up till 42 000 km It is mostly used by
communication satellites
bull Deep Space -gt Regions beyond 42000 km fall in this category
Satellite
bull It is a repeater which receives signal from Earth at one frequency amplify it amp transmit it back to Earth at other frequency
EARTH STATION
bull There are two earth station in a simple Satellite communication link One transmits the signal to satellite called transmitting Earth station
bull The other receives the signal from satellite called receiving Earth Station
UPLINK amp DOWN LINK
bull The communication link from Transmitting earth station to satellite is called Up-link
bull The communication link from satellite To receiving earth station is called Down-link
What is a satellite system
bull A satellite system consists of one or more satellites a ground-based station to control the operation of the system and a user network earth stations that provides the interface facilities for the transmission and reception of terrestrial communications traffic
How a satellite works
bull A satellite stays in orbit because the gravitational pull of the earth balanced by the centripetal forceof the revolving satellite
bull One Earth station transmits the signals to the satellite at Up link frequency Up link frequency is the frequency at which Earth station is communicating with a satellite
bull The satellite transponder process the signal and sends it to the second Earth station at another frequency called downlink frequency
Advantages of Satellite Communications over Terrestrial Communications
bull The coverage area greatly exceedsbull Transmission cost of a satellite is independent
of the distance from the center of the coverage area
bull Satellite-to-satellite communication is very precise
bull Higher bandwidths are available for use
Disadvantages of Satellite Communications
bull Launching satellites into orbits is costly
bull Satellite bandwidth is gradually becoming used up
bull The propagation delay is larger
Active and Passive Satellites
bull Active satellites are used for linking and also for processing the signals
The linkage is known as bent pipe technology where processing like frequency translation power amplification etc take place
Active satellites employ lsquoRegenerative Technologyrsquo which consists of demodulation processing frequency translation switching and power amplification are carried out Block used for this purpose is called transponder
bull Passive satellites do-not have on-board processing and are just used to link two stations through space
Low cost - Loss of power ndash not useful for communication applications
Historical Overviewbull 1945 Theorist named Clarke studied that satellite orbiting in equatorial orbit
at radius of approx 42000 km would look as if stationary if moving at a specific speed 3 satellites at a space of 120 degree apart can cover the whole world Evolution of the concept of GEO
1950rsquos ndashPutting the pieces together
10487081956 -Trans-Atlantic cable opened (about 12 telephone channels per operator)
10487081957 First man-made satellite launched by former USSR (Sputnik-1 LEO) It was used to identify atmospheric density of various orbital layers It provided data about radio signal distribution in ionosphere
10487081958 First US satellite launched (SCORE) First voice communication established via satellite (LEO lasted 35
days in orbit)
bull 1960rsquos ndashFirst satellite communicationsbull 10487081960 First passive communication satellite (Large
balloons Echo I and II)bull 10487081962 First active communication satellite (Telstar I
MEO)bull 10487081963 First satellite into geostationary (GEO) orbit
(Syncom1 communication failed)bull 10487081964 International Telecomm Satellite Organization
(INTELSAT) createdbull 10487081965 First successful communications GEO (Early
Bird INTELSAT 1)
Historical Overview
bull 1970rsquos ndashGEO Applications Development DBS10487081972 First domestic satellite system operational (Canada)10487081975 First successful direct broadcast experiment (USA-India)10487081977 A plan for direct broadcast satellites (DBS) assigned by the ITU10487081979 International Mobile Satellite Organization (Inmarsat) established
Historical Overview
bull 1980rsquos ndashGEO Applications Expanded Mobile10487081981 First reusable launch vehicle flight10487081982 International maritime communications made operational10487081984 First direct-to-home broadcast system operational (Japan)10487081987 Successful trials of land-mobile communications (Inmarsat)10487081989-90 Global mobile communication service extended to land mobile and aeronautical use (Inmarsat)
Historical Overview
bull 1990+rsquos NGSO applications development and GEO expansion1990-951048708Proposals of non-geostationary (NGSO) systems for mobile communications1048708Continuing growth of VSATs around the world1048708Spectrum allocation for non-GEO systems1048708Continuing growth of DBS DirectTV created19971048708Launch of first batch of LEO for hand-held terminals (Iridium)1048708Voice-service portables and paging-service pocket size mobile terminals launched (Inmarsat)1998-2000 Mobile LEO systems initiate service and fail afterwards (IridiumGlobalstar)
Historical Overview
Altitudes of orbits above the earth
bull There are 3 common types of satellite based on altitude ie GEO MEO amp LEOOrbit Altitude Missions possible
Low-Earth orbit LEO 250 to 1500 km
Earth observation meteorology
telecommunications (constellations)
Medium-Earth orbit MEO
10000 to 30000 km Telecommunications
(constellations) positioning science
Geostationary Earth orbit GEO
35786 km Telecommunications positioning science
Elliptical orbit Between 800 and
27000 km Telecommunications
Hyperbolic orbit Up to several million
km Interplanetary missions
ITU Frequency Spectrum Allocations
Communication Satellites
bull Another issue is the presence of the Van Allen belts - layers of highly charged particles trapped by the earths magnetic field
bull Any satellite flying within them would be destroyed fairly quickly by the highly-energetic charged particles trapped there by the earths magnetic field
bull Hence there are three regions in which satellites can be placed safely - illustrated in the following figure
Communication Satellites
Communication satellites and some of their properties including altitude above the earth round-trip delay time and number of satellites needed for global coverage
Communication Satellites
Geostationary Satellites
bull Each downward beam can be focused on a small geographical area so multiple upward and downward transmissions can take place simultaneously
bull Typically the spot beams are elliptically shaped and can be as small as a few hundred km in diameter
bull A communication satellite for the United States typically has one wide beam for the contiguous 48 states plus spot beams for Alaska and Hawaii
VSAT systems
bull VSAT (Very Small Aperture Terminal) ndash a satellite communication system that serves home and business users for data voice and video signals
bull Tiny terminals have 1-meter or smaller antennas (versus 10 m for a standard GEO antenna) and can put out about 1 watt of power
bull A VSAT end user has a box that interfaces between the users computer and an outside antenna with a transceiver
bull The tranceiver receives sends a signal to a satellite transponder
Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull The MEO (Medium-Earth Orbit) satellites are between the two Van Allen belts
bull Takes something like 6 hours to circle the earthbull As MEO are lower than the GEOs (typically
16000 km above Earth) they have a smaller footprint on the ground and require less powerful transmitters to reach them
bull Currently they are not used for telecommunications but in navigation systems
Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull The 24 GPS (Global Positioning System) satellites orbiting at about 18000 km are American but free to use by anyone
bull Russia is using Glonass ndash 24 satellites orbiting at 19100 km
bull European Union works on Galileo ndash 30 satellite MEO navigation system orbiting at 23200 km - global navigation satellite system (GNSS) (2019)
bull China is building Compass ndash 35 satellites ndash 5 GEO and 30 MEO at 21100 km (10 in use and offering services now) (2020)
Low-Earth Orbit Satellitesbull A Low Earth Orbit (LEO) is generally defined as
an orbit below an altitude of approximately 2000 kilometers and above 160 kilometers ndash almost all human spaceflights have taken place in LEO
bull (-) large numbers of LEO are needed for a complete system due to their rapid motion (26000 to 27000 km per hour)
bull (+) satellites are very close to the earth so the ground stations do not need much power
bull (+) the round-trip delay is only a few milliseconds
Low-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull Because these LEO orbits are not geostationary a network (or constellation) of satellites is required to provide continuous coverage
bull LEOs are used for a variety of civil scientific and military roles including Earth observation radar optical telecoms and demonstrator
bull Some use as many as 66 satellites (Iridium ndash satellite phones)
Low-Earth Orbit Satellitesbull The Iridium satellite constellation - group of
satellites providing voice and data coverage to satellite phones pagers and integrated transceivers over Earths entire surface
bull Originally developed in 1992 services started in 1998 bankrupted in August 1999 and subsequently restarted in March 2001 (513 000 subscribers in 2011)
bull Satellites are at a height of approximately 781 kmbull Customers include the maritime aviation and oil
exploration industries as well as people traveling in parts of the world lacking a telecommunications infrastructure (eg deserts mountains jungles and some Third World countries)
Iridium
bull The Iridium satellites are in circular polar orbits
bull They are arranged in north-south necklaces with one satellite every 32 degrees of latitude
bull With six satellite necklaces the entire earth is covered
bull Each satellite can support up to 1100 concurrent phone calls and weighs about 680 kg
Iridium
bull Each satellite has a maximum of 48 cells (spot beams) with a total of 1628 cells over the surface of the earth
bull Each satellite has a capacity of 3840 channels or 253440 in all
bull Some of these are used for paging and navigation while others are used for data and voice
bull An interesting property of Iridium is that communication between distant customers takes place in space with one satellite relaying data to the next one
bull A caller at the North Pole contacts a satellite directly overhead - the call is relayed via other satellites and finally sent down to the called at the South Pole
Globalstar
bull Globalstar - based on 48 LEO satellites but uses a different switching scheme than that of Iridium (relays calls from satellite to satellite which requires sophisticated switching equipment in the satellites)
bull Globalstar uses a traditional bent-pipe design - a call originating at the North Pole is sent back to earth and picked up by the large ground station
bull The call is then routed via a terrestrial network to the ground station nearest the callee and delivered by a bent-pipe connection as shown
bull Advantage - puts much of the complexity on the ground where it is easier to manage (412300 subscribers in 2010)
Teledesic
bull Teledesic was as high-speed wireless switched global network -an IP-based system designed to support data voice and video at the same quality level as fiber-based terrestrial systems - a global Internet-in-the-Skyldquo providing broadband and Internet access
bull Originally (1995) planning 840 active satellites with in-orbit spares at an altitude of 700 km
bull Scaled (1997) to 288 active satellites at 1400 kmbull Officially suspended its satellite construction work on
October 1 2002bull Funding from Microsoft (investing US$30 million for an
85 stake) Craig McCaw Bill Gates Paul Allen and Saudi prince Alwaleed bin Talal and for achieving allocation on the Ka-band frequency spectrum for non-geostationary services
Highly elliptical orbit
bull HEO ndash an elliptic orbit with a low-altitude (about 1000 kilometres) perigee and a high-altitude (over 35786 kilometres) apogee
bull Advantage - long dwell times at a point in the sky during the approach to and descent from apogee - phenomenon known as apogee dwell (acts like GEO) (3-4 hours can receive signal with 06 m antenna)
bull Used by Sirius Satellite Radio (operating in North America) the Molniya communication satelites (at least 3) (Russia)
Satellite Applications
bull Communication The main application for satellites today is in communication Communication satellites act as relay stations in the sky and permit reliable long-distance communication worldwide
bull Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS) service This is a TV signal distribution system designed to distribute signals directly to consumers
Satellite Applications
bull Satellite Cell Phones Satellite-based cellular telephone service is under development The proposed new systems use low-earth-orbit satellites to perform the relay services to the main telephone system or to make connection directly between any two cellular telephones using the system
Satellite Applications
bull Digital Satellite Radio One of the newest satellite applications is in digital satellite radio or the digital audio radio service (DARS) ndash This service provides hundreds of channels of
music news sports and talk radio to car portable and home radios
ndash It provides full continuous coverage of the station you select wherever you are in the United States
ndash Its digital transmission techniques ensure high-quality stereo sound that is immune to noise
ndash The satellites transmit other information such as song title and artist type of music and other data which are displayed on a LCD screen
Satellite Applications
bull Surveillance satellites can look at the earth and transmit what they see back to ground stations for a wide variety of purposes including military intelligence meteorological applications and mapping
bull Satellite navigation systems can provide global coverage unavailable with land-based systems satellites
Global Positioning System
bull The Global Positioning System (GPS) also known as Navstar is a satellite-based navigation system that can be used by anyone with an appropriate receiver to pinpoint his or her location on earth
bull GPS was developed by the US Air Force for the Department of Defense as a continuous global radio navigation system
bull The GPS system consists of three major segments the space segment the control segment and the user segment
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentndash The space segment is the constellation of
satellites orbiting above the earth that contain transmitters which send highly accurate timing information to GPS receivers on earth
bull The GPS consists of 24 main operational satellites and 3 active spare satellites arranged in six orbits of 3 or 4 satellites each
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentbull Each of the satellites contains four highly accurate
atomic clocks
bull These clocks are used to generate a unique pseudorandom code identifying the specific satellite that is transmitted to earth
bull The satellite also transmits a set of digitally coded ephemeris data that completely defines its precise orbit
Global Positioning System
The GPS space segment
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentndash The control segment of the GPS system
refers to the various ground stations that monitor the satellites and provide control and update information
bull The master control station is operated by the US Air Force in Colorado Springs
bull Four additional monitoring and control stations constantly monitor the satellites and collect range information from each
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentbull The information is sent back to the master
control station in Colorado where all the information is collected and position data on each satellite calculated
bull The master control station then transmits new ephemeris and clock data to each satellite on the S-band uplink once per day
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash A GPS receiver is a complex superheterodyne
microwave receiver designed to pick up the GPS signals decode them and then compute the location of the receiver
ndash The output is usually an LCD display giving latitude longitude and altitude information andor a map of the area
ndash The most widely used GPS receiver is the popular handheld portable type not much larger than an oversized handheld calculator
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash The receiver performs a time multiplexing
operation on the four satellites within view of the receiver
ndash The data is extracted from each of the four satellites and stored in the receiverrsquos memory
ndash Data from three satellites is needed to fix the receiverrsquos position
ndash If data from a fourth satellite is available altitude can be calculated
Global Positioning System
GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
How triangulation works to locate a GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications ndash The primary application of the GPS is
military and related navigationndash GPS is used by all services for ships
aircraft and ground troopsndash Most civilian applications also involve
navigation which is usually marine or aviation-related
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications
ndash Commercial applications include surveying mapmaking and construction
ndash Vehicle location is a growing application for trucking and delivery companies taxi bus and train transportation
ndash Police fire ambulance and forest services also use GPS
ndash A new hobby called geocaching uses GPS receivers In this sport one team hides an item or ldquotreasurerdquo and then gives the other team coordinates to follow to find the treasure within a given time
Design of the Satellite Link
bull The satellite link is probably the most basic in microwave communications since a line-of-sight path typically exists between the Earth and space
bull This means that an imaginary line extending between the transmitting or receiving Earth station and the satellite antenna passes only through the atmosphere and not ground obstacles
bull Such a link is governed by free-space propagation with only limited variation with respect to time due to various constituents of the atmosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull Free-space attenuation is determined by the inverse square law which states that the power
received is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
bull The same law applies to the amount of light that reaches our eyes from a distant point source such as an automobile headlight or star
bull There are however a number of additional effects that produce a significant amount of degradation and time variation
bull These include rain terrain effects such as absorption by trees and walls and some less-obvious impairment produced by unstable conditions of the air and ionosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull It is the job of the communication engineer to identify all of the significant contributions to performance and make sure that they are properly taken into account
bull The required factors include the performance of the satellite itself the configuration and performance of the uplink and downlink Earth stations and the impact of the propagation medium in the frequency band of interest
Text
bull Course BookSatellite Communications 4th Edition
Dennis RoddyReference Books
1 Satellite Communications 2nd Edition T Pratt C Bostian and J Allnut
2 Satellite Communications Systems 5th Ed
Gerard Maral Michel Bousquet
Why Satellite Communication
bull The Earth is a sphere amp The microwave frequencies travel in straight line but to connect two regions very far away on the two side of the sphere the link requires lot of repeaters because of Earthrsquos curvature
bull A single satellite can do the magic linking the continents with one repeater
Motivation to use the Sky
Regions of Space
Space is defined as a place free from obstacles
It can be divided into three regions
bull Air Space -gt region below 100 km from earthrsquos surface
bull Outer Space -gt also called cosmic space and ranges from 100 km up till 42 000 km It is mostly used by
communication satellites
bull Deep Space -gt Regions beyond 42000 km fall in this category
Satellite
bull It is a repeater which receives signal from Earth at one frequency amplify it amp transmit it back to Earth at other frequency
EARTH STATION
bull There are two earth station in a simple Satellite communication link One transmits the signal to satellite called transmitting Earth station
bull The other receives the signal from satellite called receiving Earth Station
UPLINK amp DOWN LINK
bull The communication link from Transmitting earth station to satellite is called Up-link
bull The communication link from satellite To receiving earth station is called Down-link
What is a satellite system
bull A satellite system consists of one or more satellites a ground-based station to control the operation of the system and a user network earth stations that provides the interface facilities for the transmission and reception of terrestrial communications traffic
How a satellite works
bull A satellite stays in orbit because the gravitational pull of the earth balanced by the centripetal forceof the revolving satellite
bull One Earth station transmits the signals to the satellite at Up link frequency Up link frequency is the frequency at which Earth station is communicating with a satellite
bull The satellite transponder process the signal and sends it to the second Earth station at another frequency called downlink frequency
Advantages of Satellite Communications over Terrestrial Communications
bull The coverage area greatly exceedsbull Transmission cost of a satellite is independent
of the distance from the center of the coverage area
bull Satellite-to-satellite communication is very precise
bull Higher bandwidths are available for use
Disadvantages of Satellite Communications
bull Launching satellites into orbits is costly
bull Satellite bandwidth is gradually becoming used up
bull The propagation delay is larger
Active and Passive Satellites
bull Active satellites are used for linking and also for processing the signals
The linkage is known as bent pipe technology where processing like frequency translation power amplification etc take place
Active satellites employ lsquoRegenerative Technologyrsquo which consists of demodulation processing frequency translation switching and power amplification are carried out Block used for this purpose is called transponder
bull Passive satellites do-not have on-board processing and are just used to link two stations through space
Low cost - Loss of power ndash not useful for communication applications
Historical Overviewbull 1945 Theorist named Clarke studied that satellite orbiting in equatorial orbit
at radius of approx 42000 km would look as if stationary if moving at a specific speed 3 satellites at a space of 120 degree apart can cover the whole world Evolution of the concept of GEO
1950rsquos ndashPutting the pieces together
10487081956 -Trans-Atlantic cable opened (about 12 telephone channels per operator)
10487081957 First man-made satellite launched by former USSR (Sputnik-1 LEO) It was used to identify atmospheric density of various orbital layers It provided data about radio signal distribution in ionosphere
10487081958 First US satellite launched (SCORE) First voice communication established via satellite (LEO lasted 35
days in orbit)
bull 1960rsquos ndashFirst satellite communicationsbull 10487081960 First passive communication satellite (Large
balloons Echo I and II)bull 10487081962 First active communication satellite (Telstar I
MEO)bull 10487081963 First satellite into geostationary (GEO) orbit
(Syncom1 communication failed)bull 10487081964 International Telecomm Satellite Organization
(INTELSAT) createdbull 10487081965 First successful communications GEO (Early
Bird INTELSAT 1)
Historical Overview
bull 1970rsquos ndashGEO Applications Development DBS10487081972 First domestic satellite system operational (Canada)10487081975 First successful direct broadcast experiment (USA-India)10487081977 A plan for direct broadcast satellites (DBS) assigned by the ITU10487081979 International Mobile Satellite Organization (Inmarsat) established
Historical Overview
bull 1980rsquos ndashGEO Applications Expanded Mobile10487081981 First reusable launch vehicle flight10487081982 International maritime communications made operational10487081984 First direct-to-home broadcast system operational (Japan)10487081987 Successful trials of land-mobile communications (Inmarsat)10487081989-90 Global mobile communication service extended to land mobile and aeronautical use (Inmarsat)
Historical Overview
bull 1990+rsquos NGSO applications development and GEO expansion1990-951048708Proposals of non-geostationary (NGSO) systems for mobile communications1048708Continuing growth of VSATs around the world1048708Spectrum allocation for non-GEO systems1048708Continuing growth of DBS DirectTV created19971048708Launch of first batch of LEO for hand-held terminals (Iridium)1048708Voice-service portables and paging-service pocket size mobile terminals launched (Inmarsat)1998-2000 Mobile LEO systems initiate service and fail afterwards (IridiumGlobalstar)
Historical Overview
Altitudes of orbits above the earth
bull There are 3 common types of satellite based on altitude ie GEO MEO amp LEOOrbit Altitude Missions possible
Low-Earth orbit LEO 250 to 1500 km
Earth observation meteorology
telecommunications (constellations)
Medium-Earth orbit MEO
10000 to 30000 km Telecommunications
(constellations) positioning science
Geostationary Earth orbit GEO
35786 km Telecommunications positioning science
Elliptical orbit Between 800 and
27000 km Telecommunications
Hyperbolic orbit Up to several million
km Interplanetary missions
ITU Frequency Spectrum Allocations
Communication Satellites
bull Another issue is the presence of the Van Allen belts - layers of highly charged particles trapped by the earths magnetic field
bull Any satellite flying within them would be destroyed fairly quickly by the highly-energetic charged particles trapped there by the earths magnetic field
bull Hence there are three regions in which satellites can be placed safely - illustrated in the following figure
Communication Satellites
Communication satellites and some of their properties including altitude above the earth round-trip delay time and number of satellites needed for global coverage
Communication Satellites
Geostationary Satellites
bull Each downward beam can be focused on a small geographical area so multiple upward and downward transmissions can take place simultaneously
bull Typically the spot beams are elliptically shaped and can be as small as a few hundred km in diameter
bull A communication satellite for the United States typically has one wide beam for the contiguous 48 states plus spot beams for Alaska and Hawaii
VSAT systems
bull VSAT (Very Small Aperture Terminal) ndash a satellite communication system that serves home and business users for data voice and video signals
bull Tiny terminals have 1-meter or smaller antennas (versus 10 m for a standard GEO antenna) and can put out about 1 watt of power
bull A VSAT end user has a box that interfaces between the users computer and an outside antenna with a transceiver
bull The tranceiver receives sends a signal to a satellite transponder
Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull The MEO (Medium-Earth Orbit) satellites are between the two Van Allen belts
bull Takes something like 6 hours to circle the earthbull As MEO are lower than the GEOs (typically
16000 km above Earth) they have a smaller footprint on the ground and require less powerful transmitters to reach them
bull Currently they are not used for telecommunications but in navigation systems
Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull The 24 GPS (Global Positioning System) satellites orbiting at about 18000 km are American but free to use by anyone
bull Russia is using Glonass ndash 24 satellites orbiting at 19100 km
bull European Union works on Galileo ndash 30 satellite MEO navigation system orbiting at 23200 km - global navigation satellite system (GNSS) (2019)
bull China is building Compass ndash 35 satellites ndash 5 GEO and 30 MEO at 21100 km (10 in use and offering services now) (2020)
Low-Earth Orbit Satellitesbull A Low Earth Orbit (LEO) is generally defined as
an orbit below an altitude of approximately 2000 kilometers and above 160 kilometers ndash almost all human spaceflights have taken place in LEO
bull (-) large numbers of LEO are needed for a complete system due to their rapid motion (26000 to 27000 km per hour)
bull (+) satellites are very close to the earth so the ground stations do not need much power
bull (+) the round-trip delay is only a few milliseconds
Low-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull Because these LEO orbits are not geostationary a network (or constellation) of satellites is required to provide continuous coverage
bull LEOs are used for a variety of civil scientific and military roles including Earth observation radar optical telecoms and demonstrator
bull Some use as many as 66 satellites (Iridium ndash satellite phones)
Low-Earth Orbit Satellitesbull The Iridium satellite constellation - group of
satellites providing voice and data coverage to satellite phones pagers and integrated transceivers over Earths entire surface
bull Originally developed in 1992 services started in 1998 bankrupted in August 1999 and subsequently restarted in March 2001 (513 000 subscribers in 2011)
bull Satellites are at a height of approximately 781 kmbull Customers include the maritime aviation and oil
exploration industries as well as people traveling in parts of the world lacking a telecommunications infrastructure (eg deserts mountains jungles and some Third World countries)
Iridium
bull The Iridium satellites are in circular polar orbits
bull They are arranged in north-south necklaces with one satellite every 32 degrees of latitude
bull With six satellite necklaces the entire earth is covered
bull Each satellite can support up to 1100 concurrent phone calls and weighs about 680 kg
Iridium
bull Each satellite has a maximum of 48 cells (spot beams) with a total of 1628 cells over the surface of the earth
bull Each satellite has a capacity of 3840 channels or 253440 in all
bull Some of these are used for paging and navigation while others are used for data and voice
bull An interesting property of Iridium is that communication between distant customers takes place in space with one satellite relaying data to the next one
bull A caller at the North Pole contacts a satellite directly overhead - the call is relayed via other satellites and finally sent down to the called at the South Pole
Globalstar
bull Globalstar - based on 48 LEO satellites but uses a different switching scheme than that of Iridium (relays calls from satellite to satellite which requires sophisticated switching equipment in the satellites)
bull Globalstar uses a traditional bent-pipe design - a call originating at the North Pole is sent back to earth and picked up by the large ground station
bull The call is then routed via a terrestrial network to the ground station nearest the callee and delivered by a bent-pipe connection as shown
bull Advantage - puts much of the complexity on the ground where it is easier to manage (412300 subscribers in 2010)
Teledesic
bull Teledesic was as high-speed wireless switched global network -an IP-based system designed to support data voice and video at the same quality level as fiber-based terrestrial systems - a global Internet-in-the-Skyldquo providing broadband and Internet access
bull Originally (1995) planning 840 active satellites with in-orbit spares at an altitude of 700 km
bull Scaled (1997) to 288 active satellites at 1400 kmbull Officially suspended its satellite construction work on
October 1 2002bull Funding from Microsoft (investing US$30 million for an
85 stake) Craig McCaw Bill Gates Paul Allen and Saudi prince Alwaleed bin Talal and for achieving allocation on the Ka-band frequency spectrum for non-geostationary services
Highly elliptical orbit
bull HEO ndash an elliptic orbit with a low-altitude (about 1000 kilometres) perigee and a high-altitude (over 35786 kilometres) apogee
bull Advantage - long dwell times at a point in the sky during the approach to and descent from apogee - phenomenon known as apogee dwell (acts like GEO) (3-4 hours can receive signal with 06 m antenna)
bull Used by Sirius Satellite Radio (operating in North America) the Molniya communication satelites (at least 3) (Russia)
Satellite Applications
bull Communication The main application for satellites today is in communication Communication satellites act as relay stations in the sky and permit reliable long-distance communication worldwide
bull Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS) service This is a TV signal distribution system designed to distribute signals directly to consumers
Satellite Applications
bull Satellite Cell Phones Satellite-based cellular telephone service is under development The proposed new systems use low-earth-orbit satellites to perform the relay services to the main telephone system or to make connection directly between any two cellular telephones using the system
Satellite Applications
bull Digital Satellite Radio One of the newest satellite applications is in digital satellite radio or the digital audio radio service (DARS) ndash This service provides hundreds of channels of
music news sports and talk radio to car portable and home radios
ndash It provides full continuous coverage of the station you select wherever you are in the United States
ndash Its digital transmission techniques ensure high-quality stereo sound that is immune to noise
ndash The satellites transmit other information such as song title and artist type of music and other data which are displayed on a LCD screen
Satellite Applications
bull Surveillance satellites can look at the earth and transmit what they see back to ground stations for a wide variety of purposes including military intelligence meteorological applications and mapping
bull Satellite navigation systems can provide global coverage unavailable with land-based systems satellites
Global Positioning System
bull The Global Positioning System (GPS) also known as Navstar is a satellite-based navigation system that can be used by anyone with an appropriate receiver to pinpoint his or her location on earth
bull GPS was developed by the US Air Force for the Department of Defense as a continuous global radio navigation system
bull The GPS system consists of three major segments the space segment the control segment and the user segment
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentndash The space segment is the constellation of
satellites orbiting above the earth that contain transmitters which send highly accurate timing information to GPS receivers on earth
bull The GPS consists of 24 main operational satellites and 3 active spare satellites arranged in six orbits of 3 or 4 satellites each
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentbull Each of the satellites contains four highly accurate
atomic clocks
bull These clocks are used to generate a unique pseudorandom code identifying the specific satellite that is transmitted to earth
bull The satellite also transmits a set of digitally coded ephemeris data that completely defines its precise orbit
Global Positioning System
The GPS space segment
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentndash The control segment of the GPS system
refers to the various ground stations that monitor the satellites and provide control and update information
bull The master control station is operated by the US Air Force in Colorado Springs
bull Four additional monitoring and control stations constantly monitor the satellites and collect range information from each
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentbull The information is sent back to the master
control station in Colorado where all the information is collected and position data on each satellite calculated
bull The master control station then transmits new ephemeris and clock data to each satellite on the S-band uplink once per day
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash A GPS receiver is a complex superheterodyne
microwave receiver designed to pick up the GPS signals decode them and then compute the location of the receiver
ndash The output is usually an LCD display giving latitude longitude and altitude information andor a map of the area
ndash The most widely used GPS receiver is the popular handheld portable type not much larger than an oversized handheld calculator
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash The receiver performs a time multiplexing
operation on the four satellites within view of the receiver
ndash The data is extracted from each of the four satellites and stored in the receiverrsquos memory
ndash Data from three satellites is needed to fix the receiverrsquos position
ndash If data from a fourth satellite is available altitude can be calculated
Global Positioning System
GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
How triangulation works to locate a GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications ndash The primary application of the GPS is
military and related navigationndash GPS is used by all services for ships
aircraft and ground troopsndash Most civilian applications also involve
navigation which is usually marine or aviation-related
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications
ndash Commercial applications include surveying mapmaking and construction
ndash Vehicle location is a growing application for trucking and delivery companies taxi bus and train transportation
ndash Police fire ambulance and forest services also use GPS
ndash A new hobby called geocaching uses GPS receivers In this sport one team hides an item or ldquotreasurerdquo and then gives the other team coordinates to follow to find the treasure within a given time
Design of the Satellite Link
bull The satellite link is probably the most basic in microwave communications since a line-of-sight path typically exists between the Earth and space
bull This means that an imaginary line extending between the transmitting or receiving Earth station and the satellite antenna passes only through the atmosphere and not ground obstacles
bull Such a link is governed by free-space propagation with only limited variation with respect to time due to various constituents of the atmosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull Free-space attenuation is determined by the inverse square law which states that the power
received is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
bull The same law applies to the amount of light that reaches our eyes from a distant point source such as an automobile headlight or star
bull There are however a number of additional effects that produce a significant amount of degradation and time variation
bull These include rain terrain effects such as absorption by trees and walls and some less-obvious impairment produced by unstable conditions of the air and ionosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull It is the job of the communication engineer to identify all of the significant contributions to performance and make sure that they are properly taken into account
bull The required factors include the performance of the satellite itself the configuration and performance of the uplink and downlink Earth stations and the impact of the propagation medium in the frequency band of interest
Why Satellite Communication
bull The Earth is a sphere amp The microwave frequencies travel in straight line but to connect two regions very far away on the two side of the sphere the link requires lot of repeaters because of Earthrsquos curvature
bull A single satellite can do the magic linking the continents with one repeater
Motivation to use the Sky
Regions of Space
Space is defined as a place free from obstacles
It can be divided into three regions
bull Air Space -gt region below 100 km from earthrsquos surface
bull Outer Space -gt also called cosmic space and ranges from 100 km up till 42 000 km It is mostly used by
communication satellites
bull Deep Space -gt Regions beyond 42000 km fall in this category
Satellite
bull It is a repeater which receives signal from Earth at one frequency amplify it amp transmit it back to Earth at other frequency
EARTH STATION
bull There are two earth station in a simple Satellite communication link One transmits the signal to satellite called transmitting Earth station
bull The other receives the signal from satellite called receiving Earth Station
UPLINK amp DOWN LINK
bull The communication link from Transmitting earth station to satellite is called Up-link
bull The communication link from satellite To receiving earth station is called Down-link
What is a satellite system
bull A satellite system consists of one or more satellites a ground-based station to control the operation of the system and a user network earth stations that provides the interface facilities for the transmission and reception of terrestrial communications traffic
How a satellite works
bull A satellite stays in orbit because the gravitational pull of the earth balanced by the centripetal forceof the revolving satellite
bull One Earth station transmits the signals to the satellite at Up link frequency Up link frequency is the frequency at which Earth station is communicating with a satellite
bull The satellite transponder process the signal and sends it to the second Earth station at another frequency called downlink frequency
Advantages of Satellite Communications over Terrestrial Communications
bull The coverage area greatly exceedsbull Transmission cost of a satellite is independent
of the distance from the center of the coverage area
bull Satellite-to-satellite communication is very precise
bull Higher bandwidths are available for use
Disadvantages of Satellite Communications
bull Launching satellites into orbits is costly
bull Satellite bandwidth is gradually becoming used up
bull The propagation delay is larger
Active and Passive Satellites
bull Active satellites are used for linking and also for processing the signals
The linkage is known as bent pipe technology where processing like frequency translation power amplification etc take place
Active satellites employ lsquoRegenerative Technologyrsquo which consists of demodulation processing frequency translation switching and power amplification are carried out Block used for this purpose is called transponder
bull Passive satellites do-not have on-board processing and are just used to link two stations through space
Low cost - Loss of power ndash not useful for communication applications
Historical Overviewbull 1945 Theorist named Clarke studied that satellite orbiting in equatorial orbit
at radius of approx 42000 km would look as if stationary if moving at a specific speed 3 satellites at a space of 120 degree apart can cover the whole world Evolution of the concept of GEO
1950rsquos ndashPutting the pieces together
10487081956 -Trans-Atlantic cable opened (about 12 telephone channels per operator)
10487081957 First man-made satellite launched by former USSR (Sputnik-1 LEO) It was used to identify atmospheric density of various orbital layers It provided data about radio signal distribution in ionosphere
10487081958 First US satellite launched (SCORE) First voice communication established via satellite (LEO lasted 35
days in orbit)
bull 1960rsquos ndashFirst satellite communicationsbull 10487081960 First passive communication satellite (Large
balloons Echo I and II)bull 10487081962 First active communication satellite (Telstar I
MEO)bull 10487081963 First satellite into geostationary (GEO) orbit
(Syncom1 communication failed)bull 10487081964 International Telecomm Satellite Organization
(INTELSAT) createdbull 10487081965 First successful communications GEO (Early
Bird INTELSAT 1)
Historical Overview
bull 1970rsquos ndashGEO Applications Development DBS10487081972 First domestic satellite system operational (Canada)10487081975 First successful direct broadcast experiment (USA-India)10487081977 A plan for direct broadcast satellites (DBS) assigned by the ITU10487081979 International Mobile Satellite Organization (Inmarsat) established
Historical Overview
bull 1980rsquos ndashGEO Applications Expanded Mobile10487081981 First reusable launch vehicle flight10487081982 International maritime communications made operational10487081984 First direct-to-home broadcast system operational (Japan)10487081987 Successful trials of land-mobile communications (Inmarsat)10487081989-90 Global mobile communication service extended to land mobile and aeronautical use (Inmarsat)
Historical Overview
bull 1990+rsquos NGSO applications development and GEO expansion1990-951048708Proposals of non-geostationary (NGSO) systems for mobile communications1048708Continuing growth of VSATs around the world1048708Spectrum allocation for non-GEO systems1048708Continuing growth of DBS DirectTV created19971048708Launch of first batch of LEO for hand-held terminals (Iridium)1048708Voice-service portables and paging-service pocket size mobile terminals launched (Inmarsat)1998-2000 Mobile LEO systems initiate service and fail afterwards (IridiumGlobalstar)
Historical Overview
Altitudes of orbits above the earth
bull There are 3 common types of satellite based on altitude ie GEO MEO amp LEOOrbit Altitude Missions possible
Low-Earth orbit LEO 250 to 1500 km
Earth observation meteorology
telecommunications (constellations)
Medium-Earth orbit MEO
10000 to 30000 km Telecommunications
(constellations) positioning science
Geostationary Earth orbit GEO
35786 km Telecommunications positioning science
Elliptical orbit Between 800 and
27000 km Telecommunications
Hyperbolic orbit Up to several million
km Interplanetary missions
ITU Frequency Spectrum Allocations
Communication Satellites
bull Another issue is the presence of the Van Allen belts - layers of highly charged particles trapped by the earths magnetic field
bull Any satellite flying within them would be destroyed fairly quickly by the highly-energetic charged particles trapped there by the earths magnetic field
bull Hence there are three regions in which satellites can be placed safely - illustrated in the following figure
Communication Satellites
Communication satellites and some of their properties including altitude above the earth round-trip delay time and number of satellites needed for global coverage
Communication Satellites
Geostationary Satellites
bull Each downward beam can be focused on a small geographical area so multiple upward and downward transmissions can take place simultaneously
bull Typically the spot beams are elliptically shaped and can be as small as a few hundred km in diameter
bull A communication satellite for the United States typically has one wide beam for the contiguous 48 states plus spot beams for Alaska and Hawaii
VSAT systems
bull VSAT (Very Small Aperture Terminal) ndash a satellite communication system that serves home and business users for data voice and video signals
bull Tiny terminals have 1-meter or smaller antennas (versus 10 m for a standard GEO antenna) and can put out about 1 watt of power
bull A VSAT end user has a box that interfaces between the users computer and an outside antenna with a transceiver
bull The tranceiver receives sends a signal to a satellite transponder
Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull The MEO (Medium-Earth Orbit) satellites are between the two Van Allen belts
bull Takes something like 6 hours to circle the earthbull As MEO are lower than the GEOs (typically
16000 km above Earth) they have a smaller footprint on the ground and require less powerful transmitters to reach them
bull Currently they are not used for telecommunications but in navigation systems
Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull The 24 GPS (Global Positioning System) satellites orbiting at about 18000 km are American but free to use by anyone
bull Russia is using Glonass ndash 24 satellites orbiting at 19100 km
bull European Union works on Galileo ndash 30 satellite MEO navigation system orbiting at 23200 km - global navigation satellite system (GNSS) (2019)
bull China is building Compass ndash 35 satellites ndash 5 GEO and 30 MEO at 21100 km (10 in use and offering services now) (2020)
Low-Earth Orbit Satellitesbull A Low Earth Orbit (LEO) is generally defined as
an orbit below an altitude of approximately 2000 kilometers and above 160 kilometers ndash almost all human spaceflights have taken place in LEO
bull (-) large numbers of LEO are needed for a complete system due to their rapid motion (26000 to 27000 km per hour)
bull (+) satellites are very close to the earth so the ground stations do not need much power
bull (+) the round-trip delay is only a few milliseconds
Low-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull Because these LEO orbits are not geostationary a network (or constellation) of satellites is required to provide continuous coverage
bull LEOs are used for a variety of civil scientific and military roles including Earth observation radar optical telecoms and demonstrator
bull Some use as many as 66 satellites (Iridium ndash satellite phones)
Low-Earth Orbit Satellitesbull The Iridium satellite constellation - group of
satellites providing voice and data coverage to satellite phones pagers and integrated transceivers over Earths entire surface
bull Originally developed in 1992 services started in 1998 bankrupted in August 1999 and subsequently restarted in March 2001 (513 000 subscribers in 2011)
bull Satellites are at a height of approximately 781 kmbull Customers include the maritime aviation and oil
exploration industries as well as people traveling in parts of the world lacking a telecommunications infrastructure (eg deserts mountains jungles and some Third World countries)
Iridium
bull The Iridium satellites are in circular polar orbits
bull They are arranged in north-south necklaces with one satellite every 32 degrees of latitude
bull With six satellite necklaces the entire earth is covered
bull Each satellite can support up to 1100 concurrent phone calls and weighs about 680 kg
Iridium
bull Each satellite has a maximum of 48 cells (spot beams) with a total of 1628 cells over the surface of the earth
bull Each satellite has a capacity of 3840 channels or 253440 in all
bull Some of these are used for paging and navigation while others are used for data and voice
bull An interesting property of Iridium is that communication between distant customers takes place in space with one satellite relaying data to the next one
bull A caller at the North Pole contacts a satellite directly overhead - the call is relayed via other satellites and finally sent down to the called at the South Pole
Globalstar
bull Globalstar - based on 48 LEO satellites but uses a different switching scheme than that of Iridium (relays calls from satellite to satellite which requires sophisticated switching equipment in the satellites)
bull Globalstar uses a traditional bent-pipe design - a call originating at the North Pole is sent back to earth and picked up by the large ground station
bull The call is then routed via a terrestrial network to the ground station nearest the callee and delivered by a bent-pipe connection as shown
bull Advantage - puts much of the complexity on the ground where it is easier to manage (412300 subscribers in 2010)
Teledesic
bull Teledesic was as high-speed wireless switched global network -an IP-based system designed to support data voice and video at the same quality level as fiber-based terrestrial systems - a global Internet-in-the-Skyldquo providing broadband and Internet access
bull Originally (1995) planning 840 active satellites with in-orbit spares at an altitude of 700 km
bull Scaled (1997) to 288 active satellites at 1400 kmbull Officially suspended its satellite construction work on
October 1 2002bull Funding from Microsoft (investing US$30 million for an
85 stake) Craig McCaw Bill Gates Paul Allen and Saudi prince Alwaleed bin Talal and for achieving allocation on the Ka-band frequency spectrum for non-geostationary services
Highly elliptical orbit
bull HEO ndash an elliptic orbit with a low-altitude (about 1000 kilometres) perigee and a high-altitude (over 35786 kilometres) apogee
bull Advantage - long dwell times at a point in the sky during the approach to and descent from apogee - phenomenon known as apogee dwell (acts like GEO) (3-4 hours can receive signal with 06 m antenna)
bull Used by Sirius Satellite Radio (operating in North America) the Molniya communication satelites (at least 3) (Russia)
Satellite Applications
bull Communication The main application for satellites today is in communication Communication satellites act as relay stations in the sky and permit reliable long-distance communication worldwide
bull Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS) service This is a TV signal distribution system designed to distribute signals directly to consumers
Satellite Applications
bull Satellite Cell Phones Satellite-based cellular telephone service is under development The proposed new systems use low-earth-orbit satellites to perform the relay services to the main telephone system or to make connection directly between any two cellular telephones using the system
Satellite Applications
bull Digital Satellite Radio One of the newest satellite applications is in digital satellite radio or the digital audio radio service (DARS) ndash This service provides hundreds of channels of
music news sports and talk radio to car portable and home radios
ndash It provides full continuous coverage of the station you select wherever you are in the United States
ndash Its digital transmission techniques ensure high-quality stereo sound that is immune to noise
ndash The satellites transmit other information such as song title and artist type of music and other data which are displayed on a LCD screen
Satellite Applications
bull Surveillance satellites can look at the earth and transmit what they see back to ground stations for a wide variety of purposes including military intelligence meteorological applications and mapping
bull Satellite navigation systems can provide global coverage unavailable with land-based systems satellites
Global Positioning System
bull The Global Positioning System (GPS) also known as Navstar is a satellite-based navigation system that can be used by anyone with an appropriate receiver to pinpoint his or her location on earth
bull GPS was developed by the US Air Force for the Department of Defense as a continuous global radio navigation system
bull The GPS system consists of three major segments the space segment the control segment and the user segment
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentndash The space segment is the constellation of
satellites orbiting above the earth that contain transmitters which send highly accurate timing information to GPS receivers on earth
bull The GPS consists of 24 main operational satellites and 3 active spare satellites arranged in six orbits of 3 or 4 satellites each
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentbull Each of the satellites contains four highly accurate
atomic clocks
bull These clocks are used to generate a unique pseudorandom code identifying the specific satellite that is transmitted to earth
bull The satellite also transmits a set of digitally coded ephemeris data that completely defines its precise orbit
Global Positioning System
The GPS space segment
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentndash The control segment of the GPS system
refers to the various ground stations that monitor the satellites and provide control and update information
bull The master control station is operated by the US Air Force in Colorado Springs
bull Four additional monitoring and control stations constantly monitor the satellites and collect range information from each
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentbull The information is sent back to the master
control station in Colorado where all the information is collected and position data on each satellite calculated
bull The master control station then transmits new ephemeris and clock data to each satellite on the S-band uplink once per day
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash A GPS receiver is a complex superheterodyne
microwave receiver designed to pick up the GPS signals decode them and then compute the location of the receiver
ndash The output is usually an LCD display giving latitude longitude and altitude information andor a map of the area
ndash The most widely used GPS receiver is the popular handheld portable type not much larger than an oversized handheld calculator
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash The receiver performs a time multiplexing
operation on the four satellites within view of the receiver
ndash The data is extracted from each of the four satellites and stored in the receiverrsquos memory
ndash Data from three satellites is needed to fix the receiverrsquos position
ndash If data from a fourth satellite is available altitude can be calculated
Global Positioning System
GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
How triangulation works to locate a GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications ndash The primary application of the GPS is
military and related navigationndash GPS is used by all services for ships
aircraft and ground troopsndash Most civilian applications also involve
navigation which is usually marine or aviation-related
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications
ndash Commercial applications include surveying mapmaking and construction
ndash Vehicle location is a growing application for trucking and delivery companies taxi bus and train transportation
ndash Police fire ambulance and forest services also use GPS
ndash A new hobby called geocaching uses GPS receivers In this sport one team hides an item or ldquotreasurerdquo and then gives the other team coordinates to follow to find the treasure within a given time
Design of the Satellite Link
bull The satellite link is probably the most basic in microwave communications since a line-of-sight path typically exists between the Earth and space
bull This means that an imaginary line extending between the transmitting or receiving Earth station and the satellite antenna passes only through the atmosphere and not ground obstacles
bull Such a link is governed by free-space propagation with only limited variation with respect to time due to various constituents of the atmosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull Free-space attenuation is determined by the inverse square law which states that the power
received is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
bull The same law applies to the amount of light that reaches our eyes from a distant point source such as an automobile headlight or star
bull There are however a number of additional effects that produce a significant amount of degradation and time variation
bull These include rain terrain effects such as absorption by trees and walls and some less-obvious impairment produced by unstable conditions of the air and ionosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull It is the job of the communication engineer to identify all of the significant contributions to performance and make sure that they are properly taken into account
bull The required factors include the performance of the satellite itself the configuration and performance of the uplink and downlink Earth stations and the impact of the propagation medium in the frequency band of interest
Motivation to use the Sky
Regions of Space
Space is defined as a place free from obstacles
It can be divided into three regions
bull Air Space -gt region below 100 km from earthrsquos surface
bull Outer Space -gt also called cosmic space and ranges from 100 km up till 42 000 km It is mostly used by
communication satellites
bull Deep Space -gt Regions beyond 42000 km fall in this category
Satellite
bull It is a repeater which receives signal from Earth at one frequency amplify it amp transmit it back to Earth at other frequency
EARTH STATION
bull There are two earth station in a simple Satellite communication link One transmits the signal to satellite called transmitting Earth station
bull The other receives the signal from satellite called receiving Earth Station
UPLINK amp DOWN LINK
bull The communication link from Transmitting earth station to satellite is called Up-link
bull The communication link from satellite To receiving earth station is called Down-link
What is a satellite system
bull A satellite system consists of one or more satellites a ground-based station to control the operation of the system and a user network earth stations that provides the interface facilities for the transmission and reception of terrestrial communications traffic
How a satellite works
bull A satellite stays in orbit because the gravitational pull of the earth balanced by the centripetal forceof the revolving satellite
bull One Earth station transmits the signals to the satellite at Up link frequency Up link frequency is the frequency at which Earth station is communicating with a satellite
bull The satellite transponder process the signal and sends it to the second Earth station at another frequency called downlink frequency
Advantages of Satellite Communications over Terrestrial Communications
bull The coverage area greatly exceedsbull Transmission cost of a satellite is independent
of the distance from the center of the coverage area
bull Satellite-to-satellite communication is very precise
bull Higher bandwidths are available for use
Disadvantages of Satellite Communications
bull Launching satellites into orbits is costly
bull Satellite bandwidth is gradually becoming used up
bull The propagation delay is larger
Active and Passive Satellites
bull Active satellites are used for linking and also for processing the signals
The linkage is known as bent pipe technology where processing like frequency translation power amplification etc take place
Active satellites employ lsquoRegenerative Technologyrsquo which consists of demodulation processing frequency translation switching and power amplification are carried out Block used for this purpose is called transponder
bull Passive satellites do-not have on-board processing and are just used to link two stations through space
Low cost - Loss of power ndash not useful for communication applications
Historical Overviewbull 1945 Theorist named Clarke studied that satellite orbiting in equatorial orbit
at radius of approx 42000 km would look as if stationary if moving at a specific speed 3 satellites at a space of 120 degree apart can cover the whole world Evolution of the concept of GEO
1950rsquos ndashPutting the pieces together
10487081956 -Trans-Atlantic cable opened (about 12 telephone channels per operator)
10487081957 First man-made satellite launched by former USSR (Sputnik-1 LEO) It was used to identify atmospheric density of various orbital layers It provided data about radio signal distribution in ionosphere
10487081958 First US satellite launched (SCORE) First voice communication established via satellite (LEO lasted 35
days in orbit)
bull 1960rsquos ndashFirst satellite communicationsbull 10487081960 First passive communication satellite (Large
balloons Echo I and II)bull 10487081962 First active communication satellite (Telstar I
MEO)bull 10487081963 First satellite into geostationary (GEO) orbit
(Syncom1 communication failed)bull 10487081964 International Telecomm Satellite Organization
(INTELSAT) createdbull 10487081965 First successful communications GEO (Early
Bird INTELSAT 1)
Historical Overview
bull 1970rsquos ndashGEO Applications Development DBS10487081972 First domestic satellite system operational (Canada)10487081975 First successful direct broadcast experiment (USA-India)10487081977 A plan for direct broadcast satellites (DBS) assigned by the ITU10487081979 International Mobile Satellite Organization (Inmarsat) established
Historical Overview
bull 1980rsquos ndashGEO Applications Expanded Mobile10487081981 First reusable launch vehicle flight10487081982 International maritime communications made operational10487081984 First direct-to-home broadcast system operational (Japan)10487081987 Successful trials of land-mobile communications (Inmarsat)10487081989-90 Global mobile communication service extended to land mobile and aeronautical use (Inmarsat)
Historical Overview
bull 1990+rsquos NGSO applications development and GEO expansion1990-951048708Proposals of non-geostationary (NGSO) systems for mobile communications1048708Continuing growth of VSATs around the world1048708Spectrum allocation for non-GEO systems1048708Continuing growth of DBS DirectTV created19971048708Launch of first batch of LEO for hand-held terminals (Iridium)1048708Voice-service portables and paging-service pocket size mobile terminals launched (Inmarsat)1998-2000 Mobile LEO systems initiate service and fail afterwards (IridiumGlobalstar)
Historical Overview
Altitudes of orbits above the earth
bull There are 3 common types of satellite based on altitude ie GEO MEO amp LEOOrbit Altitude Missions possible
Low-Earth orbit LEO 250 to 1500 km
Earth observation meteorology
telecommunications (constellations)
Medium-Earth orbit MEO
10000 to 30000 km Telecommunications
(constellations) positioning science
Geostationary Earth orbit GEO
35786 km Telecommunications positioning science
Elliptical orbit Between 800 and
27000 km Telecommunications
Hyperbolic orbit Up to several million
km Interplanetary missions
ITU Frequency Spectrum Allocations
Communication Satellites
bull Another issue is the presence of the Van Allen belts - layers of highly charged particles trapped by the earths magnetic field
bull Any satellite flying within them would be destroyed fairly quickly by the highly-energetic charged particles trapped there by the earths magnetic field
bull Hence there are three regions in which satellites can be placed safely - illustrated in the following figure
Communication Satellites
Communication satellites and some of their properties including altitude above the earth round-trip delay time and number of satellites needed for global coverage
Communication Satellites
Geostationary Satellites
bull Each downward beam can be focused on a small geographical area so multiple upward and downward transmissions can take place simultaneously
bull Typically the spot beams are elliptically shaped and can be as small as a few hundred km in diameter
bull A communication satellite for the United States typically has one wide beam for the contiguous 48 states plus spot beams for Alaska and Hawaii
VSAT systems
bull VSAT (Very Small Aperture Terminal) ndash a satellite communication system that serves home and business users for data voice and video signals
bull Tiny terminals have 1-meter or smaller antennas (versus 10 m for a standard GEO antenna) and can put out about 1 watt of power
bull A VSAT end user has a box that interfaces between the users computer and an outside antenna with a transceiver
bull The tranceiver receives sends a signal to a satellite transponder
Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull The MEO (Medium-Earth Orbit) satellites are between the two Van Allen belts
bull Takes something like 6 hours to circle the earthbull As MEO are lower than the GEOs (typically
16000 km above Earth) they have a smaller footprint on the ground and require less powerful transmitters to reach them
bull Currently they are not used for telecommunications but in navigation systems
Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull The 24 GPS (Global Positioning System) satellites orbiting at about 18000 km are American but free to use by anyone
bull Russia is using Glonass ndash 24 satellites orbiting at 19100 km
bull European Union works on Galileo ndash 30 satellite MEO navigation system orbiting at 23200 km - global navigation satellite system (GNSS) (2019)
bull China is building Compass ndash 35 satellites ndash 5 GEO and 30 MEO at 21100 km (10 in use and offering services now) (2020)
Low-Earth Orbit Satellitesbull A Low Earth Orbit (LEO) is generally defined as
an orbit below an altitude of approximately 2000 kilometers and above 160 kilometers ndash almost all human spaceflights have taken place in LEO
bull (-) large numbers of LEO are needed for a complete system due to their rapid motion (26000 to 27000 km per hour)
bull (+) satellites are very close to the earth so the ground stations do not need much power
bull (+) the round-trip delay is only a few milliseconds
Low-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull Because these LEO orbits are not geostationary a network (or constellation) of satellites is required to provide continuous coverage
bull LEOs are used for a variety of civil scientific and military roles including Earth observation radar optical telecoms and demonstrator
bull Some use as many as 66 satellites (Iridium ndash satellite phones)
Low-Earth Orbit Satellitesbull The Iridium satellite constellation - group of
satellites providing voice and data coverage to satellite phones pagers and integrated transceivers over Earths entire surface
bull Originally developed in 1992 services started in 1998 bankrupted in August 1999 and subsequently restarted in March 2001 (513 000 subscribers in 2011)
bull Satellites are at a height of approximately 781 kmbull Customers include the maritime aviation and oil
exploration industries as well as people traveling in parts of the world lacking a telecommunications infrastructure (eg deserts mountains jungles and some Third World countries)
Iridium
bull The Iridium satellites are in circular polar orbits
bull They are arranged in north-south necklaces with one satellite every 32 degrees of latitude
bull With six satellite necklaces the entire earth is covered
bull Each satellite can support up to 1100 concurrent phone calls and weighs about 680 kg
Iridium
bull Each satellite has a maximum of 48 cells (spot beams) with a total of 1628 cells over the surface of the earth
bull Each satellite has a capacity of 3840 channels or 253440 in all
bull Some of these are used for paging and navigation while others are used for data and voice
bull An interesting property of Iridium is that communication between distant customers takes place in space with one satellite relaying data to the next one
bull A caller at the North Pole contacts a satellite directly overhead - the call is relayed via other satellites and finally sent down to the called at the South Pole
Globalstar
bull Globalstar - based on 48 LEO satellites but uses a different switching scheme than that of Iridium (relays calls from satellite to satellite which requires sophisticated switching equipment in the satellites)
bull Globalstar uses a traditional bent-pipe design - a call originating at the North Pole is sent back to earth and picked up by the large ground station
bull The call is then routed via a terrestrial network to the ground station nearest the callee and delivered by a bent-pipe connection as shown
bull Advantage - puts much of the complexity on the ground where it is easier to manage (412300 subscribers in 2010)
Teledesic
bull Teledesic was as high-speed wireless switched global network -an IP-based system designed to support data voice and video at the same quality level as fiber-based terrestrial systems - a global Internet-in-the-Skyldquo providing broadband and Internet access
bull Originally (1995) planning 840 active satellites with in-orbit spares at an altitude of 700 km
bull Scaled (1997) to 288 active satellites at 1400 kmbull Officially suspended its satellite construction work on
October 1 2002bull Funding from Microsoft (investing US$30 million for an
85 stake) Craig McCaw Bill Gates Paul Allen and Saudi prince Alwaleed bin Talal and for achieving allocation on the Ka-band frequency spectrum for non-geostationary services
Highly elliptical orbit
bull HEO ndash an elliptic orbit with a low-altitude (about 1000 kilometres) perigee and a high-altitude (over 35786 kilometres) apogee
bull Advantage - long dwell times at a point in the sky during the approach to and descent from apogee - phenomenon known as apogee dwell (acts like GEO) (3-4 hours can receive signal with 06 m antenna)
bull Used by Sirius Satellite Radio (operating in North America) the Molniya communication satelites (at least 3) (Russia)
Satellite Applications
bull Communication The main application for satellites today is in communication Communication satellites act as relay stations in the sky and permit reliable long-distance communication worldwide
bull Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS) service This is a TV signal distribution system designed to distribute signals directly to consumers
Satellite Applications
bull Satellite Cell Phones Satellite-based cellular telephone service is under development The proposed new systems use low-earth-orbit satellites to perform the relay services to the main telephone system or to make connection directly between any two cellular telephones using the system
Satellite Applications
bull Digital Satellite Radio One of the newest satellite applications is in digital satellite radio or the digital audio radio service (DARS) ndash This service provides hundreds of channels of
music news sports and talk radio to car portable and home radios
ndash It provides full continuous coverage of the station you select wherever you are in the United States
ndash Its digital transmission techniques ensure high-quality stereo sound that is immune to noise
ndash The satellites transmit other information such as song title and artist type of music and other data which are displayed on a LCD screen
Satellite Applications
bull Surveillance satellites can look at the earth and transmit what they see back to ground stations for a wide variety of purposes including military intelligence meteorological applications and mapping
bull Satellite navigation systems can provide global coverage unavailable with land-based systems satellites
Global Positioning System
bull The Global Positioning System (GPS) also known as Navstar is a satellite-based navigation system that can be used by anyone with an appropriate receiver to pinpoint his or her location on earth
bull GPS was developed by the US Air Force for the Department of Defense as a continuous global radio navigation system
bull The GPS system consists of three major segments the space segment the control segment and the user segment
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentndash The space segment is the constellation of
satellites orbiting above the earth that contain transmitters which send highly accurate timing information to GPS receivers on earth
bull The GPS consists of 24 main operational satellites and 3 active spare satellites arranged in six orbits of 3 or 4 satellites each
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentbull Each of the satellites contains four highly accurate
atomic clocks
bull These clocks are used to generate a unique pseudorandom code identifying the specific satellite that is transmitted to earth
bull The satellite also transmits a set of digitally coded ephemeris data that completely defines its precise orbit
Global Positioning System
The GPS space segment
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentndash The control segment of the GPS system
refers to the various ground stations that monitor the satellites and provide control and update information
bull The master control station is operated by the US Air Force in Colorado Springs
bull Four additional monitoring and control stations constantly monitor the satellites and collect range information from each
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentbull The information is sent back to the master
control station in Colorado where all the information is collected and position data on each satellite calculated
bull The master control station then transmits new ephemeris and clock data to each satellite on the S-band uplink once per day
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash A GPS receiver is a complex superheterodyne
microwave receiver designed to pick up the GPS signals decode them and then compute the location of the receiver
ndash The output is usually an LCD display giving latitude longitude and altitude information andor a map of the area
ndash The most widely used GPS receiver is the popular handheld portable type not much larger than an oversized handheld calculator
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash The receiver performs a time multiplexing
operation on the four satellites within view of the receiver
ndash The data is extracted from each of the four satellites and stored in the receiverrsquos memory
ndash Data from three satellites is needed to fix the receiverrsquos position
ndash If data from a fourth satellite is available altitude can be calculated
Global Positioning System
GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
How triangulation works to locate a GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications ndash The primary application of the GPS is
military and related navigationndash GPS is used by all services for ships
aircraft and ground troopsndash Most civilian applications also involve
navigation which is usually marine or aviation-related
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications
ndash Commercial applications include surveying mapmaking and construction
ndash Vehicle location is a growing application for trucking and delivery companies taxi bus and train transportation
ndash Police fire ambulance and forest services also use GPS
ndash A new hobby called geocaching uses GPS receivers In this sport one team hides an item or ldquotreasurerdquo and then gives the other team coordinates to follow to find the treasure within a given time
Design of the Satellite Link
bull The satellite link is probably the most basic in microwave communications since a line-of-sight path typically exists between the Earth and space
bull This means that an imaginary line extending between the transmitting or receiving Earth station and the satellite antenna passes only through the atmosphere and not ground obstacles
bull Such a link is governed by free-space propagation with only limited variation with respect to time due to various constituents of the atmosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull Free-space attenuation is determined by the inverse square law which states that the power
received is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
bull The same law applies to the amount of light that reaches our eyes from a distant point source such as an automobile headlight or star
bull There are however a number of additional effects that produce a significant amount of degradation and time variation
bull These include rain terrain effects such as absorption by trees and walls and some less-obvious impairment produced by unstable conditions of the air and ionosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull It is the job of the communication engineer to identify all of the significant contributions to performance and make sure that they are properly taken into account
bull The required factors include the performance of the satellite itself the configuration and performance of the uplink and downlink Earth stations and the impact of the propagation medium in the frequency band of interest
Regions of Space
Space is defined as a place free from obstacles
It can be divided into three regions
bull Air Space -gt region below 100 km from earthrsquos surface
bull Outer Space -gt also called cosmic space and ranges from 100 km up till 42 000 km It is mostly used by
communication satellites
bull Deep Space -gt Regions beyond 42000 km fall in this category
Satellite
bull It is a repeater which receives signal from Earth at one frequency amplify it amp transmit it back to Earth at other frequency
EARTH STATION
bull There are two earth station in a simple Satellite communication link One transmits the signal to satellite called transmitting Earth station
bull The other receives the signal from satellite called receiving Earth Station
UPLINK amp DOWN LINK
bull The communication link from Transmitting earth station to satellite is called Up-link
bull The communication link from satellite To receiving earth station is called Down-link
What is a satellite system
bull A satellite system consists of one or more satellites a ground-based station to control the operation of the system and a user network earth stations that provides the interface facilities for the transmission and reception of terrestrial communications traffic
How a satellite works
bull A satellite stays in orbit because the gravitational pull of the earth balanced by the centripetal forceof the revolving satellite
bull One Earth station transmits the signals to the satellite at Up link frequency Up link frequency is the frequency at which Earth station is communicating with a satellite
bull The satellite transponder process the signal and sends it to the second Earth station at another frequency called downlink frequency
Advantages of Satellite Communications over Terrestrial Communications
bull The coverage area greatly exceedsbull Transmission cost of a satellite is independent
of the distance from the center of the coverage area
bull Satellite-to-satellite communication is very precise
bull Higher bandwidths are available for use
Disadvantages of Satellite Communications
bull Launching satellites into orbits is costly
bull Satellite bandwidth is gradually becoming used up
bull The propagation delay is larger
Active and Passive Satellites
bull Active satellites are used for linking and also for processing the signals
The linkage is known as bent pipe technology where processing like frequency translation power amplification etc take place
Active satellites employ lsquoRegenerative Technologyrsquo which consists of demodulation processing frequency translation switching and power amplification are carried out Block used for this purpose is called transponder
bull Passive satellites do-not have on-board processing and are just used to link two stations through space
Low cost - Loss of power ndash not useful for communication applications
Historical Overviewbull 1945 Theorist named Clarke studied that satellite orbiting in equatorial orbit
at radius of approx 42000 km would look as if stationary if moving at a specific speed 3 satellites at a space of 120 degree apart can cover the whole world Evolution of the concept of GEO
1950rsquos ndashPutting the pieces together
10487081956 -Trans-Atlantic cable opened (about 12 telephone channels per operator)
10487081957 First man-made satellite launched by former USSR (Sputnik-1 LEO) It was used to identify atmospheric density of various orbital layers It provided data about radio signal distribution in ionosphere
10487081958 First US satellite launched (SCORE) First voice communication established via satellite (LEO lasted 35
days in orbit)
bull 1960rsquos ndashFirst satellite communicationsbull 10487081960 First passive communication satellite (Large
balloons Echo I and II)bull 10487081962 First active communication satellite (Telstar I
MEO)bull 10487081963 First satellite into geostationary (GEO) orbit
(Syncom1 communication failed)bull 10487081964 International Telecomm Satellite Organization
(INTELSAT) createdbull 10487081965 First successful communications GEO (Early
Bird INTELSAT 1)
Historical Overview
bull 1970rsquos ndashGEO Applications Development DBS10487081972 First domestic satellite system operational (Canada)10487081975 First successful direct broadcast experiment (USA-India)10487081977 A plan for direct broadcast satellites (DBS) assigned by the ITU10487081979 International Mobile Satellite Organization (Inmarsat) established
Historical Overview
bull 1980rsquos ndashGEO Applications Expanded Mobile10487081981 First reusable launch vehicle flight10487081982 International maritime communications made operational10487081984 First direct-to-home broadcast system operational (Japan)10487081987 Successful trials of land-mobile communications (Inmarsat)10487081989-90 Global mobile communication service extended to land mobile and aeronautical use (Inmarsat)
Historical Overview
bull 1990+rsquos NGSO applications development and GEO expansion1990-951048708Proposals of non-geostationary (NGSO) systems for mobile communications1048708Continuing growth of VSATs around the world1048708Spectrum allocation for non-GEO systems1048708Continuing growth of DBS DirectTV created19971048708Launch of first batch of LEO for hand-held terminals (Iridium)1048708Voice-service portables and paging-service pocket size mobile terminals launched (Inmarsat)1998-2000 Mobile LEO systems initiate service and fail afterwards (IridiumGlobalstar)
Historical Overview
Altitudes of orbits above the earth
bull There are 3 common types of satellite based on altitude ie GEO MEO amp LEOOrbit Altitude Missions possible
Low-Earth orbit LEO 250 to 1500 km
Earth observation meteorology
telecommunications (constellations)
Medium-Earth orbit MEO
10000 to 30000 km Telecommunications
(constellations) positioning science
Geostationary Earth orbit GEO
35786 km Telecommunications positioning science
Elliptical orbit Between 800 and
27000 km Telecommunications
Hyperbolic orbit Up to several million
km Interplanetary missions
ITU Frequency Spectrum Allocations
Communication Satellites
bull Another issue is the presence of the Van Allen belts - layers of highly charged particles trapped by the earths magnetic field
bull Any satellite flying within them would be destroyed fairly quickly by the highly-energetic charged particles trapped there by the earths magnetic field
bull Hence there are three regions in which satellites can be placed safely - illustrated in the following figure
Communication Satellites
Communication satellites and some of their properties including altitude above the earth round-trip delay time and number of satellites needed for global coverage
Communication Satellites
Geostationary Satellites
bull Each downward beam can be focused on a small geographical area so multiple upward and downward transmissions can take place simultaneously
bull Typically the spot beams are elliptically shaped and can be as small as a few hundred km in diameter
bull A communication satellite for the United States typically has one wide beam for the contiguous 48 states plus spot beams for Alaska and Hawaii
VSAT systems
bull VSAT (Very Small Aperture Terminal) ndash a satellite communication system that serves home and business users for data voice and video signals
bull Tiny terminals have 1-meter or smaller antennas (versus 10 m for a standard GEO antenna) and can put out about 1 watt of power
bull A VSAT end user has a box that interfaces between the users computer and an outside antenna with a transceiver
bull The tranceiver receives sends a signal to a satellite transponder
Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull The MEO (Medium-Earth Orbit) satellites are between the two Van Allen belts
bull Takes something like 6 hours to circle the earthbull As MEO are lower than the GEOs (typically
16000 km above Earth) they have a smaller footprint on the ground and require less powerful transmitters to reach them
bull Currently they are not used for telecommunications but in navigation systems
Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull The 24 GPS (Global Positioning System) satellites orbiting at about 18000 km are American but free to use by anyone
bull Russia is using Glonass ndash 24 satellites orbiting at 19100 km
bull European Union works on Galileo ndash 30 satellite MEO navigation system orbiting at 23200 km - global navigation satellite system (GNSS) (2019)
bull China is building Compass ndash 35 satellites ndash 5 GEO and 30 MEO at 21100 km (10 in use and offering services now) (2020)
Low-Earth Orbit Satellitesbull A Low Earth Orbit (LEO) is generally defined as
an orbit below an altitude of approximately 2000 kilometers and above 160 kilometers ndash almost all human spaceflights have taken place in LEO
bull (-) large numbers of LEO are needed for a complete system due to their rapid motion (26000 to 27000 km per hour)
bull (+) satellites are very close to the earth so the ground stations do not need much power
bull (+) the round-trip delay is only a few milliseconds
Low-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull Because these LEO orbits are not geostationary a network (or constellation) of satellites is required to provide continuous coverage
bull LEOs are used for a variety of civil scientific and military roles including Earth observation radar optical telecoms and demonstrator
bull Some use as many as 66 satellites (Iridium ndash satellite phones)
Low-Earth Orbit Satellitesbull The Iridium satellite constellation - group of
satellites providing voice and data coverage to satellite phones pagers and integrated transceivers over Earths entire surface
bull Originally developed in 1992 services started in 1998 bankrupted in August 1999 and subsequently restarted in March 2001 (513 000 subscribers in 2011)
bull Satellites are at a height of approximately 781 kmbull Customers include the maritime aviation and oil
exploration industries as well as people traveling in parts of the world lacking a telecommunications infrastructure (eg deserts mountains jungles and some Third World countries)
Iridium
bull The Iridium satellites are in circular polar orbits
bull They are arranged in north-south necklaces with one satellite every 32 degrees of latitude
bull With six satellite necklaces the entire earth is covered
bull Each satellite can support up to 1100 concurrent phone calls and weighs about 680 kg
Iridium
bull Each satellite has a maximum of 48 cells (spot beams) with a total of 1628 cells over the surface of the earth
bull Each satellite has a capacity of 3840 channels or 253440 in all
bull Some of these are used for paging and navigation while others are used for data and voice
bull An interesting property of Iridium is that communication between distant customers takes place in space with one satellite relaying data to the next one
bull A caller at the North Pole contacts a satellite directly overhead - the call is relayed via other satellites and finally sent down to the called at the South Pole
Globalstar
bull Globalstar - based on 48 LEO satellites but uses a different switching scheme than that of Iridium (relays calls from satellite to satellite which requires sophisticated switching equipment in the satellites)
bull Globalstar uses a traditional bent-pipe design - a call originating at the North Pole is sent back to earth and picked up by the large ground station
bull The call is then routed via a terrestrial network to the ground station nearest the callee and delivered by a bent-pipe connection as shown
bull Advantage - puts much of the complexity on the ground where it is easier to manage (412300 subscribers in 2010)
Teledesic
bull Teledesic was as high-speed wireless switched global network -an IP-based system designed to support data voice and video at the same quality level as fiber-based terrestrial systems - a global Internet-in-the-Skyldquo providing broadband and Internet access
bull Originally (1995) planning 840 active satellites with in-orbit spares at an altitude of 700 km
bull Scaled (1997) to 288 active satellites at 1400 kmbull Officially suspended its satellite construction work on
October 1 2002bull Funding from Microsoft (investing US$30 million for an
85 stake) Craig McCaw Bill Gates Paul Allen and Saudi prince Alwaleed bin Talal and for achieving allocation on the Ka-band frequency spectrum for non-geostationary services
Highly elliptical orbit
bull HEO ndash an elliptic orbit with a low-altitude (about 1000 kilometres) perigee and a high-altitude (over 35786 kilometres) apogee
bull Advantage - long dwell times at a point in the sky during the approach to and descent from apogee - phenomenon known as apogee dwell (acts like GEO) (3-4 hours can receive signal with 06 m antenna)
bull Used by Sirius Satellite Radio (operating in North America) the Molniya communication satelites (at least 3) (Russia)
Satellite Applications
bull Communication The main application for satellites today is in communication Communication satellites act as relay stations in the sky and permit reliable long-distance communication worldwide
bull Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS) service This is a TV signal distribution system designed to distribute signals directly to consumers
Satellite Applications
bull Satellite Cell Phones Satellite-based cellular telephone service is under development The proposed new systems use low-earth-orbit satellites to perform the relay services to the main telephone system or to make connection directly between any two cellular telephones using the system
Satellite Applications
bull Digital Satellite Radio One of the newest satellite applications is in digital satellite radio or the digital audio radio service (DARS) ndash This service provides hundreds of channels of
music news sports and talk radio to car portable and home radios
ndash It provides full continuous coverage of the station you select wherever you are in the United States
ndash Its digital transmission techniques ensure high-quality stereo sound that is immune to noise
ndash The satellites transmit other information such as song title and artist type of music and other data which are displayed on a LCD screen
Satellite Applications
bull Surveillance satellites can look at the earth and transmit what they see back to ground stations for a wide variety of purposes including military intelligence meteorological applications and mapping
bull Satellite navigation systems can provide global coverage unavailable with land-based systems satellites
Global Positioning System
bull The Global Positioning System (GPS) also known as Navstar is a satellite-based navigation system that can be used by anyone with an appropriate receiver to pinpoint his or her location on earth
bull GPS was developed by the US Air Force for the Department of Defense as a continuous global radio navigation system
bull The GPS system consists of three major segments the space segment the control segment and the user segment
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentndash The space segment is the constellation of
satellites orbiting above the earth that contain transmitters which send highly accurate timing information to GPS receivers on earth
bull The GPS consists of 24 main operational satellites and 3 active spare satellites arranged in six orbits of 3 or 4 satellites each
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentbull Each of the satellites contains four highly accurate
atomic clocks
bull These clocks are used to generate a unique pseudorandom code identifying the specific satellite that is transmitted to earth
bull The satellite also transmits a set of digitally coded ephemeris data that completely defines its precise orbit
Global Positioning System
The GPS space segment
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentndash The control segment of the GPS system
refers to the various ground stations that monitor the satellites and provide control and update information
bull The master control station is operated by the US Air Force in Colorado Springs
bull Four additional monitoring and control stations constantly monitor the satellites and collect range information from each
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentbull The information is sent back to the master
control station in Colorado where all the information is collected and position data on each satellite calculated
bull The master control station then transmits new ephemeris and clock data to each satellite on the S-band uplink once per day
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash A GPS receiver is a complex superheterodyne
microwave receiver designed to pick up the GPS signals decode them and then compute the location of the receiver
ndash The output is usually an LCD display giving latitude longitude and altitude information andor a map of the area
ndash The most widely used GPS receiver is the popular handheld portable type not much larger than an oversized handheld calculator
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash The receiver performs a time multiplexing
operation on the four satellites within view of the receiver
ndash The data is extracted from each of the four satellites and stored in the receiverrsquos memory
ndash Data from three satellites is needed to fix the receiverrsquos position
ndash If data from a fourth satellite is available altitude can be calculated
Global Positioning System
GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
How triangulation works to locate a GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications ndash The primary application of the GPS is
military and related navigationndash GPS is used by all services for ships
aircraft and ground troopsndash Most civilian applications also involve
navigation which is usually marine or aviation-related
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications
ndash Commercial applications include surveying mapmaking and construction
ndash Vehicle location is a growing application for trucking and delivery companies taxi bus and train transportation
ndash Police fire ambulance and forest services also use GPS
ndash A new hobby called geocaching uses GPS receivers In this sport one team hides an item or ldquotreasurerdquo and then gives the other team coordinates to follow to find the treasure within a given time
Design of the Satellite Link
bull The satellite link is probably the most basic in microwave communications since a line-of-sight path typically exists between the Earth and space
bull This means that an imaginary line extending between the transmitting or receiving Earth station and the satellite antenna passes only through the atmosphere and not ground obstacles
bull Such a link is governed by free-space propagation with only limited variation with respect to time due to various constituents of the atmosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull Free-space attenuation is determined by the inverse square law which states that the power
received is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
bull The same law applies to the amount of light that reaches our eyes from a distant point source such as an automobile headlight or star
bull There are however a number of additional effects that produce a significant amount of degradation and time variation
bull These include rain terrain effects such as absorption by trees and walls and some less-obvious impairment produced by unstable conditions of the air and ionosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull It is the job of the communication engineer to identify all of the significant contributions to performance and make sure that they are properly taken into account
bull The required factors include the performance of the satellite itself the configuration and performance of the uplink and downlink Earth stations and the impact of the propagation medium in the frequency band of interest
Satellite
bull It is a repeater which receives signal from Earth at one frequency amplify it amp transmit it back to Earth at other frequency
EARTH STATION
bull There are two earth station in a simple Satellite communication link One transmits the signal to satellite called transmitting Earth station
bull The other receives the signal from satellite called receiving Earth Station
UPLINK amp DOWN LINK
bull The communication link from Transmitting earth station to satellite is called Up-link
bull The communication link from satellite To receiving earth station is called Down-link
What is a satellite system
bull A satellite system consists of one or more satellites a ground-based station to control the operation of the system and a user network earth stations that provides the interface facilities for the transmission and reception of terrestrial communications traffic
How a satellite works
bull A satellite stays in orbit because the gravitational pull of the earth balanced by the centripetal forceof the revolving satellite
bull One Earth station transmits the signals to the satellite at Up link frequency Up link frequency is the frequency at which Earth station is communicating with a satellite
bull The satellite transponder process the signal and sends it to the second Earth station at another frequency called downlink frequency
Advantages of Satellite Communications over Terrestrial Communications
bull The coverage area greatly exceedsbull Transmission cost of a satellite is independent
of the distance from the center of the coverage area
bull Satellite-to-satellite communication is very precise
bull Higher bandwidths are available for use
Disadvantages of Satellite Communications
bull Launching satellites into orbits is costly
bull Satellite bandwidth is gradually becoming used up
bull The propagation delay is larger
Active and Passive Satellites
bull Active satellites are used for linking and also for processing the signals
The linkage is known as bent pipe technology where processing like frequency translation power amplification etc take place
Active satellites employ lsquoRegenerative Technologyrsquo which consists of demodulation processing frequency translation switching and power amplification are carried out Block used for this purpose is called transponder
bull Passive satellites do-not have on-board processing and are just used to link two stations through space
Low cost - Loss of power ndash not useful for communication applications
Historical Overviewbull 1945 Theorist named Clarke studied that satellite orbiting in equatorial orbit
at radius of approx 42000 km would look as if stationary if moving at a specific speed 3 satellites at a space of 120 degree apart can cover the whole world Evolution of the concept of GEO
1950rsquos ndashPutting the pieces together
10487081956 -Trans-Atlantic cable opened (about 12 telephone channels per operator)
10487081957 First man-made satellite launched by former USSR (Sputnik-1 LEO) It was used to identify atmospheric density of various orbital layers It provided data about radio signal distribution in ionosphere
10487081958 First US satellite launched (SCORE) First voice communication established via satellite (LEO lasted 35
days in orbit)
bull 1960rsquos ndashFirst satellite communicationsbull 10487081960 First passive communication satellite (Large
balloons Echo I and II)bull 10487081962 First active communication satellite (Telstar I
MEO)bull 10487081963 First satellite into geostationary (GEO) orbit
(Syncom1 communication failed)bull 10487081964 International Telecomm Satellite Organization
(INTELSAT) createdbull 10487081965 First successful communications GEO (Early
Bird INTELSAT 1)
Historical Overview
bull 1970rsquos ndashGEO Applications Development DBS10487081972 First domestic satellite system operational (Canada)10487081975 First successful direct broadcast experiment (USA-India)10487081977 A plan for direct broadcast satellites (DBS) assigned by the ITU10487081979 International Mobile Satellite Organization (Inmarsat) established
Historical Overview
bull 1980rsquos ndashGEO Applications Expanded Mobile10487081981 First reusable launch vehicle flight10487081982 International maritime communications made operational10487081984 First direct-to-home broadcast system operational (Japan)10487081987 Successful trials of land-mobile communications (Inmarsat)10487081989-90 Global mobile communication service extended to land mobile and aeronautical use (Inmarsat)
Historical Overview
bull 1990+rsquos NGSO applications development and GEO expansion1990-951048708Proposals of non-geostationary (NGSO) systems for mobile communications1048708Continuing growth of VSATs around the world1048708Spectrum allocation for non-GEO systems1048708Continuing growth of DBS DirectTV created19971048708Launch of first batch of LEO for hand-held terminals (Iridium)1048708Voice-service portables and paging-service pocket size mobile terminals launched (Inmarsat)1998-2000 Mobile LEO systems initiate service and fail afterwards (IridiumGlobalstar)
Historical Overview
Altitudes of orbits above the earth
bull There are 3 common types of satellite based on altitude ie GEO MEO amp LEOOrbit Altitude Missions possible
Low-Earth orbit LEO 250 to 1500 km
Earth observation meteorology
telecommunications (constellations)
Medium-Earth orbit MEO
10000 to 30000 km Telecommunications
(constellations) positioning science
Geostationary Earth orbit GEO
35786 km Telecommunications positioning science
Elliptical orbit Between 800 and
27000 km Telecommunications
Hyperbolic orbit Up to several million
km Interplanetary missions
ITU Frequency Spectrum Allocations
Communication Satellites
bull Another issue is the presence of the Van Allen belts - layers of highly charged particles trapped by the earths magnetic field
bull Any satellite flying within them would be destroyed fairly quickly by the highly-energetic charged particles trapped there by the earths magnetic field
bull Hence there are three regions in which satellites can be placed safely - illustrated in the following figure
Communication Satellites
Communication satellites and some of their properties including altitude above the earth round-trip delay time and number of satellites needed for global coverage
Communication Satellites
Geostationary Satellites
bull Each downward beam can be focused on a small geographical area so multiple upward and downward transmissions can take place simultaneously
bull Typically the spot beams are elliptically shaped and can be as small as a few hundred km in diameter
bull A communication satellite for the United States typically has one wide beam for the contiguous 48 states plus spot beams for Alaska and Hawaii
VSAT systems
bull VSAT (Very Small Aperture Terminal) ndash a satellite communication system that serves home and business users for data voice and video signals
bull Tiny terminals have 1-meter or smaller antennas (versus 10 m for a standard GEO antenna) and can put out about 1 watt of power
bull A VSAT end user has a box that interfaces between the users computer and an outside antenna with a transceiver
bull The tranceiver receives sends a signal to a satellite transponder
Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull The MEO (Medium-Earth Orbit) satellites are between the two Van Allen belts
bull Takes something like 6 hours to circle the earthbull As MEO are lower than the GEOs (typically
16000 km above Earth) they have a smaller footprint on the ground and require less powerful transmitters to reach them
bull Currently they are not used for telecommunications but in navigation systems
Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull The 24 GPS (Global Positioning System) satellites orbiting at about 18000 km are American but free to use by anyone
bull Russia is using Glonass ndash 24 satellites orbiting at 19100 km
bull European Union works on Galileo ndash 30 satellite MEO navigation system orbiting at 23200 km - global navigation satellite system (GNSS) (2019)
bull China is building Compass ndash 35 satellites ndash 5 GEO and 30 MEO at 21100 km (10 in use and offering services now) (2020)
Low-Earth Orbit Satellitesbull A Low Earth Orbit (LEO) is generally defined as
an orbit below an altitude of approximately 2000 kilometers and above 160 kilometers ndash almost all human spaceflights have taken place in LEO
bull (-) large numbers of LEO are needed for a complete system due to their rapid motion (26000 to 27000 km per hour)
bull (+) satellites are very close to the earth so the ground stations do not need much power
bull (+) the round-trip delay is only a few milliseconds
Low-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull Because these LEO orbits are not geostationary a network (or constellation) of satellites is required to provide continuous coverage
bull LEOs are used for a variety of civil scientific and military roles including Earth observation radar optical telecoms and demonstrator
bull Some use as many as 66 satellites (Iridium ndash satellite phones)
Low-Earth Orbit Satellitesbull The Iridium satellite constellation - group of
satellites providing voice and data coverage to satellite phones pagers and integrated transceivers over Earths entire surface
bull Originally developed in 1992 services started in 1998 bankrupted in August 1999 and subsequently restarted in March 2001 (513 000 subscribers in 2011)
bull Satellites are at a height of approximately 781 kmbull Customers include the maritime aviation and oil
exploration industries as well as people traveling in parts of the world lacking a telecommunications infrastructure (eg deserts mountains jungles and some Third World countries)
Iridium
bull The Iridium satellites are in circular polar orbits
bull They are arranged in north-south necklaces with one satellite every 32 degrees of latitude
bull With six satellite necklaces the entire earth is covered
bull Each satellite can support up to 1100 concurrent phone calls and weighs about 680 kg
Iridium
bull Each satellite has a maximum of 48 cells (spot beams) with a total of 1628 cells over the surface of the earth
bull Each satellite has a capacity of 3840 channels or 253440 in all
bull Some of these are used for paging and navigation while others are used for data and voice
bull An interesting property of Iridium is that communication between distant customers takes place in space with one satellite relaying data to the next one
bull A caller at the North Pole contacts a satellite directly overhead - the call is relayed via other satellites and finally sent down to the called at the South Pole
Globalstar
bull Globalstar - based on 48 LEO satellites but uses a different switching scheme than that of Iridium (relays calls from satellite to satellite which requires sophisticated switching equipment in the satellites)
bull Globalstar uses a traditional bent-pipe design - a call originating at the North Pole is sent back to earth and picked up by the large ground station
bull The call is then routed via a terrestrial network to the ground station nearest the callee and delivered by a bent-pipe connection as shown
bull Advantage - puts much of the complexity on the ground where it is easier to manage (412300 subscribers in 2010)
Teledesic
bull Teledesic was as high-speed wireless switched global network -an IP-based system designed to support data voice and video at the same quality level as fiber-based terrestrial systems - a global Internet-in-the-Skyldquo providing broadband and Internet access
bull Originally (1995) planning 840 active satellites with in-orbit spares at an altitude of 700 km
bull Scaled (1997) to 288 active satellites at 1400 kmbull Officially suspended its satellite construction work on
October 1 2002bull Funding from Microsoft (investing US$30 million for an
85 stake) Craig McCaw Bill Gates Paul Allen and Saudi prince Alwaleed bin Talal and for achieving allocation on the Ka-band frequency spectrum for non-geostationary services
Highly elliptical orbit
bull HEO ndash an elliptic orbit with a low-altitude (about 1000 kilometres) perigee and a high-altitude (over 35786 kilometres) apogee
bull Advantage - long dwell times at a point in the sky during the approach to and descent from apogee - phenomenon known as apogee dwell (acts like GEO) (3-4 hours can receive signal with 06 m antenna)
bull Used by Sirius Satellite Radio (operating in North America) the Molniya communication satelites (at least 3) (Russia)
Satellite Applications
bull Communication The main application for satellites today is in communication Communication satellites act as relay stations in the sky and permit reliable long-distance communication worldwide
bull Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS) service This is a TV signal distribution system designed to distribute signals directly to consumers
Satellite Applications
bull Satellite Cell Phones Satellite-based cellular telephone service is under development The proposed new systems use low-earth-orbit satellites to perform the relay services to the main telephone system or to make connection directly between any two cellular telephones using the system
Satellite Applications
bull Digital Satellite Radio One of the newest satellite applications is in digital satellite radio or the digital audio radio service (DARS) ndash This service provides hundreds of channels of
music news sports and talk radio to car portable and home radios
ndash It provides full continuous coverage of the station you select wherever you are in the United States
ndash Its digital transmission techniques ensure high-quality stereo sound that is immune to noise
ndash The satellites transmit other information such as song title and artist type of music and other data which are displayed on a LCD screen
Satellite Applications
bull Surveillance satellites can look at the earth and transmit what they see back to ground stations for a wide variety of purposes including military intelligence meteorological applications and mapping
bull Satellite navigation systems can provide global coverage unavailable with land-based systems satellites
Global Positioning System
bull The Global Positioning System (GPS) also known as Navstar is a satellite-based navigation system that can be used by anyone with an appropriate receiver to pinpoint his or her location on earth
bull GPS was developed by the US Air Force for the Department of Defense as a continuous global radio navigation system
bull The GPS system consists of three major segments the space segment the control segment and the user segment
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentndash The space segment is the constellation of
satellites orbiting above the earth that contain transmitters which send highly accurate timing information to GPS receivers on earth
bull The GPS consists of 24 main operational satellites and 3 active spare satellites arranged in six orbits of 3 or 4 satellites each
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentbull Each of the satellites contains four highly accurate
atomic clocks
bull These clocks are used to generate a unique pseudorandom code identifying the specific satellite that is transmitted to earth
bull The satellite also transmits a set of digitally coded ephemeris data that completely defines its precise orbit
Global Positioning System
The GPS space segment
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentndash The control segment of the GPS system
refers to the various ground stations that monitor the satellites and provide control and update information
bull The master control station is operated by the US Air Force in Colorado Springs
bull Four additional monitoring and control stations constantly monitor the satellites and collect range information from each
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentbull The information is sent back to the master
control station in Colorado where all the information is collected and position data on each satellite calculated
bull The master control station then transmits new ephemeris and clock data to each satellite on the S-band uplink once per day
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash A GPS receiver is a complex superheterodyne
microwave receiver designed to pick up the GPS signals decode them and then compute the location of the receiver
ndash The output is usually an LCD display giving latitude longitude and altitude information andor a map of the area
ndash The most widely used GPS receiver is the popular handheld portable type not much larger than an oversized handheld calculator
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash The receiver performs a time multiplexing
operation on the four satellites within view of the receiver
ndash The data is extracted from each of the four satellites and stored in the receiverrsquos memory
ndash Data from three satellites is needed to fix the receiverrsquos position
ndash If data from a fourth satellite is available altitude can be calculated
Global Positioning System
GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
How triangulation works to locate a GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications ndash The primary application of the GPS is
military and related navigationndash GPS is used by all services for ships
aircraft and ground troopsndash Most civilian applications also involve
navigation which is usually marine or aviation-related
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications
ndash Commercial applications include surveying mapmaking and construction
ndash Vehicle location is a growing application for trucking and delivery companies taxi bus and train transportation
ndash Police fire ambulance and forest services also use GPS
ndash A new hobby called geocaching uses GPS receivers In this sport one team hides an item or ldquotreasurerdquo and then gives the other team coordinates to follow to find the treasure within a given time
Design of the Satellite Link
bull The satellite link is probably the most basic in microwave communications since a line-of-sight path typically exists between the Earth and space
bull This means that an imaginary line extending between the transmitting or receiving Earth station and the satellite antenna passes only through the atmosphere and not ground obstacles
bull Such a link is governed by free-space propagation with only limited variation with respect to time due to various constituents of the atmosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull Free-space attenuation is determined by the inverse square law which states that the power
received is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
bull The same law applies to the amount of light that reaches our eyes from a distant point source such as an automobile headlight or star
bull There are however a number of additional effects that produce a significant amount of degradation and time variation
bull These include rain terrain effects such as absorption by trees and walls and some less-obvious impairment produced by unstable conditions of the air and ionosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull It is the job of the communication engineer to identify all of the significant contributions to performance and make sure that they are properly taken into account
bull The required factors include the performance of the satellite itself the configuration and performance of the uplink and downlink Earth stations and the impact of the propagation medium in the frequency band of interest
EARTH STATION
bull There are two earth station in a simple Satellite communication link One transmits the signal to satellite called transmitting Earth station
bull The other receives the signal from satellite called receiving Earth Station
UPLINK amp DOWN LINK
bull The communication link from Transmitting earth station to satellite is called Up-link
bull The communication link from satellite To receiving earth station is called Down-link
What is a satellite system
bull A satellite system consists of one or more satellites a ground-based station to control the operation of the system and a user network earth stations that provides the interface facilities for the transmission and reception of terrestrial communications traffic
How a satellite works
bull A satellite stays in orbit because the gravitational pull of the earth balanced by the centripetal forceof the revolving satellite
bull One Earth station transmits the signals to the satellite at Up link frequency Up link frequency is the frequency at which Earth station is communicating with a satellite
bull The satellite transponder process the signal and sends it to the second Earth station at another frequency called downlink frequency
Advantages of Satellite Communications over Terrestrial Communications
bull The coverage area greatly exceedsbull Transmission cost of a satellite is independent
of the distance from the center of the coverage area
bull Satellite-to-satellite communication is very precise
bull Higher bandwidths are available for use
Disadvantages of Satellite Communications
bull Launching satellites into orbits is costly
bull Satellite bandwidth is gradually becoming used up
bull The propagation delay is larger
Active and Passive Satellites
bull Active satellites are used for linking and also for processing the signals
The linkage is known as bent pipe technology where processing like frequency translation power amplification etc take place
Active satellites employ lsquoRegenerative Technologyrsquo which consists of demodulation processing frequency translation switching and power amplification are carried out Block used for this purpose is called transponder
bull Passive satellites do-not have on-board processing and are just used to link two stations through space
Low cost - Loss of power ndash not useful for communication applications
Historical Overviewbull 1945 Theorist named Clarke studied that satellite orbiting in equatorial orbit
at radius of approx 42000 km would look as if stationary if moving at a specific speed 3 satellites at a space of 120 degree apart can cover the whole world Evolution of the concept of GEO
1950rsquos ndashPutting the pieces together
10487081956 -Trans-Atlantic cable opened (about 12 telephone channels per operator)
10487081957 First man-made satellite launched by former USSR (Sputnik-1 LEO) It was used to identify atmospheric density of various orbital layers It provided data about radio signal distribution in ionosphere
10487081958 First US satellite launched (SCORE) First voice communication established via satellite (LEO lasted 35
days in orbit)
bull 1960rsquos ndashFirst satellite communicationsbull 10487081960 First passive communication satellite (Large
balloons Echo I and II)bull 10487081962 First active communication satellite (Telstar I
MEO)bull 10487081963 First satellite into geostationary (GEO) orbit
(Syncom1 communication failed)bull 10487081964 International Telecomm Satellite Organization
(INTELSAT) createdbull 10487081965 First successful communications GEO (Early
Bird INTELSAT 1)
Historical Overview
bull 1970rsquos ndashGEO Applications Development DBS10487081972 First domestic satellite system operational (Canada)10487081975 First successful direct broadcast experiment (USA-India)10487081977 A plan for direct broadcast satellites (DBS) assigned by the ITU10487081979 International Mobile Satellite Organization (Inmarsat) established
Historical Overview
bull 1980rsquos ndashGEO Applications Expanded Mobile10487081981 First reusable launch vehicle flight10487081982 International maritime communications made operational10487081984 First direct-to-home broadcast system operational (Japan)10487081987 Successful trials of land-mobile communications (Inmarsat)10487081989-90 Global mobile communication service extended to land mobile and aeronautical use (Inmarsat)
Historical Overview
bull 1990+rsquos NGSO applications development and GEO expansion1990-951048708Proposals of non-geostationary (NGSO) systems for mobile communications1048708Continuing growth of VSATs around the world1048708Spectrum allocation for non-GEO systems1048708Continuing growth of DBS DirectTV created19971048708Launch of first batch of LEO for hand-held terminals (Iridium)1048708Voice-service portables and paging-service pocket size mobile terminals launched (Inmarsat)1998-2000 Mobile LEO systems initiate service and fail afterwards (IridiumGlobalstar)
Historical Overview
Altitudes of orbits above the earth
bull There are 3 common types of satellite based on altitude ie GEO MEO amp LEOOrbit Altitude Missions possible
Low-Earth orbit LEO 250 to 1500 km
Earth observation meteorology
telecommunications (constellations)
Medium-Earth orbit MEO
10000 to 30000 km Telecommunications
(constellations) positioning science
Geostationary Earth orbit GEO
35786 km Telecommunications positioning science
Elliptical orbit Between 800 and
27000 km Telecommunications
Hyperbolic orbit Up to several million
km Interplanetary missions
ITU Frequency Spectrum Allocations
Communication Satellites
bull Another issue is the presence of the Van Allen belts - layers of highly charged particles trapped by the earths magnetic field
bull Any satellite flying within them would be destroyed fairly quickly by the highly-energetic charged particles trapped there by the earths magnetic field
bull Hence there are three regions in which satellites can be placed safely - illustrated in the following figure
Communication Satellites
Communication satellites and some of their properties including altitude above the earth round-trip delay time and number of satellites needed for global coverage
Communication Satellites
Geostationary Satellites
bull Each downward beam can be focused on a small geographical area so multiple upward and downward transmissions can take place simultaneously
bull Typically the spot beams are elliptically shaped and can be as small as a few hundred km in diameter
bull A communication satellite for the United States typically has one wide beam for the contiguous 48 states plus spot beams for Alaska and Hawaii
VSAT systems
bull VSAT (Very Small Aperture Terminal) ndash a satellite communication system that serves home and business users for data voice and video signals
bull Tiny terminals have 1-meter or smaller antennas (versus 10 m for a standard GEO antenna) and can put out about 1 watt of power
bull A VSAT end user has a box that interfaces between the users computer and an outside antenna with a transceiver
bull The tranceiver receives sends a signal to a satellite transponder
Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull The MEO (Medium-Earth Orbit) satellites are between the two Van Allen belts
bull Takes something like 6 hours to circle the earthbull As MEO are lower than the GEOs (typically
16000 km above Earth) they have a smaller footprint on the ground and require less powerful transmitters to reach them
bull Currently they are not used for telecommunications but in navigation systems
Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull The 24 GPS (Global Positioning System) satellites orbiting at about 18000 km are American but free to use by anyone
bull Russia is using Glonass ndash 24 satellites orbiting at 19100 km
bull European Union works on Galileo ndash 30 satellite MEO navigation system orbiting at 23200 km - global navigation satellite system (GNSS) (2019)
bull China is building Compass ndash 35 satellites ndash 5 GEO and 30 MEO at 21100 km (10 in use and offering services now) (2020)
Low-Earth Orbit Satellitesbull A Low Earth Orbit (LEO) is generally defined as
an orbit below an altitude of approximately 2000 kilometers and above 160 kilometers ndash almost all human spaceflights have taken place in LEO
bull (-) large numbers of LEO are needed for a complete system due to their rapid motion (26000 to 27000 km per hour)
bull (+) satellites are very close to the earth so the ground stations do not need much power
bull (+) the round-trip delay is only a few milliseconds
Low-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull Because these LEO orbits are not geostationary a network (or constellation) of satellites is required to provide continuous coverage
bull LEOs are used for a variety of civil scientific and military roles including Earth observation radar optical telecoms and demonstrator
bull Some use as many as 66 satellites (Iridium ndash satellite phones)
Low-Earth Orbit Satellitesbull The Iridium satellite constellation - group of
satellites providing voice and data coverage to satellite phones pagers and integrated transceivers over Earths entire surface
bull Originally developed in 1992 services started in 1998 bankrupted in August 1999 and subsequently restarted in March 2001 (513 000 subscribers in 2011)
bull Satellites are at a height of approximately 781 kmbull Customers include the maritime aviation and oil
exploration industries as well as people traveling in parts of the world lacking a telecommunications infrastructure (eg deserts mountains jungles and some Third World countries)
Iridium
bull The Iridium satellites are in circular polar orbits
bull They are arranged in north-south necklaces with one satellite every 32 degrees of latitude
bull With six satellite necklaces the entire earth is covered
bull Each satellite can support up to 1100 concurrent phone calls and weighs about 680 kg
Iridium
bull Each satellite has a maximum of 48 cells (spot beams) with a total of 1628 cells over the surface of the earth
bull Each satellite has a capacity of 3840 channels or 253440 in all
bull Some of these are used for paging and navigation while others are used for data and voice
bull An interesting property of Iridium is that communication between distant customers takes place in space with one satellite relaying data to the next one
bull A caller at the North Pole contacts a satellite directly overhead - the call is relayed via other satellites and finally sent down to the called at the South Pole
Globalstar
bull Globalstar - based on 48 LEO satellites but uses a different switching scheme than that of Iridium (relays calls from satellite to satellite which requires sophisticated switching equipment in the satellites)
bull Globalstar uses a traditional bent-pipe design - a call originating at the North Pole is sent back to earth and picked up by the large ground station
bull The call is then routed via a terrestrial network to the ground station nearest the callee and delivered by a bent-pipe connection as shown
bull Advantage - puts much of the complexity on the ground where it is easier to manage (412300 subscribers in 2010)
Teledesic
bull Teledesic was as high-speed wireless switched global network -an IP-based system designed to support data voice and video at the same quality level as fiber-based terrestrial systems - a global Internet-in-the-Skyldquo providing broadband and Internet access
bull Originally (1995) planning 840 active satellites with in-orbit spares at an altitude of 700 km
bull Scaled (1997) to 288 active satellites at 1400 kmbull Officially suspended its satellite construction work on
October 1 2002bull Funding from Microsoft (investing US$30 million for an
85 stake) Craig McCaw Bill Gates Paul Allen and Saudi prince Alwaleed bin Talal and for achieving allocation on the Ka-band frequency spectrum for non-geostationary services
Highly elliptical orbit
bull HEO ndash an elliptic orbit with a low-altitude (about 1000 kilometres) perigee and a high-altitude (over 35786 kilometres) apogee
bull Advantage - long dwell times at a point in the sky during the approach to and descent from apogee - phenomenon known as apogee dwell (acts like GEO) (3-4 hours can receive signal with 06 m antenna)
bull Used by Sirius Satellite Radio (operating in North America) the Molniya communication satelites (at least 3) (Russia)
Satellite Applications
bull Communication The main application for satellites today is in communication Communication satellites act as relay stations in the sky and permit reliable long-distance communication worldwide
bull Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS) service This is a TV signal distribution system designed to distribute signals directly to consumers
Satellite Applications
bull Satellite Cell Phones Satellite-based cellular telephone service is under development The proposed new systems use low-earth-orbit satellites to perform the relay services to the main telephone system or to make connection directly between any two cellular telephones using the system
Satellite Applications
bull Digital Satellite Radio One of the newest satellite applications is in digital satellite radio or the digital audio radio service (DARS) ndash This service provides hundreds of channels of
music news sports and talk radio to car portable and home radios
ndash It provides full continuous coverage of the station you select wherever you are in the United States
ndash Its digital transmission techniques ensure high-quality stereo sound that is immune to noise
ndash The satellites transmit other information such as song title and artist type of music and other data which are displayed on a LCD screen
Satellite Applications
bull Surveillance satellites can look at the earth and transmit what they see back to ground stations for a wide variety of purposes including military intelligence meteorological applications and mapping
bull Satellite navigation systems can provide global coverage unavailable with land-based systems satellites
Global Positioning System
bull The Global Positioning System (GPS) also known as Navstar is a satellite-based navigation system that can be used by anyone with an appropriate receiver to pinpoint his or her location on earth
bull GPS was developed by the US Air Force for the Department of Defense as a continuous global radio navigation system
bull The GPS system consists of three major segments the space segment the control segment and the user segment
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentndash The space segment is the constellation of
satellites orbiting above the earth that contain transmitters which send highly accurate timing information to GPS receivers on earth
bull The GPS consists of 24 main operational satellites and 3 active spare satellites arranged in six orbits of 3 or 4 satellites each
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentbull Each of the satellites contains four highly accurate
atomic clocks
bull These clocks are used to generate a unique pseudorandom code identifying the specific satellite that is transmitted to earth
bull The satellite also transmits a set of digitally coded ephemeris data that completely defines its precise orbit
Global Positioning System
The GPS space segment
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentndash The control segment of the GPS system
refers to the various ground stations that monitor the satellites and provide control and update information
bull The master control station is operated by the US Air Force in Colorado Springs
bull Four additional monitoring and control stations constantly monitor the satellites and collect range information from each
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentbull The information is sent back to the master
control station in Colorado where all the information is collected and position data on each satellite calculated
bull The master control station then transmits new ephemeris and clock data to each satellite on the S-band uplink once per day
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash A GPS receiver is a complex superheterodyne
microwave receiver designed to pick up the GPS signals decode them and then compute the location of the receiver
ndash The output is usually an LCD display giving latitude longitude and altitude information andor a map of the area
ndash The most widely used GPS receiver is the popular handheld portable type not much larger than an oversized handheld calculator
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash The receiver performs a time multiplexing
operation on the four satellites within view of the receiver
ndash The data is extracted from each of the four satellites and stored in the receiverrsquos memory
ndash Data from three satellites is needed to fix the receiverrsquos position
ndash If data from a fourth satellite is available altitude can be calculated
Global Positioning System
GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
How triangulation works to locate a GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications ndash The primary application of the GPS is
military and related navigationndash GPS is used by all services for ships
aircraft and ground troopsndash Most civilian applications also involve
navigation which is usually marine or aviation-related
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications
ndash Commercial applications include surveying mapmaking and construction
ndash Vehicle location is a growing application for trucking and delivery companies taxi bus and train transportation
ndash Police fire ambulance and forest services also use GPS
ndash A new hobby called geocaching uses GPS receivers In this sport one team hides an item or ldquotreasurerdquo and then gives the other team coordinates to follow to find the treasure within a given time
Design of the Satellite Link
bull The satellite link is probably the most basic in microwave communications since a line-of-sight path typically exists between the Earth and space
bull This means that an imaginary line extending between the transmitting or receiving Earth station and the satellite antenna passes only through the atmosphere and not ground obstacles
bull Such a link is governed by free-space propagation with only limited variation with respect to time due to various constituents of the atmosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull Free-space attenuation is determined by the inverse square law which states that the power
received is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
bull The same law applies to the amount of light that reaches our eyes from a distant point source such as an automobile headlight or star
bull There are however a number of additional effects that produce a significant amount of degradation and time variation
bull These include rain terrain effects such as absorption by trees and walls and some less-obvious impairment produced by unstable conditions of the air and ionosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull It is the job of the communication engineer to identify all of the significant contributions to performance and make sure that they are properly taken into account
bull The required factors include the performance of the satellite itself the configuration and performance of the uplink and downlink Earth stations and the impact of the propagation medium in the frequency band of interest
UPLINK amp DOWN LINK
bull The communication link from Transmitting earth station to satellite is called Up-link
bull The communication link from satellite To receiving earth station is called Down-link
What is a satellite system
bull A satellite system consists of one or more satellites a ground-based station to control the operation of the system and a user network earth stations that provides the interface facilities for the transmission and reception of terrestrial communications traffic
How a satellite works
bull A satellite stays in orbit because the gravitational pull of the earth balanced by the centripetal forceof the revolving satellite
bull One Earth station transmits the signals to the satellite at Up link frequency Up link frequency is the frequency at which Earth station is communicating with a satellite
bull The satellite transponder process the signal and sends it to the second Earth station at another frequency called downlink frequency
Advantages of Satellite Communications over Terrestrial Communications
bull The coverage area greatly exceedsbull Transmission cost of a satellite is independent
of the distance from the center of the coverage area
bull Satellite-to-satellite communication is very precise
bull Higher bandwidths are available for use
Disadvantages of Satellite Communications
bull Launching satellites into orbits is costly
bull Satellite bandwidth is gradually becoming used up
bull The propagation delay is larger
Active and Passive Satellites
bull Active satellites are used for linking and also for processing the signals
The linkage is known as bent pipe technology where processing like frequency translation power amplification etc take place
Active satellites employ lsquoRegenerative Technologyrsquo which consists of demodulation processing frequency translation switching and power amplification are carried out Block used for this purpose is called transponder
bull Passive satellites do-not have on-board processing and are just used to link two stations through space
Low cost - Loss of power ndash not useful for communication applications
Historical Overviewbull 1945 Theorist named Clarke studied that satellite orbiting in equatorial orbit
at radius of approx 42000 km would look as if stationary if moving at a specific speed 3 satellites at a space of 120 degree apart can cover the whole world Evolution of the concept of GEO
1950rsquos ndashPutting the pieces together
10487081956 -Trans-Atlantic cable opened (about 12 telephone channels per operator)
10487081957 First man-made satellite launched by former USSR (Sputnik-1 LEO) It was used to identify atmospheric density of various orbital layers It provided data about radio signal distribution in ionosphere
10487081958 First US satellite launched (SCORE) First voice communication established via satellite (LEO lasted 35
days in orbit)
bull 1960rsquos ndashFirst satellite communicationsbull 10487081960 First passive communication satellite (Large
balloons Echo I and II)bull 10487081962 First active communication satellite (Telstar I
MEO)bull 10487081963 First satellite into geostationary (GEO) orbit
(Syncom1 communication failed)bull 10487081964 International Telecomm Satellite Organization
(INTELSAT) createdbull 10487081965 First successful communications GEO (Early
Bird INTELSAT 1)
Historical Overview
bull 1970rsquos ndashGEO Applications Development DBS10487081972 First domestic satellite system operational (Canada)10487081975 First successful direct broadcast experiment (USA-India)10487081977 A plan for direct broadcast satellites (DBS) assigned by the ITU10487081979 International Mobile Satellite Organization (Inmarsat) established
Historical Overview
bull 1980rsquos ndashGEO Applications Expanded Mobile10487081981 First reusable launch vehicle flight10487081982 International maritime communications made operational10487081984 First direct-to-home broadcast system operational (Japan)10487081987 Successful trials of land-mobile communications (Inmarsat)10487081989-90 Global mobile communication service extended to land mobile and aeronautical use (Inmarsat)
Historical Overview
bull 1990+rsquos NGSO applications development and GEO expansion1990-951048708Proposals of non-geostationary (NGSO) systems for mobile communications1048708Continuing growth of VSATs around the world1048708Spectrum allocation for non-GEO systems1048708Continuing growth of DBS DirectTV created19971048708Launch of first batch of LEO for hand-held terminals (Iridium)1048708Voice-service portables and paging-service pocket size mobile terminals launched (Inmarsat)1998-2000 Mobile LEO systems initiate service and fail afterwards (IridiumGlobalstar)
Historical Overview
Altitudes of orbits above the earth
bull There are 3 common types of satellite based on altitude ie GEO MEO amp LEOOrbit Altitude Missions possible
Low-Earth orbit LEO 250 to 1500 km
Earth observation meteorology
telecommunications (constellations)
Medium-Earth orbit MEO
10000 to 30000 km Telecommunications
(constellations) positioning science
Geostationary Earth orbit GEO
35786 km Telecommunications positioning science
Elliptical orbit Between 800 and
27000 km Telecommunications
Hyperbolic orbit Up to several million
km Interplanetary missions
ITU Frequency Spectrum Allocations
Communication Satellites
bull Another issue is the presence of the Van Allen belts - layers of highly charged particles trapped by the earths magnetic field
bull Any satellite flying within them would be destroyed fairly quickly by the highly-energetic charged particles trapped there by the earths magnetic field
bull Hence there are three regions in which satellites can be placed safely - illustrated in the following figure
Communication Satellites
Communication satellites and some of their properties including altitude above the earth round-trip delay time and number of satellites needed for global coverage
Communication Satellites
Geostationary Satellites
bull Each downward beam can be focused on a small geographical area so multiple upward and downward transmissions can take place simultaneously
bull Typically the spot beams are elliptically shaped and can be as small as a few hundred km in diameter
bull A communication satellite for the United States typically has one wide beam for the contiguous 48 states plus spot beams for Alaska and Hawaii
VSAT systems
bull VSAT (Very Small Aperture Terminal) ndash a satellite communication system that serves home and business users for data voice and video signals
bull Tiny terminals have 1-meter or smaller antennas (versus 10 m for a standard GEO antenna) and can put out about 1 watt of power
bull A VSAT end user has a box that interfaces between the users computer and an outside antenna with a transceiver
bull The tranceiver receives sends a signal to a satellite transponder
Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull The MEO (Medium-Earth Orbit) satellites are between the two Van Allen belts
bull Takes something like 6 hours to circle the earthbull As MEO are lower than the GEOs (typically
16000 km above Earth) they have a smaller footprint on the ground and require less powerful transmitters to reach them
bull Currently they are not used for telecommunications but in navigation systems
Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull The 24 GPS (Global Positioning System) satellites orbiting at about 18000 km are American but free to use by anyone
bull Russia is using Glonass ndash 24 satellites orbiting at 19100 km
bull European Union works on Galileo ndash 30 satellite MEO navigation system orbiting at 23200 km - global navigation satellite system (GNSS) (2019)
bull China is building Compass ndash 35 satellites ndash 5 GEO and 30 MEO at 21100 km (10 in use and offering services now) (2020)
Low-Earth Orbit Satellitesbull A Low Earth Orbit (LEO) is generally defined as
an orbit below an altitude of approximately 2000 kilometers and above 160 kilometers ndash almost all human spaceflights have taken place in LEO
bull (-) large numbers of LEO are needed for a complete system due to their rapid motion (26000 to 27000 km per hour)
bull (+) satellites are very close to the earth so the ground stations do not need much power
bull (+) the round-trip delay is only a few milliseconds
Low-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull Because these LEO orbits are not geostationary a network (or constellation) of satellites is required to provide continuous coverage
bull LEOs are used for a variety of civil scientific and military roles including Earth observation radar optical telecoms and demonstrator
bull Some use as many as 66 satellites (Iridium ndash satellite phones)
Low-Earth Orbit Satellitesbull The Iridium satellite constellation - group of
satellites providing voice and data coverage to satellite phones pagers and integrated transceivers over Earths entire surface
bull Originally developed in 1992 services started in 1998 bankrupted in August 1999 and subsequently restarted in March 2001 (513 000 subscribers in 2011)
bull Satellites are at a height of approximately 781 kmbull Customers include the maritime aviation and oil
exploration industries as well as people traveling in parts of the world lacking a telecommunications infrastructure (eg deserts mountains jungles and some Third World countries)
Iridium
bull The Iridium satellites are in circular polar orbits
bull They are arranged in north-south necklaces with one satellite every 32 degrees of latitude
bull With six satellite necklaces the entire earth is covered
bull Each satellite can support up to 1100 concurrent phone calls and weighs about 680 kg
Iridium
bull Each satellite has a maximum of 48 cells (spot beams) with a total of 1628 cells over the surface of the earth
bull Each satellite has a capacity of 3840 channels or 253440 in all
bull Some of these are used for paging and navigation while others are used for data and voice
bull An interesting property of Iridium is that communication between distant customers takes place in space with one satellite relaying data to the next one
bull A caller at the North Pole contacts a satellite directly overhead - the call is relayed via other satellites and finally sent down to the called at the South Pole
Globalstar
bull Globalstar - based on 48 LEO satellites but uses a different switching scheme than that of Iridium (relays calls from satellite to satellite which requires sophisticated switching equipment in the satellites)
bull Globalstar uses a traditional bent-pipe design - a call originating at the North Pole is sent back to earth and picked up by the large ground station
bull The call is then routed via a terrestrial network to the ground station nearest the callee and delivered by a bent-pipe connection as shown
bull Advantage - puts much of the complexity on the ground where it is easier to manage (412300 subscribers in 2010)
Teledesic
bull Teledesic was as high-speed wireless switched global network -an IP-based system designed to support data voice and video at the same quality level as fiber-based terrestrial systems - a global Internet-in-the-Skyldquo providing broadband and Internet access
bull Originally (1995) planning 840 active satellites with in-orbit spares at an altitude of 700 km
bull Scaled (1997) to 288 active satellites at 1400 kmbull Officially suspended its satellite construction work on
October 1 2002bull Funding from Microsoft (investing US$30 million for an
85 stake) Craig McCaw Bill Gates Paul Allen and Saudi prince Alwaleed bin Talal and for achieving allocation on the Ka-band frequency spectrum for non-geostationary services
Highly elliptical orbit
bull HEO ndash an elliptic orbit with a low-altitude (about 1000 kilometres) perigee and a high-altitude (over 35786 kilometres) apogee
bull Advantage - long dwell times at a point in the sky during the approach to and descent from apogee - phenomenon known as apogee dwell (acts like GEO) (3-4 hours can receive signal with 06 m antenna)
bull Used by Sirius Satellite Radio (operating in North America) the Molniya communication satelites (at least 3) (Russia)
Satellite Applications
bull Communication The main application for satellites today is in communication Communication satellites act as relay stations in the sky and permit reliable long-distance communication worldwide
bull Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS) service This is a TV signal distribution system designed to distribute signals directly to consumers
Satellite Applications
bull Satellite Cell Phones Satellite-based cellular telephone service is under development The proposed new systems use low-earth-orbit satellites to perform the relay services to the main telephone system or to make connection directly between any two cellular telephones using the system
Satellite Applications
bull Digital Satellite Radio One of the newest satellite applications is in digital satellite radio or the digital audio radio service (DARS) ndash This service provides hundreds of channels of
music news sports and talk radio to car portable and home radios
ndash It provides full continuous coverage of the station you select wherever you are in the United States
ndash Its digital transmission techniques ensure high-quality stereo sound that is immune to noise
ndash The satellites transmit other information such as song title and artist type of music and other data which are displayed on a LCD screen
Satellite Applications
bull Surveillance satellites can look at the earth and transmit what they see back to ground stations for a wide variety of purposes including military intelligence meteorological applications and mapping
bull Satellite navigation systems can provide global coverage unavailable with land-based systems satellites
Global Positioning System
bull The Global Positioning System (GPS) also known as Navstar is a satellite-based navigation system that can be used by anyone with an appropriate receiver to pinpoint his or her location on earth
bull GPS was developed by the US Air Force for the Department of Defense as a continuous global radio navigation system
bull The GPS system consists of three major segments the space segment the control segment and the user segment
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentndash The space segment is the constellation of
satellites orbiting above the earth that contain transmitters which send highly accurate timing information to GPS receivers on earth
bull The GPS consists of 24 main operational satellites and 3 active spare satellites arranged in six orbits of 3 or 4 satellites each
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentbull Each of the satellites contains four highly accurate
atomic clocks
bull These clocks are used to generate a unique pseudorandom code identifying the specific satellite that is transmitted to earth
bull The satellite also transmits a set of digitally coded ephemeris data that completely defines its precise orbit
Global Positioning System
The GPS space segment
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentndash The control segment of the GPS system
refers to the various ground stations that monitor the satellites and provide control and update information
bull The master control station is operated by the US Air Force in Colorado Springs
bull Four additional monitoring and control stations constantly monitor the satellites and collect range information from each
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentbull The information is sent back to the master
control station in Colorado where all the information is collected and position data on each satellite calculated
bull The master control station then transmits new ephemeris and clock data to each satellite on the S-band uplink once per day
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash A GPS receiver is a complex superheterodyne
microwave receiver designed to pick up the GPS signals decode them and then compute the location of the receiver
ndash The output is usually an LCD display giving latitude longitude and altitude information andor a map of the area
ndash The most widely used GPS receiver is the popular handheld portable type not much larger than an oversized handheld calculator
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash The receiver performs a time multiplexing
operation on the four satellites within view of the receiver
ndash The data is extracted from each of the four satellites and stored in the receiverrsquos memory
ndash Data from three satellites is needed to fix the receiverrsquos position
ndash If data from a fourth satellite is available altitude can be calculated
Global Positioning System
GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
How triangulation works to locate a GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications ndash The primary application of the GPS is
military and related navigationndash GPS is used by all services for ships
aircraft and ground troopsndash Most civilian applications also involve
navigation which is usually marine or aviation-related
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications
ndash Commercial applications include surveying mapmaking and construction
ndash Vehicle location is a growing application for trucking and delivery companies taxi bus and train transportation
ndash Police fire ambulance and forest services also use GPS
ndash A new hobby called geocaching uses GPS receivers In this sport one team hides an item or ldquotreasurerdquo and then gives the other team coordinates to follow to find the treasure within a given time
Design of the Satellite Link
bull The satellite link is probably the most basic in microwave communications since a line-of-sight path typically exists between the Earth and space
bull This means that an imaginary line extending between the transmitting or receiving Earth station and the satellite antenna passes only through the atmosphere and not ground obstacles
bull Such a link is governed by free-space propagation with only limited variation with respect to time due to various constituents of the atmosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull Free-space attenuation is determined by the inverse square law which states that the power
received is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
bull The same law applies to the amount of light that reaches our eyes from a distant point source such as an automobile headlight or star
bull There are however a number of additional effects that produce a significant amount of degradation and time variation
bull These include rain terrain effects such as absorption by trees and walls and some less-obvious impairment produced by unstable conditions of the air and ionosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull It is the job of the communication engineer to identify all of the significant contributions to performance and make sure that they are properly taken into account
bull The required factors include the performance of the satellite itself the configuration and performance of the uplink and downlink Earth stations and the impact of the propagation medium in the frequency band of interest
What is a satellite system
bull A satellite system consists of one or more satellites a ground-based station to control the operation of the system and a user network earth stations that provides the interface facilities for the transmission and reception of terrestrial communications traffic
How a satellite works
bull A satellite stays in orbit because the gravitational pull of the earth balanced by the centripetal forceof the revolving satellite
bull One Earth station transmits the signals to the satellite at Up link frequency Up link frequency is the frequency at which Earth station is communicating with a satellite
bull The satellite transponder process the signal and sends it to the second Earth station at another frequency called downlink frequency
Advantages of Satellite Communications over Terrestrial Communications
bull The coverage area greatly exceedsbull Transmission cost of a satellite is independent
of the distance from the center of the coverage area
bull Satellite-to-satellite communication is very precise
bull Higher bandwidths are available for use
Disadvantages of Satellite Communications
bull Launching satellites into orbits is costly
bull Satellite bandwidth is gradually becoming used up
bull The propagation delay is larger
Active and Passive Satellites
bull Active satellites are used for linking and also for processing the signals
The linkage is known as bent pipe technology where processing like frequency translation power amplification etc take place
Active satellites employ lsquoRegenerative Technologyrsquo which consists of demodulation processing frequency translation switching and power amplification are carried out Block used for this purpose is called transponder
bull Passive satellites do-not have on-board processing and are just used to link two stations through space
Low cost - Loss of power ndash not useful for communication applications
Historical Overviewbull 1945 Theorist named Clarke studied that satellite orbiting in equatorial orbit
at radius of approx 42000 km would look as if stationary if moving at a specific speed 3 satellites at a space of 120 degree apart can cover the whole world Evolution of the concept of GEO
1950rsquos ndashPutting the pieces together
10487081956 -Trans-Atlantic cable opened (about 12 telephone channels per operator)
10487081957 First man-made satellite launched by former USSR (Sputnik-1 LEO) It was used to identify atmospheric density of various orbital layers It provided data about radio signal distribution in ionosphere
10487081958 First US satellite launched (SCORE) First voice communication established via satellite (LEO lasted 35
days in orbit)
bull 1960rsquos ndashFirst satellite communicationsbull 10487081960 First passive communication satellite (Large
balloons Echo I and II)bull 10487081962 First active communication satellite (Telstar I
MEO)bull 10487081963 First satellite into geostationary (GEO) orbit
(Syncom1 communication failed)bull 10487081964 International Telecomm Satellite Organization
(INTELSAT) createdbull 10487081965 First successful communications GEO (Early
Bird INTELSAT 1)
Historical Overview
bull 1970rsquos ndashGEO Applications Development DBS10487081972 First domestic satellite system operational (Canada)10487081975 First successful direct broadcast experiment (USA-India)10487081977 A plan for direct broadcast satellites (DBS) assigned by the ITU10487081979 International Mobile Satellite Organization (Inmarsat) established
Historical Overview
bull 1980rsquos ndashGEO Applications Expanded Mobile10487081981 First reusable launch vehicle flight10487081982 International maritime communications made operational10487081984 First direct-to-home broadcast system operational (Japan)10487081987 Successful trials of land-mobile communications (Inmarsat)10487081989-90 Global mobile communication service extended to land mobile and aeronautical use (Inmarsat)
Historical Overview
bull 1990+rsquos NGSO applications development and GEO expansion1990-951048708Proposals of non-geostationary (NGSO) systems for mobile communications1048708Continuing growth of VSATs around the world1048708Spectrum allocation for non-GEO systems1048708Continuing growth of DBS DirectTV created19971048708Launch of first batch of LEO for hand-held terminals (Iridium)1048708Voice-service portables and paging-service pocket size mobile terminals launched (Inmarsat)1998-2000 Mobile LEO systems initiate service and fail afterwards (IridiumGlobalstar)
Historical Overview
Altitudes of orbits above the earth
bull There are 3 common types of satellite based on altitude ie GEO MEO amp LEOOrbit Altitude Missions possible
Low-Earth orbit LEO 250 to 1500 km
Earth observation meteorology
telecommunications (constellations)
Medium-Earth orbit MEO
10000 to 30000 km Telecommunications
(constellations) positioning science
Geostationary Earth orbit GEO
35786 km Telecommunications positioning science
Elliptical orbit Between 800 and
27000 km Telecommunications
Hyperbolic orbit Up to several million
km Interplanetary missions
ITU Frequency Spectrum Allocations
Communication Satellites
bull Another issue is the presence of the Van Allen belts - layers of highly charged particles trapped by the earths magnetic field
bull Any satellite flying within them would be destroyed fairly quickly by the highly-energetic charged particles trapped there by the earths magnetic field
bull Hence there are three regions in which satellites can be placed safely - illustrated in the following figure
Communication Satellites
Communication satellites and some of their properties including altitude above the earth round-trip delay time and number of satellites needed for global coverage
Communication Satellites
Geostationary Satellites
bull Each downward beam can be focused on a small geographical area so multiple upward and downward transmissions can take place simultaneously
bull Typically the spot beams are elliptically shaped and can be as small as a few hundred km in diameter
bull A communication satellite for the United States typically has one wide beam for the contiguous 48 states plus spot beams for Alaska and Hawaii
VSAT systems
bull VSAT (Very Small Aperture Terminal) ndash a satellite communication system that serves home and business users for data voice and video signals
bull Tiny terminals have 1-meter or smaller antennas (versus 10 m for a standard GEO antenna) and can put out about 1 watt of power
bull A VSAT end user has a box that interfaces between the users computer and an outside antenna with a transceiver
bull The tranceiver receives sends a signal to a satellite transponder
Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull The MEO (Medium-Earth Orbit) satellites are between the two Van Allen belts
bull Takes something like 6 hours to circle the earthbull As MEO are lower than the GEOs (typically
16000 km above Earth) they have a smaller footprint on the ground and require less powerful transmitters to reach them
bull Currently they are not used for telecommunications but in navigation systems
Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull The 24 GPS (Global Positioning System) satellites orbiting at about 18000 km are American but free to use by anyone
bull Russia is using Glonass ndash 24 satellites orbiting at 19100 km
bull European Union works on Galileo ndash 30 satellite MEO navigation system orbiting at 23200 km - global navigation satellite system (GNSS) (2019)
bull China is building Compass ndash 35 satellites ndash 5 GEO and 30 MEO at 21100 km (10 in use and offering services now) (2020)
Low-Earth Orbit Satellitesbull A Low Earth Orbit (LEO) is generally defined as
an orbit below an altitude of approximately 2000 kilometers and above 160 kilometers ndash almost all human spaceflights have taken place in LEO
bull (-) large numbers of LEO are needed for a complete system due to their rapid motion (26000 to 27000 km per hour)
bull (+) satellites are very close to the earth so the ground stations do not need much power
bull (+) the round-trip delay is only a few milliseconds
Low-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull Because these LEO orbits are not geostationary a network (or constellation) of satellites is required to provide continuous coverage
bull LEOs are used for a variety of civil scientific and military roles including Earth observation radar optical telecoms and demonstrator
bull Some use as many as 66 satellites (Iridium ndash satellite phones)
Low-Earth Orbit Satellitesbull The Iridium satellite constellation - group of
satellites providing voice and data coverage to satellite phones pagers and integrated transceivers over Earths entire surface
bull Originally developed in 1992 services started in 1998 bankrupted in August 1999 and subsequently restarted in March 2001 (513 000 subscribers in 2011)
bull Satellites are at a height of approximately 781 kmbull Customers include the maritime aviation and oil
exploration industries as well as people traveling in parts of the world lacking a telecommunications infrastructure (eg deserts mountains jungles and some Third World countries)
Iridium
bull The Iridium satellites are in circular polar orbits
bull They are arranged in north-south necklaces with one satellite every 32 degrees of latitude
bull With six satellite necklaces the entire earth is covered
bull Each satellite can support up to 1100 concurrent phone calls and weighs about 680 kg
Iridium
bull Each satellite has a maximum of 48 cells (spot beams) with a total of 1628 cells over the surface of the earth
bull Each satellite has a capacity of 3840 channels or 253440 in all
bull Some of these are used for paging and navigation while others are used for data and voice
bull An interesting property of Iridium is that communication between distant customers takes place in space with one satellite relaying data to the next one
bull A caller at the North Pole contacts a satellite directly overhead - the call is relayed via other satellites and finally sent down to the called at the South Pole
Globalstar
bull Globalstar - based on 48 LEO satellites but uses a different switching scheme than that of Iridium (relays calls from satellite to satellite which requires sophisticated switching equipment in the satellites)
bull Globalstar uses a traditional bent-pipe design - a call originating at the North Pole is sent back to earth and picked up by the large ground station
bull The call is then routed via a terrestrial network to the ground station nearest the callee and delivered by a bent-pipe connection as shown
bull Advantage - puts much of the complexity on the ground where it is easier to manage (412300 subscribers in 2010)
Teledesic
bull Teledesic was as high-speed wireless switched global network -an IP-based system designed to support data voice and video at the same quality level as fiber-based terrestrial systems - a global Internet-in-the-Skyldquo providing broadband and Internet access
bull Originally (1995) planning 840 active satellites with in-orbit spares at an altitude of 700 km
bull Scaled (1997) to 288 active satellites at 1400 kmbull Officially suspended its satellite construction work on
October 1 2002bull Funding from Microsoft (investing US$30 million for an
85 stake) Craig McCaw Bill Gates Paul Allen and Saudi prince Alwaleed bin Talal and for achieving allocation on the Ka-band frequency spectrum for non-geostationary services
Highly elliptical orbit
bull HEO ndash an elliptic orbit with a low-altitude (about 1000 kilometres) perigee and a high-altitude (over 35786 kilometres) apogee
bull Advantage - long dwell times at a point in the sky during the approach to and descent from apogee - phenomenon known as apogee dwell (acts like GEO) (3-4 hours can receive signal with 06 m antenna)
bull Used by Sirius Satellite Radio (operating in North America) the Molniya communication satelites (at least 3) (Russia)
Satellite Applications
bull Communication The main application for satellites today is in communication Communication satellites act as relay stations in the sky and permit reliable long-distance communication worldwide
bull Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS) service This is a TV signal distribution system designed to distribute signals directly to consumers
Satellite Applications
bull Satellite Cell Phones Satellite-based cellular telephone service is under development The proposed new systems use low-earth-orbit satellites to perform the relay services to the main telephone system or to make connection directly between any two cellular telephones using the system
Satellite Applications
bull Digital Satellite Radio One of the newest satellite applications is in digital satellite radio or the digital audio radio service (DARS) ndash This service provides hundreds of channels of
music news sports and talk radio to car portable and home radios
ndash It provides full continuous coverage of the station you select wherever you are in the United States
ndash Its digital transmission techniques ensure high-quality stereo sound that is immune to noise
ndash The satellites transmit other information such as song title and artist type of music and other data which are displayed on a LCD screen
Satellite Applications
bull Surveillance satellites can look at the earth and transmit what they see back to ground stations for a wide variety of purposes including military intelligence meteorological applications and mapping
bull Satellite navigation systems can provide global coverage unavailable with land-based systems satellites
Global Positioning System
bull The Global Positioning System (GPS) also known as Navstar is a satellite-based navigation system that can be used by anyone with an appropriate receiver to pinpoint his or her location on earth
bull GPS was developed by the US Air Force for the Department of Defense as a continuous global radio navigation system
bull The GPS system consists of three major segments the space segment the control segment and the user segment
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentndash The space segment is the constellation of
satellites orbiting above the earth that contain transmitters which send highly accurate timing information to GPS receivers on earth
bull The GPS consists of 24 main operational satellites and 3 active spare satellites arranged in six orbits of 3 or 4 satellites each
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentbull Each of the satellites contains four highly accurate
atomic clocks
bull These clocks are used to generate a unique pseudorandom code identifying the specific satellite that is transmitted to earth
bull The satellite also transmits a set of digitally coded ephemeris data that completely defines its precise orbit
Global Positioning System
The GPS space segment
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentndash The control segment of the GPS system
refers to the various ground stations that monitor the satellites and provide control and update information
bull The master control station is operated by the US Air Force in Colorado Springs
bull Four additional monitoring and control stations constantly monitor the satellites and collect range information from each
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentbull The information is sent back to the master
control station in Colorado where all the information is collected and position data on each satellite calculated
bull The master control station then transmits new ephemeris and clock data to each satellite on the S-band uplink once per day
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash A GPS receiver is a complex superheterodyne
microwave receiver designed to pick up the GPS signals decode them and then compute the location of the receiver
ndash The output is usually an LCD display giving latitude longitude and altitude information andor a map of the area
ndash The most widely used GPS receiver is the popular handheld portable type not much larger than an oversized handheld calculator
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash The receiver performs a time multiplexing
operation on the four satellites within view of the receiver
ndash The data is extracted from each of the four satellites and stored in the receiverrsquos memory
ndash Data from three satellites is needed to fix the receiverrsquos position
ndash If data from a fourth satellite is available altitude can be calculated
Global Positioning System
GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
How triangulation works to locate a GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications ndash The primary application of the GPS is
military and related navigationndash GPS is used by all services for ships
aircraft and ground troopsndash Most civilian applications also involve
navigation which is usually marine or aviation-related
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications
ndash Commercial applications include surveying mapmaking and construction
ndash Vehicle location is a growing application for trucking and delivery companies taxi bus and train transportation
ndash Police fire ambulance and forest services also use GPS
ndash A new hobby called geocaching uses GPS receivers In this sport one team hides an item or ldquotreasurerdquo and then gives the other team coordinates to follow to find the treasure within a given time
Design of the Satellite Link
bull The satellite link is probably the most basic in microwave communications since a line-of-sight path typically exists between the Earth and space
bull This means that an imaginary line extending between the transmitting or receiving Earth station and the satellite antenna passes only through the atmosphere and not ground obstacles
bull Such a link is governed by free-space propagation with only limited variation with respect to time due to various constituents of the atmosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull Free-space attenuation is determined by the inverse square law which states that the power
received is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
bull The same law applies to the amount of light that reaches our eyes from a distant point source such as an automobile headlight or star
bull There are however a number of additional effects that produce a significant amount of degradation and time variation
bull These include rain terrain effects such as absorption by trees and walls and some less-obvious impairment produced by unstable conditions of the air and ionosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull It is the job of the communication engineer to identify all of the significant contributions to performance and make sure that they are properly taken into account
bull The required factors include the performance of the satellite itself the configuration and performance of the uplink and downlink Earth stations and the impact of the propagation medium in the frequency band of interest
How a satellite works
bull A satellite stays in orbit because the gravitational pull of the earth balanced by the centripetal forceof the revolving satellite
bull One Earth station transmits the signals to the satellite at Up link frequency Up link frequency is the frequency at which Earth station is communicating with a satellite
bull The satellite transponder process the signal and sends it to the second Earth station at another frequency called downlink frequency
Advantages of Satellite Communications over Terrestrial Communications
bull The coverage area greatly exceedsbull Transmission cost of a satellite is independent
of the distance from the center of the coverage area
bull Satellite-to-satellite communication is very precise
bull Higher bandwidths are available for use
Disadvantages of Satellite Communications
bull Launching satellites into orbits is costly
bull Satellite bandwidth is gradually becoming used up
bull The propagation delay is larger
Active and Passive Satellites
bull Active satellites are used for linking and also for processing the signals
The linkage is known as bent pipe technology where processing like frequency translation power amplification etc take place
Active satellites employ lsquoRegenerative Technologyrsquo which consists of demodulation processing frequency translation switching and power amplification are carried out Block used for this purpose is called transponder
bull Passive satellites do-not have on-board processing and are just used to link two stations through space
Low cost - Loss of power ndash not useful for communication applications
Historical Overviewbull 1945 Theorist named Clarke studied that satellite orbiting in equatorial orbit
at radius of approx 42000 km would look as if stationary if moving at a specific speed 3 satellites at a space of 120 degree apart can cover the whole world Evolution of the concept of GEO
1950rsquos ndashPutting the pieces together
10487081956 -Trans-Atlantic cable opened (about 12 telephone channels per operator)
10487081957 First man-made satellite launched by former USSR (Sputnik-1 LEO) It was used to identify atmospheric density of various orbital layers It provided data about radio signal distribution in ionosphere
10487081958 First US satellite launched (SCORE) First voice communication established via satellite (LEO lasted 35
days in orbit)
bull 1960rsquos ndashFirst satellite communicationsbull 10487081960 First passive communication satellite (Large
balloons Echo I and II)bull 10487081962 First active communication satellite (Telstar I
MEO)bull 10487081963 First satellite into geostationary (GEO) orbit
(Syncom1 communication failed)bull 10487081964 International Telecomm Satellite Organization
(INTELSAT) createdbull 10487081965 First successful communications GEO (Early
Bird INTELSAT 1)
Historical Overview
bull 1970rsquos ndashGEO Applications Development DBS10487081972 First domestic satellite system operational (Canada)10487081975 First successful direct broadcast experiment (USA-India)10487081977 A plan for direct broadcast satellites (DBS) assigned by the ITU10487081979 International Mobile Satellite Organization (Inmarsat) established
Historical Overview
bull 1980rsquos ndashGEO Applications Expanded Mobile10487081981 First reusable launch vehicle flight10487081982 International maritime communications made operational10487081984 First direct-to-home broadcast system operational (Japan)10487081987 Successful trials of land-mobile communications (Inmarsat)10487081989-90 Global mobile communication service extended to land mobile and aeronautical use (Inmarsat)
Historical Overview
bull 1990+rsquos NGSO applications development and GEO expansion1990-951048708Proposals of non-geostationary (NGSO) systems for mobile communications1048708Continuing growth of VSATs around the world1048708Spectrum allocation for non-GEO systems1048708Continuing growth of DBS DirectTV created19971048708Launch of first batch of LEO for hand-held terminals (Iridium)1048708Voice-service portables and paging-service pocket size mobile terminals launched (Inmarsat)1998-2000 Mobile LEO systems initiate service and fail afterwards (IridiumGlobalstar)
Historical Overview
Altitudes of orbits above the earth
bull There are 3 common types of satellite based on altitude ie GEO MEO amp LEOOrbit Altitude Missions possible
Low-Earth orbit LEO 250 to 1500 km
Earth observation meteorology
telecommunications (constellations)
Medium-Earth orbit MEO
10000 to 30000 km Telecommunications
(constellations) positioning science
Geostationary Earth orbit GEO
35786 km Telecommunications positioning science
Elliptical orbit Between 800 and
27000 km Telecommunications
Hyperbolic orbit Up to several million
km Interplanetary missions
ITU Frequency Spectrum Allocations
Communication Satellites
bull Another issue is the presence of the Van Allen belts - layers of highly charged particles trapped by the earths magnetic field
bull Any satellite flying within them would be destroyed fairly quickly by the highly-energetic charged particles trapped there by the earths magnetic field
bull Hence there are three regions in which satellites can be placed safely - illustrated in the following figure
Communication Satellites
Communication satellites and some of their properties including altitude above the earth round-trip delay time and number of satellites needed for global coverage
Communication Satellites
Geostationary Satellites
bull Each downward beam can be focused on a small geographical area so multiple upward and downward transmissions can take place simultaneously
bull Typically the spot beams are elliptically shaped and can be as small as a few hundred km in diameter
bull A communication satellite for the United States typically has one wide beam for the contiguous 48 states plus spot beams for Alaska and Hawaii
VSAT systems
bull VSAT (Very Small Aperture Terminal) ndash a satellite communication system that serves home and business users for data voice and video signals
bull Tiny terminals have 1-meter or smaller antennas (versus 10 m for a standard GEO antenna) and can put out about 1 watt of power
bull A VSAT end user has a box that interfaces between the users computer and an outside antenna with a transceiver
bull The tranceiver receives sends a signal to a satellite transponder
Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull The MEO (Medium-Earth Orbit) satellites are between the two Van Allen belts
bull Takes something like 6 hours to circle the earthbull As MEO are lower than the GEOs (typically
16000 km above Earth) they have a smaller footprint on the ground and require less powerful transmitters to reach them
bull Currently they are not used for telecommunications but in navigation systems
Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull The 24 GPS (Global Positioning System) satellites orbiting at about 18000 km are American but free to use by anyone
bull Russia is using Glonass ndash 24 satellites orbiting at 19100 km
bull European Union works on Galileo ndash 30 satellite MEO navigation system orbiting at 23200 km - global navigation satellite system (GNSS) (2019)
bull China is building Compass ndash 35 satellites ndash 5 GEO and 30 MEO at 21100 km (10 in use and offering services now) (2020)
Low-Earth Orbit Satellitesbull A Low Earth Orbit (LEO) is generally defined as
an orbit below an altitude of approximately 2000 kilometers and above 160 kilometers ndash almost all human spaceflights have taken place in LEO
bull (-) large numbers of LEO are needed for a complete system due to their rapid motion (26000 to 27000 km per hour)
bull (+) satellites are very close to the earth so the ground stations do not need much power
bull (+) the round-trip delay is only a few milliseconds
Low-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull Because these LEO orbits are not geostationary a network (or constellation) of satellites is required to provide continuous coverage
bull LEOs are used for a variety of civil scientific and military roles including Earth observation radar optical telecoms and demonstrator
bull Some use as many as 66 satellites (Iridium ndash satellite phones)
Low-Earth Orbit Satellitesbull The Iridium satellite constellation - group of
satellites providing voice and data coverage to satellite phones pagers and integrated transceivers over Earths entire surface
bull Originally developed in 1992 services started in 1998 bankrupted in August 1999 and subsequently restarted in March 2001 (513 000 subscribers in 2011)
bull Satellites are at a height of approximately 781 kmbull Customers include the maritime aviation and oil
exploration industries as well as people traveling in parts of the world lacking a telecommunications infrastructure (eg deserts mountains jungles and some Third World countries)
Iridium
bull The Iridium satellites are in circular polar orbits
bull They are arranged in north-south necklaces with one satellite every 32 degrees of latitude
bull With six satellite necklaces the entire earth is covered
bull Each satellite can support up to 1100 concurrent phone calls and weighs about 680 kg
Iridium
bull Each satellite has a maximum of 48 cells (spot beams) with a total of 1628 cells over the surface of the earth
bull Each satellite has a capacity of 3840 channels or 253440 in all
bull Some of these are used for paging and navigation while others are used for data and voice
bull An interesting property of Iridium is that communication between distant customers takes place in space with one satellite relaying data to the next one
bull A caller at the North Pole contacts a satellite directly overhead - the call is relayed via other satellites and finally sent down to the called at the South Pole
Globalstar
bull Globalstar - based on 48 LEO satellites but uses a different switching scheme than that of Iridium (relays calls from satellite to satellite which requires sophisticated switching equipment in the satellites)
bull Globalstar uses a traditional bent-pipe design - a call originating at the North Pole is sent back to earth and picked up by the large ground station
bull The call is then routed via a terrestrial network to the ground station nearest the callee and delivered by a bent-pipe connection as shown
bull Advantage - puts much of the complexity on the ground where it is easier to manage (412300 subscribers in 2010)
Teledesic
bull Teledesic was as high-speed wireless switched global network -an IP-based system designed to support data voice and video at the same quality level as fiber-based terrestrial systems - a global Internet-in-the-Skyldquo providing broadband and Internet access
bull Originally (1995) planning 840 active satellites with in-orbit spares at an altitude of 700 km
bull Scaled (1997) to 288 active satellites at 1400 kmbull Officially suspended its satellite construction work on
October 1 2002bull Funding from Microsoft (investing US$30 million for an
85 stake) Craig McCaw Bill Gates Paul Allen and Saudi prince Alwaleed bin Talal and for achieving allocation on the Ka-band frequency spectrum for non-geostationary services
Highly elliptical orbit
bull HEO ndash an elliptic orbit with a low-altitude (about 1000 kilometres) perigee and a high-altitude (over 35786 kilometres) apogee
bull Advantage - long dwell times at a point in the sky during the approach to and descent from apogee - phenomenon known as apogee dwell (acts like GEO) (3-4 hours can receive signal with 06 m antenna)
bull Used by Sirius Satellite Radio (operating in North America) the Molniya communication satelites (at least 3) (Russia)
Satellite Applications
bull Communication The main application for satellites today is in communication Communication satellites act as relay stations in the sky and permit reliable long-distance communication worldwide
bull Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS) service This is a TV signal distribution system designed to distribute signals directly to consumers
Satellite Applications
bull Satellite Cell Phones Satellite-based cellular telephone service is under development The proposed new systems use low-earth-orbit satellites to perform the relay services to the main telephone system or to make connection directly between any two cellular telephones using the system
Satellite Applications
bull Digital Satellite Radio One of the newest satellite applications is in digital satellite radio or the digital audio radio service (DARS) ndash This service provides hundreds of channels of
music news sports and talk radio to car portable and home radios
ndash It provides full continuous coverage of the station you select wherever you are in the United States
ndash Its digital transmission techniques ensure high-quality stereo sound that is immune to noise
ndash The satellites transmit other information such as song title and artist type of music and other data which are displayed on a LCD screen
Satellite Applications
bull Surveillance satellites can look at the earth and transmit what they see back to ground stations for a wide variety of purposes including military intelligence meteorological applications and mapping
bull Satellite navigation systems can provide global coverage unavailable with land-based systems satellites
Global Positioning System
bull The Global Positioning System (GPS) also known as Navstar is a satellite-based navigation system that can be used by anyone with an appropriate receiver to pinpoint his or her location on earth
bull GPS was developed by the US Air Force for the Department of Defense as a continuous global radio navigation system
bull The GPS system consists of three major segments the space segment the control segment and the user segment
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentndash The space segment is the constellation of
satellites orbiting above the earth that contain transmitters which send highly accurate timing information to GPS receivers on earth
bull The GPS consists of 24 main operational satellites and 3 active spare satellites arranged in six orbits of 3 or 4 satellites each
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentbull Each of the satellites contains four highly accurate
atomic clocks
bull These clocks are used to generate a unique pseudorandom code identifying the specific satellite that is transmitted to earth
bull The satellite also transmits a set of digitally coded ephemeris data that completely defines its precise orbit
Global Positioning System
The GPS space segment
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentndash The control segment of the GPS system
refers to the various ground stations that monitor the satellites and provide control and update information
bull The master control station is operated by the US Air Force in Colorado Springs
bull Four additional monitoring and control stations constantly monitor the satellites and collect range information from each
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentbull The information is sent back to the master
control station in Colorado where all the information is collected and position data on each satellite calculated
bull The master control station then transmits new ephemeris and clock data to each satellite on the S-band uplink once per day
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash A GPS receiver is a complex superheterodyne
microwave receiver designed to pick up the GPS signals decode them and then compute the location of the receiver
ndash The output is usually an LCD display giving latitude longitude and altitude information andor a map of the area
ndash The most widely used GPS receiver is the popular handheld portable type not much larger than an oversized handheld calculator
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash The receiver performs a time multiplexing
operation on the four satellites within view of the receiver
ndash The data is extracted from each of the four satellites and stored in the receiverrsquos memory
ndash Data from three satellites is needed to fix the receiverrsquos position
ndash If data from a fourth satellite is available altitude can be calculated
Global Positioning System
GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
How triangulation works to locate a GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications ndash The primary application of the GPS is
military and related navigationndash GPS is used by all services for ships
aircraft and ground troopsndash Most civilian applications also involve
navigation which is usually marine or aviation-related
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications
ndash Commercial applications include surveying mapmaking and construction
ndash Vehicle location is a growing application for trucking and delivery companies taxi bus and train transportation
ndash Police fire ambulance and forest services also use GPS
ndash A new hobby called geocaching uses GPS receivers In this sport one team hides an item or ldquotreasurerdquo and then gives the other team coordinates to follow to find the treasure within a given time
Design of the Satellite Link
bull The satellite link is probably the most basic in microwave communications since a line-of-sight path typically exists between the Earth and space
bull This means that an imaginary line extending between the transmitting or receiving Earth station and the satellite antenna passes only through the atmosphere and not ground obstacles
bull Such a link is governed by free-space propagation with only limited variation with respect to time due to various constituents of the atmosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull Free-space attenuation is determined by the inverse square law which states that the power
received is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
bull The same law applies to the amount of light that reaches our eyes from a distant point source such as an automobile headlight or star
bull There are however a number of additional effects that produce a significant amount of degradation and time variation
bull These include rain terrain effects such as absorption by trees and walls and some less-obvious impairment produced by unstable conditions of the air and ionosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull It is the job of the communication engineer to identify all of the significant contributions to performance and make sure that they are properly taken into account
bull The required factors include the performance of the satellite itself the configuration and performance of the uplink and downlink Earth stations and the impact of the propagation medium in the frequency band of interest
Advantages of Satellite Communications over Terrestrial Communications
bull The coverage area greatly exceedsbull Transmission cost of a satellite is independent
of the distance from the center of the coverage area
bull Satellite-to-satellite communication is very precise
bull Higher bandwidths are available for use
Disadvantages of Satellite Communications
bull Launching satellites into orbits is costly
bull Satellite bandwidth is gradually becoming used up
bull The propagation delay is larger
Active and Passive Satellites
bull Active satellites are used for linking and also for processing the signals
The linkage is known as bent pipe technology where processing like frequency translation power amplification etc take place
Active satellites employ lsquoRegenerative Technologyrsquo which consists of demodulation processing frequency translation switching and power amplification are carried out Block used for this purpose is called transponder
bull Passive satellites do-not have on-board processing and are just used to link two stations through space
Low cost - Loss of power ndash not useful for communication applications
Historical Overviewbull 1945 Theorist named Clarke studied that satellite orbiting in equatorial orbit
at radius of approx 42000 km would look as if stationary if moving at a specific speed 3 satellites at a space of 120 degree apart can cover the whole world Evolution of the concept of GEO
1950rsquos ndashPutting the pieces together
10487081956 -Trans-Atlantic cable opened (about 12 telephone channels per operator)
10487081957 First man-made satellite launched by former USSR (Sputnik-1 LEO) It was used to identify atmospheric density of various orbital layers It provided data about radio signal distribution in ionosphere
10487081958 First US satellite launched (SCORE) First voice communication established via satellite (LEO lasted 35
days in orbit)
bull 1960rsquos ndashFirst satellite communicationsbull 10487081960 First passive communication satellite (Large
balloons Echo I and II)bull 10487081962 First active communication satellite (Telstar I
MEO)bull 10487081963 First satellite into geostationary (GEO) orbit
(Syncom1 communication failed)bull 10487081964 International Telecomm Satellite Organization
(INTELSAT) createdbull 10487081965 First successful communications GEO (Early
Bird INTELSAT 1)
Historical Overview
bull 1970rsquos ndashGEO Applications Development DBS10487081972 First domestic satellite system operational (Canada)10487081975 First successful direct broadcast experiment (USA-India)10487081977 A plan for direct broadcast satellites (DBS) assigned by the ITU10487081979 International Mobile Satellite Organization (Inmarsat) established
Historical Overview
bull 1980rsquos ndashGEO Applications Expanded Mobile10487081981 First reusable launch vehicle flight10487081982 International maritime communications made operational10487081984 First direct-to-home broadcast system operational (Japan)10487081987 Successful trials of land-mobile communications (Inmarsat)10487081989-90 Global mobile communication service extended to land mobile and aeronautical use (Inmarsat)
Historical Overview
bull 1990+rsquos NGSO applications development and GEO expansion1990-951048708Proposals of non-geostationary (NGSO) systems for mobile communications1048708Continuing growth of VSATs around the world1048708Spectrum allocation for non-GEO systems1048708Continuing growth of DBS DirectTV created19971048708Launch of first batch of LEO for hand-held terminals (Iridium)1048708Voice-service portables and paging-service pocket size mobile terminals launched (Inmarsat)1998-2000 Mobile LEO systems initiate service and fail afterwards (IridiumGlobalstar)
Historical Overview
Altitudes of orbits above the earth
bull There are 3 common types of satellite based on altitude ie GEO MEO amp LEOOrbit Altitude Missions possible
Low-Earth orbit LEO 250 to 1500 km
Earth observation meteorology
telecommunications (constellations)
Medium-Earth orbit MEO
10000 to 30000 km Telecommunications
(constellations) positioning science
Geostationary Earth orbit GEO
35786 km Telecommunications positioning science
Elliptical orbit Between 800 and
27000 km Telecommunications
Hyperbolic orbit Up to several million
km Interplanetary missions
ITU Frequency Spectrum Allocations
Communication Satellites
bull Another issue is the presence of the Van Allen belts - layers of highly charged particles trapped by the earths magnetic field
bull Any satellite flying within them would be destroyed fairly quickly by the highly-energetic charged particles trapped there by the earths magnetic field
bull Hence there are three regions in which satellites can be placed safely - illustrated in the following figure
Communication Satellites
Communication satellites and some of their properties including altitude above the earth round-trip delay time and number of satellites needed for global coverage
Communication Satellites
Geostationary Satellites
bull Each downward beam can be focused on a small geographical area so multiple upward and downward transmissions can take place simultaneously
bull Typically the spot beams are elliptically shaped and can be as small as a few hundred km in diameter
bull A communication satellite for the United States typically has one wide beam for the contiguous 48 states plus spot beams for Alaska and Hawaii
VSAT systems
bull VSAT (Very Small Aperture Terminal) ndash a satellite communication system that serves home and business users for data voice and video signals
bull Tiny terminals have 1-meter or smaller antennas (versus 10 m for a standard GEO antenna) and can put out about 1 watt of power
bull A VSAT end user has a box that interfaces between the users computer and an outside antenna with a transceiver
bull The tranceiver receives sends a signal to a satellite transponder
Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull The MEO (Medium-Earth Orbit) satellites are between the two Van Allen belts
bull Takes something like 6 hours to circle the earthbull As MEO are lower than the GEOs (typically
16000 km above Earth) they have a smaller footprint on the ground and require less powerful transmitters to reach them
bull Currently they are not used for telecommunications but in navigation systems
Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull The 24 GPS (Global Positioning System) satellites orbiting at about 18000 km are American but free to use by anyone
bull Russia is using Glonass ndash 24 satellites orbiting at 19100 km
bull European Union works on Galileo ndash 30 satellite MEO navigation system orbiting at 23200 km - global navigation satellite system (GNSS) (2019)
bull China is building Compass ndash 35 satellites ndash 5 GEO and 30 MEO at 21100 km (10 in use and offering services now) (2020)
Low-Earth Orbit Satellitesbull A Low Earth Orbit (LEO) is generally defined as
an orbit below an altitude of approximately 2000 kilometers and above 160 kilometers ndash almost all human spaceflights have taken place in LEO
bull (-) large numbers of LEO are needed for a complete system due to their rapid motion (26000 to 27000 km per hour)
bull (+) satellites are very close to the earth so the ground stations do not need much power
bull (+) the round-trip delay is only a few milliseconds
Low-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull Because these LEO orbits are not geostationary a network (or constellation) of satellites is required to provide continuous coverage
bull LEOs are used for a variety of civil scientific and military roles including Earth observation radar optical telecoms and demonstrator
bull Some use as many as 66 satellites (Iridium ndash satellite phones)
Low-Earth Orbit Satellitesbull The Iridium satellite constellation - group of
satellites providing voice and data coverage to satellite phones pagers and integrated transceivers over Earths entire surface
bull Originally developed in 1992 services started in 1998 bankrupted in August 1999 and subsequently restarted in March 2001 (513 000 subscribers in 2011)
bull Satellites are at a height of approximately 781 kmbull Customers include the maritime aviation and oil
exploration industries as well as people traveling in parts of the world lacking a telecommunications infrastructure (eg deserts mountains jungles and some Third World countries)
Iridium
bull The Iridium satellites are in circular polar orbits
bull They are arranged in north-south necklaces with one satellite every 32 degrees of latitude
bull With six satellite necklaces the entire earth is covered
bull Each satellite can support up to 1100 concurrent phone calls and weighs about 680 kg
Iridium
bull Each satellite has a maximum of 48 cells (spot beams) with a total of 1628 cells over the surface of the earth
bull Each satellite has a capacity of 3840 channels or 253440 in all
bull Some of these are used for paging and navigation while others are used for data and voice
bull An interesting property of Iridium is that communication between distant customers takes place in space with one satellite relaying data to the next one
bull A caller at the North Pole contacts a satellite directly overhead - the call is relayed via other satellites and finally sent down to the called at the South Pole
Globalstar
bull Globalstar - based on 48 LEO satellites but uses a different switching scheme than that of Iridium (relays calls from satellite to satellite which requires sophisticated switching equipment in the satellites)
bull Globalstar uses a traditional bent-pipe design - a call originating at the North Pole is sent back to earth and picked up by the large ground station
bull The call is then routed via a terrestrial network to the ground station nearest the callee and delivered by a bent-pipe connection as shown
bull Advantage - puts much of the complexity on the ground where it is easier to manage (412300 subscribers in 2010)
Teledesic
bull Teledesic was as high-speed wireless switched global network -an IP-based system designed to support data voice and video at the same quality level as fiber-based terrestrial systems - a global Internet-in-the-Skyldquo providing broadband and Internet access
bull Originally (1995) planning 840 active satellites with in-orbit spares at an altitude of 700 km
bull Scaled (1997) to 288 active satellites at 1400 kmbull Officially suspended its satellite construction work on
October 1 2002bull Funding from Microsoft (investing US$30 million for an
85 stake) Craig McCaw Bill Gates Paul Allen and Saudi prince Alwaleed bin Talal and for achieving allocation on the Ka-band frequency spectrum for non-geostationary services
Highly elliptical orbit
bull HEO ndash an elliptic orbit with a low-altitude (about 1000 kilometres) perigee and a high-altitude (over 35786 kilometres) apogee
bull Advantage - long dwell times at a point in the sky during the approach to and descent from apogee - phenomenon known as apogee dwell (acts like GEO) (3-4 hours can receive signal with 06 m antenna)
bull Used by Sirius Satellite Radio (operating in North America) the Molniya communication satelites (at least 3) (Russia)
Satellite Applications
bull Communication The main application for satellites today is in communication Communication satellites act as relay stations in the sky and permit reliable long-distance communication worldwide
bull Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS) service This is a TV signal distribution system designed to distribute signals directly to consumers
Satellite Applications
bull Satellite Cell Phones Satellite-based cellular telephone service is under development The proposed new systems use low-earth-orbit satellites to perform the relay services to the main telephone system or to make connection directly between any two cellular telephones using the system
Satellite Applications
bull Digital Satellite Radio One of the newest satellite applications is in digital satellite radio or the digital audio radio service (DARS) ndash This service provides hundreds of channels of
music news sports and talk radio to car portable and home radios
ndash It provides full continuous coverage of the station you select wherever you are in the United States
ndash Its digital transmission techniques ensure high-quality stereo sound that is immune to noise
ndash The satellites transmit other information such as song title and artist type of music and other data which are displayed on a LCD screen
Satellite Applications
bull Surveillance satellites can look at the earth and transmit what they see back to ground stations for a wide variety of purposes including military intelligence meteorological applications and mapping
bull Satellite navigation systems can provide global coverage unavailable with land-based systems satellites
Global Positioning System
bull The Global Positioning System (GPS) also known as Navstar is a satellite-based navigation system that can be used by anyone with an appropriate receiver to pinpoint his or her location on earth
bull GPS was developed by the US Air Force for the Department of Defense as a continuous global radio navigation system
bull The GPS system consists of three major segments the space segment the control segment and the user segment
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentndash The space segment is the constellation of
satellites orbiting above the earth that contain transmitters which send highly accurate timing information to GPS receivers on earth
bull The GPS consists of 24 main operational satellites and 3 active spare satellites arranged in six orbits of 3 or 4 satellites each
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentbull Each of the satellites contains four highly accurate
atomic clocks
bull These clocks are used to generate a unique pseudorandom code identifying the specific satellite that is transmitted to earth
bull The satellite also transmits a set of digitally coded ephemeris data that completely defines its precise orbit
Global Positioning System
The GPS space segment
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentndash The control segment of the GPS system
refers to the various ground stations that monitor the satellites and provide control and update information
bull The master control station is operated by the US Air Force in Colorado Springs
bull Four additional monitoring and control stations constantly monitor the satellites and collect range information from each
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentbull The information is sent back to the master
control station in Colorado where all the information is collected and position data on each satellite calculated
bull The master control station then transmits new ephemeris and clock data to each satellite on the S-band uplink once per day
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash A GPS receiver is a complex superheterodyne
microwave receiver designed to pick up the GPS signals decode them and then compute the location of the receiver
ndash The output is usually an LCD display giving latitude longitude and altitude information andor a map of the area
ndash The most widely used GPS receiver is the popular handheld portable type not much larger than an oversized handheld calculator
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash The receiver performs a time multiplexing
operation on the four satellites within view of the receiver
ndash The data is extracted from each of the four satellites and stored in the receiverrsquos memory
ndash Data from three satellites is needed to fix the receiverrsquos position
ndash If data from a fourth satellite is available altitude can be calculated
Global Positioning System
GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
How triangulation works to locate a GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications ndash The primary application of the GPS is
military and related navigationndash GPS is used by all services for ships
aircraft and ground troopsndash Most civilian applications also involve
navigation which is usually marine or aviation-related
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications
ndash Commercial applications include surveying mapmaking and construction
ndash Vehicle location is a growing application for trucking and delivery companies taxi bus and train transportation
ndash Police fire ambulance and forest services also use GPS
ndash A new hobby called geocaching uses GPS receivers In this sport one team hides an item or ldquotreasurerdquo and then gives the other team coordinates to follow to find the treasure within a given time
Design of the Satellite Link
bull The satellite link is probably the most basic in microwave communications since a line-of-sight path typically exists between the Earth and space
bull This means that an imaginary line extending between the transmitting or receiving Earth station and the satellite antenna passes only through the atmosphere and not ground obstacles
bull Such a link is governed by free-space propagation with only limited variation with respect to time due to various constituents of the atmosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull Free-space attenuation is determined by the inverse square law which states that the power
received is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
bull The same law applies to the amount of light that reaches our eyes from a distant point source such as an automobile headlight or star
bull There are however a number of additional effects that produce a significant amount of degradation and time variation
bull These include rain terrain effects such as absorption by trees and walls and some less-obvious impairment produced by unstable conditions of the air and ionosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull It is the job of the communication engineer to identify all of the significant contributions to performance and make sure that they are properly taken into account
bull The required factors include the performance of the satellite itself the configuration and performance of the uplink and downlink Earth stations and the impact of the propagation medium in the frequency band of interest
Disadvantages of Satellite Communications
bull Launching satellites into orbits is costly
bull Satellite bandwidth is gradually becoming used up
bull The propagation delay is larger
Active and Passive Satellites
bull Active satellites are used for linking and also for processing the signals
The linkage is known as bent pipe technology where processing like frequency translation power amplification etc take place
Active satellites employ lsquoRegenerative Technologyrsquo which consists of demodulation processing frequency translation switching and power amplification are carried out Block used for this purpose is called transponder
bull Passive satellites do-not have on-board processing and are just used to link two stations through space
Low cost - Loss of power ndash not useful for communication applications
Historical Overviewbull 1945 Theorist named Clarke studied that satellite orbiting in equatorial orbit
at radius of approx 42000 km would look as if stationary if moving at a specific speed 3 satellites at a space of 120 degree apart can cover the whole world Evolution of the concept of GEO
1950rsquos ndashPutting the pieces together
10487081956 -Trans-Atlantic cable opened (about 12 telephone channels per operator)
10487081957 First man-made satellite launched by former USSR (Sputnik-1 LEO) It was used to identify atmospheric density of various orbital layers It provided data about radio signal distribution in ionosphere
10487081958 First US satellite launched (SCORE) First voice communication established via satellite (LEO lasted 35
days in orbit)
bull 1960rsquos ndashFirst satellite communicationsbull 10487081960 First passive communication satellite (Large
balloons Echo I and II)bull 10487081962 First active communication satellite (Telstar I
MEO)bull 10487081963 First satellite into geostationary (GEO) orbit
(Syncom1 communication failed)bull 10487081964 International Telecomm Satellite Organization
(INTELSAT) createdbull 10487081965 First successful communications GEO (Early
Bird INTELSAT 1)
Historical Overview
bull 1970rsquos ndashGEO Applications Development DBS10487081972 First domestic satellite system operational (Canada)10487081975 First successful direct broadcast experiment (USA-India)10487081977 A plan for direct broadcast satellites (DBS) assigned by the ITU10487081979 International Mobile Satellite Organization (Inmarsat) established
Historical Overview
bull 1980rsquos ndashGEO Applications Expanded Mobile10487081981 First reusable launch vehicle flight10487081982 International maritime communications made operational10487081984 First direct-to-home broadcast system operational (Japan)10487081987 Successful trials of land-mobile communications (Inmarsat)10487081989-90 Global mobile communication service extended to land mobile and aeronautical use (Inmarsat)
Historical Overview
bull 1990+rsquos NGSO applications development and GEO expansion1990-951048708Proposals of non-geostationary (NGSO) systems for mobile communications1048708Continuing growth of VSATs around the world1048708Spectrum allocation for non-GEO systems1048708Continuing growth of DBS DirectTV created19971048708Launch of first batch of LEO for hand-held terminals (Iridium)1048708Voice-service portables and paging-service pocket size mobile terminals launched (Inmarsat)1998-2000 Mobile LEO systems initiate service and fail afterwards (IridiumGlobalstar)
Historical Overview
Altitudes of orbits above the earth
bull There are 3 common types of satellite based on altitude ie GEO MEO amp LEOOrbit Altitude Missions possible
Low-Earth orbit LEO 250 to 1500 km
Earth observation meteorology
telecommunications (constellations)
Medium-Earth orbit MEO
10000 to 30000 km Telecommunications
(constellations) positioning science
Geostationary Earth orbit GEO
35786 km Telecommunications positioning science
Elliptical orbit Between 800 and
27000 km Telecommunications
Hyperbolic orbit Up to several million
km Interplanetary missions
ITU Frequency Spectrum Allocations
Communication Satellites
bull Another issue is the presence of the Van Allen belts - layers of highly charged particles trapped by the earths magnetic field
bull Any satellite flying within them would be destroyed fairly quickly by the highly-energetic charged particles trapped there by the earths magnetic field
bull Hence there are three regions in which satellites can be placed safely - illustrated in the following figure
Communication Satellites
Communication satellites and some of their properties including altitude above the earth round-trip delay time and number of satellites needed for global coverage
Communication Satellites
Geostationary Satellites
bull Each downward beam can be focused on a small geographical area so multiple upward and downward transmissions can take place simultaneously
bull Typically the spot beams are elliptically shaped and can be as small as a few hundred km in diameter
bull A communication satellite for the United States typically has one wide beam for the contiguous 48 states plus spot beams for Alaska and Hawaii
VSAT systems
bull VSAT (Very Small Aperture Terminal) ndash a satellite communication system that serves home and business users for data voice and video signals
bull Tiny terminals have 1-meter or smaller antennas (versus 10 m for a standard GEO antenna) and can put out about 1 watt of power
bull A VSAT end user has a box that interfaces between the users computer and an outside antenna with a transceiver
bull The tranceiver receives sends a signal to a satellite transponder
Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull The MEO (Medium-Earth Orbit) satellites are between the two Van Allen belts
bull Takes something like 6 hours to circle the earthbull As MEO are lower than the GEOs (typically
16000 km above Earth) they have a smaller footprint on the ground and require less powerful transmitters to reach them
bull Currently they are not used for telecommunications but in navigation systems
Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull The 24 GPS (Global Positioning System) satellites orbiting at about 18000 km are American but free to use by anyone
bull Russia is using Glonass ndash 24 satellites orbiting at 19100 km
bull European Union works on Galileo ndash 30 satellite MEO navigation system orbiting at 23200 km - global navigation satellite system (GNSS) (2019)
bull China is building Compass ndash 35 satellites ndash 5 GEO and 30 MEO at 21100 km (10 in use and offering services now) (2020)
Low-Earth Orbit Satellitesbull A Low Earth Orbit (LEO) is generally defined as
an orbit below an altitude of approximately 2000 kilometers and above 160 kilometers ndash almost all human spaceflights have taken place in LEO
bull (-) large numbers of LEO are needed for a complete system due to their rapid motion (26000 to 27000 km per hour)
bull (+) satellites are very close to the earth so the ground stations do not need much power
bull (+) the round-trip delay is only a few milliseconds
Low-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull Because these LEO orbits are not geostationary a network (or constellation) of satellites is required to provide continuous coverage
bull LEOs are used for a variety of civil scientific and military roles including Earth observation radar optical telecoms and demonstrator
bull Some use as many as 66 satellites (Iridium ndash satellite phones)
Low-Earth Orbit Satellitesbull The Iridium satellite constellation - group of
satellites providing voice and data coverage to satellite phones pagers and integrated transceivers over Earths entire surface
bull Originally developed in 1992 services started in 1998 bankrupted in August 1999 and subsequently restarted in March 2001 (513 000 subscribers in 2011)
bull Satellites are at a height of approximately 781 kmbull Customers include the maritime aviation and oil
exploration industries as well as people traveling in parts of the world lacking a telecommunications infrastructure (eg deserts mountains jungles and some Third World countries)
Iridium
bull The Iridium satellites are in circular polar orbits
bull They are arranged in north-south necklaces with one satellite every 32 degrees of latitude
bull With six satellite necklaces the entire earth is covered
bull Each satellite can support up to 1100 concurrent phone calls and weighs about 680 kg
Iridium
bull Each satellite has a maximum of 48 cells (spot beams) with a total of 1628 cells over the surface of the earth
bull Each satellite has a capacity of 3840 channels or 253440 in all
bull Some of these are used for paging and navigation while others are used for data and voice
bull An interesting property of Iridium is that communication between distant customers takes place in space with one satellite relaying data to the next one
bull A caller at the North Pole contacts a satellite directly overhead - the call is relayed via other satellites and finally sent down to the called at the South Pole
Globalstar
bull Globalstar - based on 48 LEO satellites but uses a different switching scheme than that of Iridium (relays calls from satellite to satellite which requires sophisticated switching equipment in the satellites)
bull Globalstar uses a traditional bent-pipe design - a call originating at the North Pole is sent back to earth and picked up by the large ground station
bull The call is then routed via a terrestrial network to the ground station nearest the callee and delivered by a bent-pipe connection as shown
bull Advantage - puts much of the complexity on the ground where it is easier to manage (412300 subscribers in 2010)
Teledesic
bull Teledesic was as high-speed wireless switched global network -an IP-based system designed to support data voice and video at the same quality level as fiber-based terrestrial systems - a global Internet-in-the-Skyldquo providing broadband and Internet access
bull Originally (1995) planning 840 active satellites with in-orbit spares at an altitude of 700 km
bull Scaled (1997) to 288 active satellites at 1400 kmbull Officially suspended its satellite construction work on
October 1 2002bull Funding from Microsoft (investing US$30 million for an
85 stake) Craig McCaw Bill Gates Paul Allen and Saudi prince Alwaleed bin Talal and for achieving allocation on the Ka-band frequency spectrum for non-geostationary services
Highly elliptical orbit
bull HEO ndash an elliptic orbit with a low-altitude (about 1000 kilometres) perigee and a high-altitude (over 35786 kilometres) apogee
bull Advantage - long dwell times at a point in the sky during the approach to and descent from apogee - phenomenon known as apogee dwell (acts like GEO) (3-4 hours can receive signal with 06 m antenna)
bull Used by Sirius Satellite Radio (operating in North America) the Molniya communication satelites (at least 3) (Russia)
Satellite Applications
bull Communication The main application for satellites today is in communication Communication satellites act as relay stations in the sky and permit reliable long-distance communication worldwide
bull Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS) service This is a TV signal distribution system designed to distribute signals directly to consumers
Satellite Applications
bull Satellite Cell Phones Satellite-based cellular telephone service is under development The proposed new systems use low-earth-orbit satellites to perform the relay services to the main telephone system or to make connection directly between any two cellular telephones using the system
Satellite Applications
bull Digital Satellite Radio One of the newest satellite applications is in digital satellite radio or the digital audio radio service (DARS) ndash This service provides hundreds of channels of
music news sports and talk radio to car portable and home radios
ndash It provides full continuous coverage of the station you select wherever you are in the United States
ndash Its digital transmission techniques ensure high-quality stereo sound that is immune to noise
ndash The satellites transmit other information such as song title and artist type of music and other data which are displayed on a LCD screen
Satellite Applications
bull Surveillance satellites can look at the earth and transmit what they see back to ground stations for a wide variety of purposes including military intelligence meteorological applications and mapping
bull Satellite navigation systems can provide global coverage unavailable with land-based systems satellites
Global Positioning System
bull The Global Positioning System (GPS) also known as Navstar is a satellite-based navigation system that can be used by anyone with an appropriate receiver to pinpoint his or her location on earth
bull GPS was developed by the US Air Force for the Department of Defense as a continuous global radio navigation system
bull The GPS system consists of three major segments the space segment the control segment and the user segment
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentndash The space segment is the constellation of
satellites orbiting above the earth that contain transmitters which send highly accurate timing information to GPS receivers on earth
bull The GPS consists of 24 main operational satellites and 3 active spare satellites arranged in six orbits of 3 or 4 satellites each
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentbull Each of the satellites contains four highly accurate
atomic clocks
bull These clocks are used to generate a unique pseudorandom code identifying the specific satellite that is transmitted to earth
bull The satellite also transmits a set of digitally coded ephemeris data that completely defines its precise orbit
Global Positioning System
The GPS space segment
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentndash The control segment of the GPS system
refers to the various ground stations that monitor the satellites and provide control and update information
bull The master control station is operated by the US Air Force in Colorado Springs
bull Four additional monitoring and control stations constantly monitor the satellites and collect range information from each
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentbull The information is sent back to the master
control station in Colorado where all the information is collected and position data on each satellite calculated
bull The master control station then transmits new ephemeris and clock data to each satellite on the S-band uplink once per day
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash A GPS receiver is a complex superheterodyne
microwave receiver designed to pick up the GPS signals decode them and then compute the location of the receiver
ndash The output is usually an LCD display giving latitude longitude and altitude information andor a map of the area
ndash The most widely used GPS receiver is the popular handheld portable type not much larger than an oversized handheld calculator
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash The receiver performs a time multiplexing
operation on the four satellites within view of the receiver
ndash The data is extracted from each of the four satellites and stored in the receiverrsquos memory
ndash Data from three satellites is needed to fix the receiverrsquos position
ndash If data from a fourth satellite is available altitude can be calculated
Global Positioning System
GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
How triangulation works to locate a GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications ndash The primary application of the GPS is
military and related navigationndash GPS is used by all services for ships
aircraft and ground troopsndash Most civilian applications also involve
navigation which is usually marine or aviation-related
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications
ndash Commercial applications include surveying mapmaking and construction
ndash Vehicle location is a growing application for trucking and delivery companies taxi bus and train transportation
ndash Police fire ambulance and forest services also use GPS
ndash A new hobby called geocaching uses GPS receivers In this sport one team hides an item or ldquotreasurerdquo and then gives the other team coordinates to follow to find the treasure within a given time
Design of the Satellite Link
bull The satellite link is probably the most basic in microwave communications since a line-of-sight path typically exists between the Earth and space
bull This means that an imaginary line extending between the transmitting or receiving Earth station and the satellite antenna passes only through the atmosphere and not ground obstacles
bull Such a link is governed by free-space propagation with only limited variation with respect to time due to various constituents of the atmosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull Free-space attenuation is determined by the inverse square law which states that the power
received is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
bull The same law applies to the amount of light that reaches our eyes from a distant point source such as an automobile headlight or star
bull There are however a number of additional effects that produce a significant amount of degradation and time variation
bull These include rain terrain effects such as absorption by trees and walls and some less-obvious impairment produced by unstable conditions of the air and ionosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull It is the job of the communication engineer to identify all of the significant contributions to performance and make sure that they are properly taken into account
bull The required factors include the performance of the satellite itself the configuration and performance of the uplink and downlink Earth stations and the impact of the propagation medium in the frequency band of interest
Active and Passive Satellites
bull Active satellites are used for linking and also for processing the signals
The linkage is known as bent pipe technology where processing like frequency translation power amplification etc take place
Active satellites employ lsquoRegenerative Technologyrsquo which consists of demodulation processing frequency translation switching and power amplification are carried out Block used for this purpose is called transponder
bull Passive satellites do-not have on-board processing and are just used to link two stations through space
Low cost - Loss of power ndash not useful for communication applications
Historical Overviewbull 1945 Theorist named Clarke studied that satellite orbiting in equatorial orbit
at radius of approx 42000 km would look as if stationary if moving at a specific speed 3 satellites at a space of 120 degree apart can cover the whole world Evolution of the concept of GEO
1950rsquos ndashPutting the pieces together
10487081956 -Trans-Atlantic cable opened (about 12 telephone channels per operator)
10487081957 First man-made satellite launched by former USSR (Sputnik-1 LEO) It was used to identify atmospheric density of various orbital layers It provided data about radio signal distribution in ionosphere
10487081958 First US satellite launched (SCORE) First voice communication established via satellite (LEO lasted 35
days in orbit)
bull 1960rsquos ndashFirst satellite communicationsbull 10487081960 First passive communication satellite (Large
balloons Echo I and II)bull 10487081962 First active communication satellite (Telstar I
MEO)bull 10487081963 First satellite into geostationary (GEO) orbit
(Syncom1 communication failed)bull 10487081964 International Telecomm Satellite Organization
(INTELSAT) createdbull 10487081965 First successful communications GEO (Early
Bird INTELSAT 1)
Historical Overview
bull 1970rsquos ndashGEO Applications Development DBS10487081972 First domestic satellite system operational (Canada)10487081975 First successful direct broadcast experiment (USA-India)10487081977 A plan for direct broadcast satellites (DBS) assigned by the ITU10487081979 International Mobile Satellite Organization (Inmarsat) established
Historical Overview
bull 1980rsquos ndashGEO Applications Expanded Mobile10487081981 First reusable launch vehicle flight10487081982 International maritime communications made operational10487081984 First direct-to-home broadcast system operational (Japan)10487081987 Successful trials of land-mobile communications (Inmarsat)10487081989-90 Global mobile communication service extended to land mobile and aeronautical use (Inmarsat)
Historical Overview
bull 1990+rsquos NGSO applications development and GEO expansion1990-951048708Proposals of non-geostationary (NGSO) systems for mobile communications1048708Continuing growth of VSATs around the world1048708Spectrum allocation for non-GEO systems1048708Continuing growth of DBS DirectTV created19971048708Launch of first batch of LEO for hand-held terminals (Iridium)1048708Voice-service portables and paging-service pocket size mobile terminals launched (Inmarsat)1998-2000 Mobile LEO systems initiate service and fail afterwards (IridiumGlobalstar)
Historical Overview
Altitudes of orbits above the earth
bull There are 3 common types of satellite based on altitude ie GEO MEO amp LEOOrbit Altitude Missions possible
Low-Earth orbit LEO 250 to 1500 km
Earth observation meteorology
telecommunications (constellations)
Medium-Earth orbit MEO
10000 to 30000 km Telecommunications
(constellations) positioning science
Geostationary Earth orbit GEO
35786 km Telecommunications positioning science
Elliptical orbit Between 800 and
27000 km Telecommunications
Hyperbolic orbit Up to several million
km Interplanetary missions
ITU Frequency Spectrum Allocations
Communication Satellites
bull Another issue is the presence of the Van Allen belts - layers of highly charged particles trapped by the earths magnetic field
bull Any satellite flying within them would be destroyed fairly quickly by the highly-energetic charged particles trapped there by the earths magnetic field
bull Hence there are three regions in which satellites can be placed safely - illustrated in the following figure
Communication Satellites
Communication satellites and some of their properties including altitude above the earth round-trip delay time and number of satellites needed for global coverage
Communication Satellites
Geostationary Satellites
bull Each downward beam can be focused on a small geographical area so multiple upward and downward transmissions can take place simultaneously
bull Typically the spot beams are elliptically shaped and can be as small as a few hundred km in diameter
bull A communication satellite for the United States typically has one wide beam for the contiguous 48 states plus spot beams for Alaska and Hawaii
VSAT systems
bull VSAT (Very Small Aperture Terminal) ndash a satellite communication system that serves home and business users for data voice and video signals
bull Tiny terminals have 1-meter or smaller antennas (versus 10 m for a standard GEO antenna) and can put out about 1 watt of power
bull A VSAT end user has a box that interfaces between the users computer and an outside antenna with a transceiver
bull The tranceiver receives sends a signal to a satellite transponder
Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull The MEO (Medium-Earth Orbit) satellites are between the two Van Allen belts
bull Takes something like 6 hours to circle the earthbull As MEO are lower than the GEOs (typically
16000 km above Earth) they have a smaller footprint on the ground and require less powerful transmitters to reach them
bull Currently they are not used for telecommunications but in navigation systems
Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull The 24 GPS (Global Positioning System) satellites orbiting at about 18000 km are American but free to use by anyone
bull Russia is using Glonass ndash 24 satellites orbiting at 19100 km
bull European Union works on Galileo ndash 30 satellite MEO navigation system orbiting at 23200 km - global navigation satellite system (GNSS) (2019)
bull China is building Compass ndash 35 satellites ndash 5 GEO and 30 MEO at 21100 km (10 in use and offering services now) (2020)
Low-Earth Orbit Satellitesbull A Low Earth Orbit (LEO) is generally defined as
an orbit below an altitude of approximately 2000 kilometers and above 160 kilometers ndash almost all human spaceflights have taken place in LEO
bull (-) large numbers of LEO are needed for a complete system due to their rapid motion (26000 to 27000 km per hour)
bull (+) satellites are very close to the earth so the ground stations do not need much power
bull (+) the round-trip delay is only a few milliseconds
Low-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull Because these LEO orbits are not geostationary a network (or constellation) of satellites is required to provide continuous coverage
bull LEOs are used for a variety of civil scientific and military roles including Earth observation radar optical telecoms and demonstrator
bull Some use as many as 66 satellites (Iridium ndash satellite phones)
Low-Earth Orbit Satellitesbull The Iridium satellite constellation - group of
satellites providing voice and data coverage to satellite phones pagers and integrated transceivers over Earths entire surface
bull Originally developed in 1992 services started in 1998 bankrupted in August 1999 and subsequently restarted in March 2001 (513 000 subscribers in 2011)
bull Satellites are at a height of approximately 781 kmbull Customers include the maritime aviation and oil
exploration industries as well as people traveling in parts of the world lacking a telecommunications infrastructure (eg deserts mountains jungles and some Third World countries)
Iridium
bull The Iridium satellites are in circular polar orbits
bull They are arranged in north-south necklaces with one satellite every 32 degrees of latitude
bull With six satellite necklaces the entire earth is covered
bull Each satellite can support up to 1100 concurrent phone calls and weighs about 680 kg
Iridium
bull Each satellite has a maximum of 48 cells (spot beams) with a total of 1628 cells over the surface of the earth
bull Each satellite has a capacity of 3840 channels or 253440 in all
bull Some of these are used for paging and navigation while others are used for data and voice
bull An interesting property of Iridium is that communication between distant customers takes place in space with one satellite relaying data to the next one
bull A caller at the North Pole contacts a satellite directly overhead - the call is relayed via other satellites and finally sent down to the called at the South Pole
Globalstar
bull Globalstar - based on 48 LEO satellites but uses a different switching scheme than that of Iridium (relays calls from satellite to satellite which requires sophisticated switching equipment in the satellites)
bull Globalstar uses a traditional bent-pipe design - a call originating at the North Pole is sent back to earth and picked up by the large ground station
bull The call is then routed via a terrestrial network to the ground station nearest the callee and delivered by a bent-pipe connection as shown
bull Advantage - puts much of the complexity on the ground where it is easier to manage (412300 subscribers in 2010)
Teledesic
bull Teledesic was as high-speed wireless switched global network -an IP-based system designed to support data voice and video at the same quality level as fiber-based terrestrial systems - a global Internet-in-the-Skyldquo providing broadband and Internet access
bull Originally (1995) planning 840 active satellites with in-orbit spares at an altitude of 700 km
bull Scaled (1997) to 288 active satellites at 1400 kmbull Officially suspended its satellite construction work on
October 1 2002bull Funding from Microsoft (investing US$30 million for an
85 stake) Craig McCaw Bill Gates Paul Allen and Saudi prince Alwaleed bin Talal and for achieving allocation on the Ka-band frequency spectrum for non-geostationary services
Highly elliptical orbit
bull HEO ndash an elliptic orbit with a low-altitude (about 1000 kilometres) perigee and a high-altitude (over 35786 kilometres) apogee
bull Advantage - long dwell times at a point in the sky during the approach to and descent from apogee - phenomenon known as apogee dwell (acts like GEO) (3-4 hours can receive signal with 06 m antenna)
bull Used by Sirius Satellite Radio (operating in North America) the Molniya communication satelites (at least 3) (Russia)
Satellite Applications
bull Communication The main application for satellites today is in communication Communication satellites act as relay stations in the sky and permit reliable long-distance communication worldwide
bull Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS) service This is a TV signal distribution system designed to distribute signals directly to consumers
Satellite Applications
bull Satellite Cell Phones Satellite-based cellular telephone service is under development The proposed new systems use low-earth-orbit satellites to perform the relay services to the main telephone system or to make connection directly between any two cellular telephones using the system
Satellite Applications
bull Digital Satellite Radio One of the newest satellite applications is in digital satellite radio or the digital audio radio service (DARS) ndash This service provides hundreds of channels of
music news sports and talk radio to car portable and home radios
ndash It provides full continuous coverage of the station you select wherever you are in the United States
ndash Its digital transmission techniques ensure high-quality stereo sound that is immune to noise
ndash The satellites transmit other information such as song title and artist type of music and other data which are displayed on a LCD screen
Satellite Applications
bull Surveillance satellites can look at the earth and transmit what they see back to ground stations for a wide variety of purposes including military intelligence meteorological applications and mapping
bull Satellite navigation systems can provide global coverage unavailable with land-based systems satellites
Global Positioning System
bull The Global Positioning System (GPS) also known as Navstar is a satellite-based navigation system that can be used by anyone with an appropriate receiver to pinpoint his or her location on earth
bull GPS was developed by the US Air Force for the Department of Defense as a continuous global radio navigation system
bull The GPS system consists of three major segments the space segment the control segment and the user segment
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentndash The space segment is the constellation of
satellites orbiting above the earth that contain transmitters which send highly accurate timing information to GPS receivers on earth
bull The GPS consists of 24 main operational satellites and 3 active spare satellites arranged in six orbits of 3 or 4 satellites each
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentbull Each of the satellites contains four highly accurate
atomic clocks
bull These clocks are used to generate a unique pseudorandom code identifying the specific satellite that is transmitted to earth
bull The satellite also transmits a set of digitally coded ephemeris data that completely defines its precise orbit
Global Positioning System
The GPS space segment
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentndash The control segment of the GPS system
refers to the various ground stations that monitor the satellites and provide control and update information
bull The master control station is operated by the US Air Force in Colorado Springs
bull Four additional monitoring and control stations constantly monitor the satellites and collect range information from each
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentbull The information is sent back to the master
control station in Colorado where all the information is collected and position data on each satellite calculated
bull The master control station then transmits new ephemeris and clock data to each satellite on the S-band uplink once per day
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash A GPS receiver is a complex superheterodyne
microwave receiver designed to pick up the GPS signals decode them and then compute the location of the receiver
ndash The output is usually an LCD display giving latitude longitude and altitude information andor a map of the area
ndash The most widely used GPS receiver is the popular handheld portable type not much larger than an oversized handheld calculator
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash The receiver performs a time multiplexing
operation on the four satellites within view of the receiver
ndash The data is extracted from each of the four satellites and stored in the receiverrsquos memory
ndash Data from three satellites is needed to fix the receiverrsquos position
ndash If data from a fourth satellite is available altitude can be calculated
Global Positioning System
GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
How triangulation works to locate a GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications ndash The primary application of the GPS is
military and related navigationndash GPS is used by all services for ships
aircraft and ground troopsndash Most civilian applications also involve
navigation which is usually marine or aviation-related
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications
ndash Commercial applications include surveying mapmaking and construction
ndash Vehicle location is a growing application for trucking and delivery companies taxi bus and train transportation
ndash Police fire ambulance and forest services also use GPS
ndash A new hobby called geocaching uses GPS receivers In this sport one team hides an item or ldquotreasurerdquo and then gives the other team coordinates to follow to find the treasure within a given time
Design of the Satellite Link
bull The satellite link is probably the most basic in microwave communications since a line-of-sight path typically exists between the Earth and space
bull This means that an imaginary line extending between the transmitting or receiving Earth station and the satellite antenna passes only through the atmosphere and not ground obstacles
bull Such a link is governed by free-space propagation with only limited variation with respect to time due to various constituents of the atmosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull Free-space attenuation is determined by the inverse square law which states that the power
received is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
bull The same law applies to the amount of light that reaches our eyes from a distant point source such as an automobile headlight or star
bull There are however a number of additional effects that produce a significant amount of degradation and time variation
bull These include rain terrain effects such as absorption by trees and walls and some less-obvious impairment produced by unstable conditions of the air and ionosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull It is the job of the communication engineer to identify all of the significant contributions to performance and make sure that they are properly taken into account
bull The required factors include the performance of the satellite itself the configuration and performance of the uplink and downlink Earth stations and the impact of the propagation medium in the frequency band of interest
Historical Overviewbull 1945 Theorist named Clarke studied that satellite orbiting in equatorial orbit
at radius of approx 42000 km would look as if stationary if moving at a specific speed 3 satellites at a space of 120 degree apart can cover the whole world Evolution of the concept of GEO
1950rsquos ndashPutting the pieces together
10487081956 -Trans-Atlantic cable opened (about 12 telephone channels per operator)
10487081957 First man-made satellite launched by former USSR (Sputnik-1 LEO) It was used to identify atmospheric density of various orbital layers It provided data about radio signal distribution in ionosphere
10487081958 First US satellite launched (SCORE) First voice communication established via satellite (LEO lasted 35
days in orbit)
bull 1960rsquos ndashFirst satellite communicationsbull 10487081960 First passive communication satellite (Large
balloons Echo I and II)bull 10487081962 First active communication satellite (Telstar I
MEO)bull 10487081963 First satellite into geostationary (GEO) orbit
(Syncom1 communication failed)bull 10487081964 International Telecomm Satellite Organization
(INTELSAT) createdbull 10487081965 First successful communications GEO (Early
Bird INTELSAT 1)
Historical Overview
bull 1970rsquos ndashGEO Applications Development DBS10487081972 First domestic satellite system operational (Canada)10487081975 First successful direct broadcast experiment (USA-India)10487081977 A plan for direct broadcast satellites (DBS) assigned by the ITU10487081979 International Mobile Satellite Organization (Inmarsat) established
Historical Overview
bull 1980rsquos ndashGEO Applications Expanded Mobile10487081981 First reusable launch vehicle flight10487081982 International maritime communications made operational10487081984 First direct-to-home broadcast system operational (Japan)10487081987 Successful trials of land-mobile communications (Inmarsat)10487081989-90 Global mobile communication service extended to land mobile and aeronautical use (Inmarsat)
Historical Overview
bull 1990+rsquos NGSO applications development and GEO expansion1990-951048708Proposals of non-geostationary (NGSO) systems for mobile communications1048708Continuing growth of VSATs around the world1048708Spectrum allocation for non-GEO systems1048708Continuing growth of DBS DirectTV created19971048708Launch of first batch of LEO for hand-held terminals (Iridium)1048708Voice-service portables and paging-service pocket size mobile terminals launched (Inmarsat)1998-2000 Mobile LEO systems initiate service and fail afterwards (IridiumGlobalstar)
Historical Overview
Altitudes of orbits above the earth
bull There are 3 common types of satellite based on altitude ie GEO MEO amp LEOOrbit Altitude Missions possible
Low-Earth orbit LEO 250 to 1500 km
Earth observation meteorology
telecommunications (constellations)
Medium-Earth orbit MEO
10000 to 30000 km Telecommunications
(constellations) positioning science
Geostationary Earth orbit GEO
35786 km Telecommunications positioning science
Elliptical orbit Between 800 and
27000 km Telecommunications
Hyperbolic orbit Up to several million
km Interplanetary missions
ITU Frequency Spectrum Allocations
Communication Satellites
bull Another issue is the presence of the Van Allen belts - layers of highly charged particles trapped by the earths magnetic field
bull Any satellite flying within them would be destroyed fairly quickly by the highly-energetic charged particles trapped there by the earths magnetic field
bull Hence there are three regions in which satellites can be placed safely - illustrated in the following figure
Communication Satellites
Communication satellites and some of their properties including altitude above the earth round-trip delay time and number of satellites needed for global coverage
Communication Satellites
Geostationary Satellites
bull Each downward beam can be focused on a small geographical area so multiple upward and downward transmissions can take place simultaneously
bull Typically the spot beams are elliptically shaped and can be as small as a few hundred km in diameter
bull A communication satellite for the United States typically has one wide beam for the contiguous 48 states plus spot beams for Alaska and Hawaii
VSAT systems
bull VSAT (Very Small Aperture Terminal) ndash a satellite communication system that serves home and business users for data voice and video signals
bull Tiny terminals have 1-meter or smaller antennas (versus 10 m for a standard GEO antenna) and can put out about 1 watt of power
bull A VSAT end user has a box that interfaces between the users computer and an outside antenna with a transceiver
bull The tranceiver receives sends a signal to a satellite transponder
Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull The MEO (Medium-Earth Orbit) satellites are between the two Van Allen belts
bull Takes something like 6 hours to circle the earthbull As MEO are lower than the GEOs (typically
16000 km above Earth) they have a smaller footprint on the ground and require less powerful transmitters to reach them
bull Currently they are not used for telecommunications but in navigation systems
Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull The 24 GPS (Global Positioning System) satellites orbiting at about 18000 km are American but free to use by anyone
bull Russia is using Glonass ndash 24 satellites orbiting at 19100 km
bull European Union works on Galileo ndash 30 satellite MEO navigation system orbiting at 23200 km - global navigation satellite system (GNSS) (2019)
bull China is building Compass ndash 35 satellites ndash 5 GEO and 30 MEO at 21100 km (10 in use and offering services now) (2020)
Low-Earth Orbit Satellitesbull A Low Earth Orbit (LEO) is generally defined as
an orbit below an altitude of approximately 2000 kilometers and above 160 kilometers ndash almost all human spaceflights have taken place in LEO
bull (-) large numbers of LEO are needed for a complete system due to their rapid motion (26000 to 27000 km per hour)
bull (+) satellites are very close to the earth so the ground stations do not need much power
bull (+) the round-trip delay is only a few milliseconds
Low-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull Because these LEO orbits are not geostationary a network (or constellation) of satellites is required to provide continuous coverage
bull LEOs are used for a variety of civil scientific and military roles including Earth observation radar optical telecoms and demonstrator
bull Some use as many as 66 satellites (Iridium ndash satellite phones)
Low-Earth Orbit Satellitesbull The Iridium satellite constellation - group of
satellites providing voice and data coverage to satellite phones pagers and integrated transceivers over Earths entire surface
bull Originally developed in 1992 services started in 1998 bankrupted in August 1999 and subsequently restarted in March 2001 (513 000 subscribers in 2011)
bull Satellites are at a height of approximately 781 kmbull Customers include the maritime aviation and oil
exploration industries as well as people traveling in parts of the world lacking a telecommunications infrastructure (eg deserts mountains jungles and some Third World countries)
Iridium
bull The Iridium satellites are in circular polar orbits
bull They are arranged in north-south necklaces with one satellite every 32 degrees of latitude
bull With six satellite necklaces the entire earth is covered
bull Each satellite can support up to 1100 concurrent phone calls and weighs about 680 kg
Iridium
bull Each satellite has a maximum of 48 cells (spot beams) with a total of 1628 cells over the surface of the earth
bull Each satellite has a capacity of 3840 channels or 253440 in all
bull Some of these are used for paging and navigation while others are used for data and voice
bull An interesting property of Iridium is that communication between distant customers takes place in space with one satellite relaying data to the next one
bull A caller at the North Pole contacts a satellite directly overhead - the call is relayed via other satellites and finally sent down to the called at the South Pole
Globalstar
bull Globalstar - based on 48 LEO satellites but uses a different switching scheme than that of Iridium (relays calls from satellite to satellite which requires sophisticated switching equipment in the satellites)
bull Globalstar uses a traditional bent-pipe design - a call originating at the North Pole is sent back to earth and picked up by the large ground station
bull The call is then routed via a terrestrial network to the ground station nearest the callee and delivered by a bent-pipe connection as shown
bull Advantage - puts much of the complexity on the ground where it is easier to manage (412300 subscribers in 2010)
Teledesic
bull Teledesic was as high-speed wireless switched global network -an IP-based system designed to support data voice and video at the same quality level as fiber-based terrestrial systems - a global Internet-in-the-Skyldquo providing broadband and Internet access
bull Originally (1995) planning 840 active satellites with in-orbit spares at an altitude of 700 km
bull Scaled (1997) to 288 active satellites at 1400 kmbull Officially suspended its satellite construction work on
October 1 2002bull Funding from Microsoft (investing US$30 million for an
85 stake) Craig McCaw Bill Gates Paul Allen and Saudi prince Alwaleed bin Talal and for achieving allocation on the Ka-band frequency spectrum for non-geostationary services
Highly elliptical orbit
bull HEO ndash an elliptic orbit with a low-altitude (about 1000 kilometres) perigee and a high-altitude (over 35786 kilometres) apogee
bull Advantage - long dwell times at a point in the sky during the approach to and descent from apogee - phenomenon known as apogee dwell (acts like GEO) (3-4 hours can receive signal with 06 m antenna)
bull Used by Sirius Satellite Radio (operating in North America) the Molniya communication satelites (at least 3) (Russia)
Satellite Applications
bull Communication The main application for satellites today is in communication Communication satellites act as relay stations in the sky and permit reliable long-distance communication worldwide
bull Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS) service This is a TV signal distribution system designed to distribute signals directly to consumers
Satellite Applications
bull Satellite Cell Phones Satellite-based cellular telephone service is under development The proposed new systems use low-earth-orbit satellites to perform the relay services to the main telephone system or to make connection directly between any two cellular telephones using the system
Satellite Applications
bull Digital Satellite Radio One of the newest satellite applications is in digital satellite radio or the digital audio radio service (DARS) ndash This service provides hundreds of channels of
music news sports and talk radio to car portable and home radios
ndash It provides full continuous coverage of the station you select wherever you are in the United States
ndash Its digital transmission techniques ensure high-quality stereo sound that is immune to noise
ndash The satellites transmit other information such as song title and artist type of music and other data which are displayed on a LCD screen
Satellite Applications
bull Surveillance satellites can look at the earth and transmit what they see back to ground stations for a wide variety of purposes including military intelligence meteorological applications and mapping
bull Satellite navigation systems can provide global coverage unavailable with land-based systems satellites
Global Positioning System
bull The Global Positioning System (GPS) also known as Navstar is a satellite-based navigation system that can be used by anyone with an appropriate receiver to pinpoint his or her location on earth
bull GPS was developed by the US Air Force for the Department of Defense as a continuous global radio navigation system
bull The GPS system consists of three major segments the space segment the control segment and the user segment
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentndash The space segment is the constellation of
satellites orbiting above the earth that contain transmitters which send highly accurate timing information to GPS receivers on earth
bull The GPS consists of 24 main operational satellites and 3 active spare satellites arranged in six orbits of 3 or 4 satellites each
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentbull Each of the satellites contains four highly accurate
atomic clocks
bull These clocks are used to generate a unique pseudorandom code identifying the specific satellite that is transmitted to earth
bull The satellite also transmits a set of digitally coded ephemeris data that completely defines its precise orbit
Global Positioning System
The GPS space segment
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentndash The control segment of the GPS system
refers to the various ground stations that monitor the satellites and provide control and update information
bull The master control station is operated by the US Air Force in Colorado Springs
bull Four additional monitoring and control stations constantly monitor the satellites and collect range information from each
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentbull The information is sent back to the master
control station in Colorado where all the information is collected and position data on each satellite calculated
bull The master control station then transmits new ephemeris and clock data to each satellite on the S-band uplink once per day
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash A GPS receiver is a complex superheterodyne
microwave receiver designed to pick up the GPS signals decode them and then compute the location of the receiver
ndash The output is usually an LCD display giving latitude longitude and altitude information andor a map of the area
ndash The most widely used GPS receiver is the popular handheld portable type not much larger than an oversized handheld calculator
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash The receiver performs a time multiplexing
operation on the four satellites within view of the receiver
ndash The data is extracted from each of the four satellites and stored in the receiverrsquos memory
ndash Data from three satellites is needed to fix the receiverrsquos position
ndash If data from a fourth satellite is available altitude can be calculated
Global Positioning System
GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
How triangulation works to locate a GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications ndash The primary application of the GPS is
military and related navigationndash GPS is used by all services for ships
aircraft and ground troopsndash Most civilian applications also involve
navigation which is usually marine or aviation-related
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications
ndash Commercial applications include surveying mapmaking and construction
ndash Vehicle location is a growing application for trucking and delivery companies taxi bus and train transportation
ndash Police fire ambulance and forest services also use GPS
ndash A new hobby called geocaching uses GPS receivers In this sport one team hides an item or ldquotreasurerdquo and then gives the other team coordinates to follow to find the treasure within a given time
Design of the Satellite Link
bull The satellite link is probably the most basic in microwave communications since a line-of-sight path typically exists between the Earth and space
bull This means that an imaginary line extending between the transmitting or receiving Earth station and the satellite antenna passes only through the atmosphere and not ground obstacles
bull Such a link is governed by free-space propagation with only limited variation with respect to time due to various constituents of the atmosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull Free-space attenuation is determined by the inverse square law which states that the power
received is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
bull The same law applies to the amount of light that reaches our eyes from a distant point source such as an automobile headlight or star
bull There are however a number of additional effects that produce a significant amount of degradation and time variation
bull These include rain terrain effects such as absorption by trees and walls and some less-obvious impairment produced by unstable conditions of the air and ionosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull It is the job of the communication engineer to identify all of the significant contributions to performance and make sure that they are properly taken into account
bull The required factors include the performance of the satellite itself the configuration and performance of the uplink and downlink Earth stations and the impact of the propagation medium in the frequency band of interest
bull 1960rsquos ndashFirst satellite communicationsbull 10487081960 First passive communication satellite (Large
balloons Echo I and II)bull 10487081962 First active communication satellite (Telstar I
MEO)bull 10487081963 First satellite into geostationary (GEO) orbit
(Syncom1 communication failed)bull 10487081964 International Telecomm Satellite Organization
(INTELSAT) createdbull 10487081965 First successful communications GEO (Early
Bird INTELSAT 1)
Historical Overview
bull 1970rsquos ndashGEO Applications Development DBS10487081972 First domestic satellite system operational (Canada)10487081975 First successful direct broadcast experiment (USA-India)10487081977 A plan for direct broadcast satellites (DBS) assigned by the ITU10487081979 International Mobile Satellite Organization (Inmarsat) established
Historical Overview
bull 1980rsquos ndashGEO Applications Expanded Mobile10487081981 First reusable launch vehicle flight10487081982 International maritime communications made operational10487081984 First direct-to-home broadcast system operational (Japan)10487081987 Successful trials of land-mobile communications (Inmarsat)10487081989-90 Global mobile communication service extended to land mobile and aeronautical use (Inmarsat)
Historical Overview
bull 1990+rsquos NGSO applications development and GEO expansion1990-951048708Proposals of non-geostationary (NGSO) systems for mobile communications1048708Continuing growth of VSATs around the world1048708Spectrum allocation for non-GEO systems1048708Continuing growth of DBS DirectTV created19971048708Launch of first batch of LEO for hand-held terminals (Iridium)1048708Voice-service portables and paging-service pocket size mobile terminals launched (Inmarsat)1998-2000 Mobile LEO systems initiate service and fail afterwards (IridiumGlobalstar)
Historical Overview
Altitudes of orbits above the earth
bull There are 3 common types of satellite based on altitude ie GEO MEO amp LEOOrbit Altitude Missions possible
Low-Earth orbit LEO 250 to 1500 km
Earth observation meteorology
telecommunications (constellations)
Medium-Earth orbit MEO
10000 to 30000 km Telecommunications
(constellations) positioning science
Geostationary Earth orbit GEO
35786 km Telecommunications positioning science
Elliptical orbit Between 800 and
27000 km Telecommunications
Hyperbolic orbit Up to several million
km Interplanetary missions
ITU Frequency Spectrum Allocations
Communication Satellites
bull Another issue is the presence of the Van Allen belts - layers of highly charged particles trapped by the earths magnetic field
bull Any satellite flying within them would be destroyed fairly quickly by the highly-energetic charged particles trapped there by the earths magnetic field
bull Hence there are three regions in which satellites can be placed safely - illustrated in the following figure
Communication Satellites
Communication satellites and some of their properties including altitude above the earth round-trip delay time and number of satellites needed for global coverage
Communication Satellites
Geostationary Satellites
bull Each downward beam can be focused on a small geographical area so multiple upward and downward transmissions can take place simultaneously
bull Typically the spot beams are elliptically shaped and can be as small as a few hundred km in diameter
bull A communication satellite for the United States typically has one wide beam for the contiguous 48 states plus spot beams for Alaska and Hawaii
VSAT systems
bull VSAT (Very Small Aperture Terminal) ndash a satellite communication system that serves home and business users for data voice and video signals
bull Tiny terminals have 1-meter or smaller antennas (versus 10 m for a standard GEO antenna) and can put out about 1 watt of power
bull A VSAT end user has a box that interfaces between the users computer and an outside antenna with a transceiver
bull The tranceiver receives sends a signal to a satellite transponder
Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull The MEO (Medium-Earth Orbit) satellites are between the two Van Allen belts
bull Takes something like 6 hours to circle the earthbull As MEO are lower than the GEOs (typically
16000 km above Earth) they have a smaller footprint on the ground and require less powerful transmitters to reach them
bull Currently they are not used for telecommunications but in navigation systems
Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull The 24 GPS (Global Positioning System) satellites orbiting at about 18000 km are American but free to use by anyone
bull Russia is using Glonass ndash 24 satellites orbiting at 19100 km
bull European Union works on Galileo ndash 30 satellite MEO navigation system orbiting at 23200 km - global navigation satellite system (GNSS) (2019)
bull China is building Compass ndash 35 satellites ndash 5 GEO and 30 MEO at 21100 km (10 in use and offering services now) (2020)
Low-Earth Orbit Satellitesbull A Low Earth Orbit (LEO) is generally defined as
an orbit below an altitude of approximately 2000 kilometers and above 160 kilometers ndash almost all human spaceflights have taken place in LEO
bull (-) large numbers of LEO are needed for a complete system due to their rapid motion (26000 to 27000 km per hour)
bull (+) satellites are very close to the earth so the ground stations do not need much power
bull (+) the round-trip delay is only a few milliseconds
Low-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull Because these LEO orbits are not geostationary a network (or constellation) of satellites is required to provide continuous coverage
bull LEOs are used for a variety of civil scientific and military roles including Earth observation radar optical telecoms and demonstrator
bull Some use as many as 66 satellites (Iridium ndash satellite phones)
Low-Earth Orbit Satellitesbull The Iridium satellite constellation - group of
satellites providing voice and data coverage to satellite phones pagers and integrated transceivers over Earths entire surface
bull Originally developed in 1992 services started in 1998 bankrupted in August 1999 and subsequently restarted in March 2001 (513 000 subscribers in 2011)
bull Satellites are at a height of approximately 781 kmbull Customers include the maritime aviation and oil
exploration industries as well as people traveling in parts of the world lacking a telecommunications infrastructure (eg deserts mountains jungles and some Third World countries)
Iridium
bull The Iridium satellites are in circular polar orbits
bull They are arranged in north-south necklaces with one satellite every 32 degrees of latitude
bull With six satellite necklaces the entire earth is covered
bull Each satellite can support up to 1100 concurrent phone calls and weighs about 680 kg
Iridium
bull Each satellite has a maximum of 48 cells (spot beams) with a total of 1628 cells over the surface of the earth
bull Each satellite has a capacity of 3840 channels or 253440 in all
bull Some of these are used for paging and navigation while others are used for data and voice
bull An interesting property of Iridium is that communication between distant customers takes place in space with one satellite relaying data to the next one
bull A caller at the North Pole contacts a satellite directly overhead - the call is relayed via other satellites and finally sent down to the called at the South Pole
Globalstar
bull Globalstar - based on 48 LEO satellites but uses a different switching scheme than that of Iridium (relays calls from satellite to satellite which requires sophisticated switching equipment in the satellites)
bull Globalstar uses a traditional bent-pipe design - a call originating at the North Pole is sent back to earth and picked up by the large ground station
bull The call is then routed via a terrestrial network to the ground station nearest the callee and delivered by a bent-pipe connection as shown
bull Advantage - puts much of the complexity on the ground where it is easier to manage (412300 subscribers in 2010)
Teledesic
bull Teledesic was as high-speed wireless switched global network -an IP-based system designed to support data voice and video at the same quality level as fiber-based terrestrial systems - a global Internet-in-the-Skyldquo providing broadband and Internet access
bull Originally (1995) planning 840 active satellites with in-orbit spares at an altitude of 700 km
bull Scaled (1997) to 288 active satellites at 1400 kmbull Officially suspended its satellite construction work on
October 1 2002bull Funding from Microsoft (investing US$30 million for an
85 stake) Craig McCaw Bill Gates Paul Allen and Saudi prince Alwaleed bin Talal and for achieving allocation on the Ka-band frequency spectrum for non-geostationary services
Highly elliptical orbit
bull HEO ndash an elliptic orbit with a low-altitude (about 1000 kilometres) perigee and a high-altitude (over 35786 kilometres) apogee
bull Advantage - long dwell times at a point in the sky during the approach to and descent from apogee - phenomenon known as apogee dwell (acts like GEO) (3-4 hours can receive signal with 06 m antenna)
bull Used by Sirius Satellite Radio (operating in North America) the Molniya communication satelites (at least 3) (Russia)
Satellite Applications
bull Communication The main application for satellites today is in communication Communication satellites act as relay stations in the sky and permit reliable long-distance communication worldwide
bull Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS) service This is a TV signal distribution system designed to distribute signals directly to consumers
Satellite Applications
bull Satellite Cell Phones Satellite-based cellular telephone service is under development The proposed new systems use low-earth-orbit satellites to perform the relay services to the main telephone system or to make connection directly between any two cellular telephones using the system
Satellite Applications
bull Digital Satellite Radio One of the newest satellite applications is in digital satellite radio or the digital audio radio service (DARS) ndash This service provides hundreds of channels of
music news sports and talk radio to car portable and home radios
ndash It provides full continuous coverage of the station you select wherever you are in the United States
ndash Its digital transmission techniques ensure high-quality stereo sound that is immune to noise
ndash The satellites transmit other information such as song title and artist type of music and other data which are displayed on a LCD screen
Satellite Applications
bull Surveillance satellites can look at the earth and transmit what they see back to ground stations for a wide variety of purposes including military intelligence meteorological applications and mapping
bull Satellite navigation systems can provide global coverage unavailable with land-based systems satellites
Global Positioning System
bull The Global Positioning System (GPS) also known as Navstar is a satellite-based navigation system that can be used by anyone with an appropriate receiver to pinpoint his or her location on earth
bull GPS was developed by the US Air Force for the Department of Defense as a continuous global radio navigation system
bull The GPS system consists of three major segments the space segment the control segment and the user segment
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentndash The space segment is the constellation of
satellites orbiting above the earth that contain transmitters which send highly accurate timing information to GPS receivers on earth
bull The GPS consists of 24 main operational satellites and 3 active spare satellites arranged in six orbits of 3 or 4 satellites each
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentbull Each of the satellites contains four highly accurate
atomic clocks
bull These clocks are used to generate a unique pseudorandom code identifying the specific satellite that is transmitted to earth
bull The satellite also transmits a set of digitally coded ephemeris data that completely defines its precise orbit
Global Positioning System
The GPS space segment
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentndash The control segment of the GPS system
refers to the various ground stations that monitor the satellites and provide control and update information
bull The master control station is operated by the US Air Force in Colorado Springs
bull Four additional monitoring and control stations constantly monitor the satellites and collect range information from each
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentbull The information is sent back to the master
control station in Colorado where all the information is collected and position data on each satellite calculated
bull The master control station then transmits new ephemeris and clock data to each satellite on the S-band uplink once per day
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash A GPS receiver is a complex superheterodyne
microwave receiver designed to pick up the GPS signals decode them and then compute the location of the receiver
ndash The output is usually an LCD display giving latitude longitude and altitude information andor a map of the area
ndash The most widely used GPS receiver is the popular handheld portable type not much larger than an oversized handheld calculator
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash The receiver performs a time multiplexing
operation on the four satellites within view of the receiver
ndash The data is extracted from each of the four satellites and stored in the receiverrsquos memory
ndash Data from three satellites is needed to fix the receiverrsquos position
ndash If data from a fourth satellite is available altitude can be calculated
Global Positioning System
GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
How triangulation works to locate a GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications ndash The primary application of the GPS is
military and related navigationndash GPS is used by all services for ships
aircraft and ground troopsndash Most civilian applications also involve
navigation which is usually marine or aviation-related
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications
ndash Commercial applications include surveying mapmaking and construction
ndash Vehicle location is a growing application for trucking and delivery companies taxi bus and train transportation
ndash Police fire ambulance and forest services also use GPS
ndash A new hobby called geocaching uses GPS receivers In this sport one team hides an item or ldquotreasurerdquo and then gives the other team coordinates to follow to find the treasure within a given time
Design of the Satellite Link
bull The satellite link is probably the most basic in microwave communications since a line-of-sight path typically exists between the Earth and space
bull This means that an imaginary line extending between the transmitting or receiving Earth station and the satellite antenna passes only through the atmosphere and not ground obstacles
bull Such a link is governed by free-space propagation with only limited variation with respect to time due to various constituents of the atmosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull Free-space attenuation is determined by the inverse square law which states that the power
received is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
bull The same law applies to the amount of light that reaches our eyes from a distant point source such as an automobile headlight or star
bull There are however a number of additional effects that produce a significant amount of degradation and time variation
bull These include rain terrain effects such as absorption by trees and walls and some less-obvious impairment produced by unstable conditions of the air and ionosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull It is the job of the communication engineer to identify all of the significant contributions to performance and make sure that they are properly taken into account
bull The required factors include the performance of the satellite itself the configuration and performance of the uplink and downlink Earth stations and the impact of the propagation medium in the frequency band of interest
bull 1970rsquos ndashGEO Applications Development DBS10487081972 First domestic satellite system operational (Canada)10487081975 First successful direct broadcast experiment (USA-India)10487081977 A plan for direct broadcast satellites (DBS) assigned by the ITU10487081979 International Mobile Satellite Organization (Inmarsat) established
Historical Overview
bull 1980rsquos ndashGEO Applications Expanded Mobile10487081981 First reusable launch vehicle flight10487081982 International maritime communications made operational10487081984 First direct-to-home broadcast system operational (Japan)10487081987 Successful trials of land-mobile communications (Inmarsat)10487081989-90 Global mobile communication service extended to land mobile and aeronautical use (Inmarsat)
Historical Overview
bull 1990+rsquos NGSO applications development and GEO expansion1990-951048708Proposals of non-geostationary (NGSO) systems for mobile communications1048708Continuing growth of VSATs around the world1048708Spectrum allocation for non-GEO systems1048708Continuing growth of DBS DirectTV created19971048708Launch of first batch of LEO for hand-held terminals (Iridium)1048708Voice-service portables and paging-service pocket size mobile terminals launched (Inmarsat)1998-2000 Mobile LEO systems initiate service and fail afterwards (IridiumGlobalstar)
Historical Overview
Altitudes of orbits above the earth
bull There are 3 common types of satellite based on altitude ie GEO MEO amp LEOOrbit Altitude Missions possible
Low-Earth orbit LEO 250 to 1500 km
Earth observation meteorology
telecommunications (constellations)
Medium-Earth orbit MEO
10000 to 30000 km Telecommunications
(constellations) positioning science
Geostationary Earth orbit GEO
35786 km Telecommunications positioning science
Elliptical orbit Between 800 and
27000 km Telecommunications
Hyperbolic orbit Up to several million
km Interplanetary missions
ITU Frequency Spectrum Allocations
Communication Satellites
bull Another issue is the presence of the Van Allen belts - layers of highly charged particles trapped by the earths magnetic field
bull Any satellite flying within them would be destroyed fairly quickly by the highly-energetic charged particles trapped there by the earths magnetic field
bull Hence there are three regions in which satellites can be placed safely - illustrated in the following figure
Communication Satellites
Communication satellites and some of their properties including altitude above the earth round-trip delay time and number of satellites needed for global coverage
Communication Satellites
Geostationary Satellites
bull Each downward beam can be focused on a small geographical area so multiple upward and downward transmissions can take place simultaneously
bull Typically the spot beams are elliptically shaped and can be as small as a few hundred km in diameter
bull A communication satellite for the United States typically has one wide beam for the contiguous 48 states plus spot beams for Alaska and Hawaii
VSAT systems
bull VSAT (Very Small Aperture Terminal) ndash a satellite communication system that serves home and business users for data voice and video signals
bull Tiny terminals have 1-meter or smaller antennas (versus 10 m for a standard GEO antenna) and can put out about 1 watt of power
bull A VSAT end user has a box that interfaces between the users computer and an outside antenna with a transceiver
bull The tranceiver receives sends a signal to a satellite transponder
Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull The MEO (Medium-Earth Orbit) satellites are between the two Van Allen belts
bull Takes something like 6 hours to circle the earthbull As MEO are lower than the GEOs (typically
16000 km above Earth) they have a smaller footprint on the ground and require less powerful transmitters to reach them
bull Currently they are not used for telecommunications but in navigation systems
Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull The 24 GPS (Global Positioning System) satellites orbiting at about 18000 km are American but free to use by anyone
bull Russia is using Glonass ndash 24 satellites orbiting at 19100 km
bull European Union works on Galileo ndash 30 satellite MEO navigation system orbiting at 23200 km - global navigation satellite system (GNSS) (2019)
bull China is building Compass ndash 35 satellites ndash 5 GEO and 30 MEO at 21100 km (10 in use and offering services now) (2020)
Low-Earth Orbit Satellitesbull A Low Earth Orbit (LEO) is generally defined as
an orbit below an altitude of approximately 2000 kilometers and above 160 kilometers ndash almost all human spaceflights have taken place in LEO
bull (-) large numbers of LEO are needed for a complete system due to their rapid motion (26000 to 27000 km per hour)
bull (+) satellites are very close to the earth so the ground stations do not need much power
bull (+) the round-trip delay is only a few milliseconds
Low-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull Because these LEO orbits are not geostationary a network (or constellation) of satellites is required to provide continuous coverage
bull LEOs are used for a variety of civil scientific and military roles including Earth observation radar optical telecoms and demonstrator
bull Some use as many as 66 satellites (Iridium ndash satellite phones)
Low-Earth Orbit Satellitesbull The Iridium satellite constellation - group of
satellites providing voice and data coverage to satellite phones pagers and integrated transceivers over Earths entire surface
bull Originally developed in 1992 services started in 1998 bankrupted in August 1999 and subsequently restarted in March 2001 (513 000 subscribers in 2011)
bull Satellites are at a height of approximately 781 kmbull Customers include the maritime aviation and oil
exploration industries as well as people traveling in parts of the world lacking a telecommunications infrastructure (eg deserts mountains jungles and some Third World countries)
Iridium
bull The Iridium satellites are in circular polar orbits
bull They are arranged in north-south necklaces with one satellite every 32 degrees of latitude
bull With six satellite necklaces the entire earth is covered
bull Each satellite can support up to 1100 concurrent phone calls and weighs about 680 kg
Iridium
bull Each satellite has a maximum of 48 cells (spot beams) with a total of 1628 cells over the surface of the earth
bull Each satellite has a capacity of 3840 channels or 253440 in all
bull Some of these are used for paging and navigation while others are used for data and voice
bull An interesting property of Iridium is that communication between distant customers takes place in space with one satellite relaying data to the next one
bull A caller at the North Pole contacts a satellite directly overhead - the call is relayed via other satellites and finally sent down to the called at the South Pole
Globalstar
bull Globalstar - based on 48 LEO satellites but uses a different switching scheme than that of Iridium (relays calls from satellite to satellite which requires sophisticated switching equipment in the satellites)
bull Globalstar uses a traditional bent-pipe design - a call originating at the North Pole is sent back to earth and picked up by the large ground station
bull The call is then routed via a terrestrial network to the ground station nearest the callee and delivered by a bent-pipe connection as shown
bull Advantage - puts much of the complexity on the ground where it is easier to manage (412300 subscribers in 2010)
Teledesic
bull Teledesic was as high-speed wireless switched global network -an IP-based system designed to support data voice and video at the same quality level as fiber-based terrestrial systems - a global Internet-in-the-Skyldquo providing broadband and Internet access
bull Originally (1995) planning 840 active satellites with in-orbit spares at an altitude of 700 km
bull Scaled (1997) to 288 active satellites at 1400 kmbull Officially suspended its satellite construction work on
October 1 2002bull Funding from Microsoft (investing US$30 million for an
85 stake) Craig McCaw Bill Gates Paul Allen and Saudi prince Alwaleed bin Talal and for achieving allocation on the Ka-band frequency spectrum for non-geostationary services
Highly elliptical orbit
bull HEO ndash an elliptic orbit with a low-altitude (about 1000 kilometres) perigee and a high-altitude (over 35786 kilometres) apogee
bull Advantage - long dwell times at a point in the sky during the approach to and descent from apogee - phenomenon known as apogee dwell (acts like GEO) (3-4 hours can receive signal with 06 m antenna)
bull Used by Sirius Satellite Radio (operating in North America) the Molniya communication satelites (at least 3) (Russia)
Satellite Applications
bull Communication The main application for satellites today is in communication Communication satellites act as relay stations in the sky and permit reliable long-distance communication worldwide
bull Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS) service This is a TV signal distribution system designed to distribute signals directly to consumers
Satellite Applications
bull Satellite Cell Phones Satellite-based cellular telephone service is under development The proposed new systems use low-earth-orbit satellites to perform the relay services to the main telephone system or to make connection directly between any two cellular telephones using the system
Satellite Applications
bull Digital Satellite Radio One of the newest satellite applications is in digital satellite radio or the digital audio radio service (DARS) ndash This service provides hundreds of channels of
music news sports and talk radio to car portable and home radios
ndash It provides full continuous coverage of the station you select wherever you are in the United States
ndash Its digital transmission techniques ensure high-quality stereo sound that is immune to noise
ndash The satellites transmit other information such as song title and artist type of music and other data which are displayed on a LCD screen
Satellite Applications
bull Surveillance satellites can look at the earth and transmit what they see back to ground stations for a wide variety of purposes including military intelligence meteorological applications and mapping
bull Satellite navigation systems can provide global coverage unavailable with land-based systems satellites
Global Positioning System
bull The Global Positioning System (GPS) also known as Navstar is a satellite-based navigation system that can be used by anyone with an appropriate receiver to pinpoint his or her location on earth
bull GPS was developed by the US Air Force for the Department of Defense as a continuous global radio navigation system
bull The GPS system consists of three major segments the space segment the control segment and the user segment
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentndash The space segment is the constellation of
satellites orbiting above the earth that contain transmitters which send highly accurate timing information to GPS receivers on earth
bull The GPS consists of 24 main operational satellites and 3 active spare satellites arranged in six orbits of 3 or 4 satellites each
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentbull Each of the satellites contains four highly accurate
atomic clocks
bull These clocks are used to generate a unique pseudorandom code identifying the specific satellite that is transmitted to earth
bull The satellite also transmits a set of digitally coded ephemeris data that completely defines its precise orbit
Global Positioning System
The GPS space segment
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentndash The control segment of the GPS system
refers to the various ground stations that monitor the satellites and provide control and update information
bull The master control station is operated by the US Air Force in Colorado Springs
bull Four additional monitoring and control stations constantly monitor the satellites and collect range information from each
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentbull The information is sent back to the master
control station in Colorado where all the information is collected and position data on each satellite calculated
bull The master control station then transmits new ephemeris and clock data to each satellite on the S-band uplink once per day
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash A GPS receiver is a complex superheterodyne
microwave receiver designed to pick up the GPS signals decode them and then compute the location of the receiver
ndash The output is usually an LCD display giving latitude longitude and altitude information andor a map of the area
ndash The most widely used GPS receiver is the popular handheld portable type not much larger than an oversized handheld calculator
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash The receiver performs a time multiplexing
operation on the four satellites within view of the receiver
ndash The data is extracted from each of the four satellites and stored in the receiverrsquos memory
ndash Data from three satellites is needed to fix the receiverrsquos position
ndash If data from a fourth satellite is available altitude can be calculated
Global Positioning System
GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
How triangulation works to locate a GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications ndash The primary application of the GPS is
military and related navigationndash GPS is used by all services for ships
aircraft and ground troopsndash Most civilian applications also involve
navigation which is usually marine or aviation-related
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications
ndash Commercial applications include surveying mapmaking and construction
ndash Vehicle location is a growing application for trucking and delivery companies taxi bus and train transportation
ndash Police fire ambulance and forest services also use GPS
ndash A new hobby called geocaching uses GPS receivers In this sport one team hides an item or ldquotreasurerdquo and then gives the other team coordinates to follow to find the treasure within a given time
Design of the Satellite Link
bull The satellite link is probably the most basic in microwave communications since a line-of-sight path typically exists between the Earth and space
bull This means that an imaginary line extending between the transmitting or receiving Earth station and the satellite antenna passes only through the atmosphere and not ground obstacles
bull Such a link is governed by free-space propagation with only limited variation with respect to time due to various constituents of the atmosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull Free-space attenuation is determined by the inverse square law which states that the power
received is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
bull The same law applies to the amount of light that reaches our eyes from a distant point source such as an automobile headlight or star
bull There are however a number of additional effects that produce a significant amount of degradation and time variation
bull These include rain terrain effects such as absorption by trees and walls and some less-obvious impairment produced by unstable conditions of the air and ionosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull It is the job of the communication engineer to identify all of the significant contributions to performance and make sure that they are properly taken into account
bull The required factors include the performance of the satellite itself the configuration and performance of the uplink and downlink Earth stations and the impact of the propagation medium in the frequency band of interest
bull 1980rsquos ndashGEO Applications Expanded Mobile10487081981 First reusable launch vehicle flight10487081982 International maritime communications made operational10487081984 First direct-to-home broadcast system operational (Japan)10487081987 Successful trials of land-mobile communications (Inmarsat)10487081989-90 Global mobile communication service extended to land mobile and aeronautical use (Inmarsat)
Historical Overview
bull 1990+rsquos NGSO applications development and GEO expansion1990-951048708Proposals of non-geostationary (NGSO) systems for mobile communications1048708Continuing growth of VSATs around the world1048708Spectrum allocation for non-GEO systems1048708Continuing growth of DBS DirectTV created19971048708Launch of first batch of LEO for hand-held terminals (Iridium)1048708Voice-service portables and paging-service pocket size mobile terminals launched (Inmarsat)1998-2000 Mobile LEO systems initiate service and fail afterwards (IridiumGlobalstar)
Historical Overview
Altitudes of orbits above the earth
bull There are 3 common types of satellite based on altitude ie GEO MEO amp LEOOrbit Altitude Missions possible
Low-Earth orbit LEO 250 to 1500 km
Earth observation meteorology
telecommunications (constellations)
Medium-Earth orbit MEO
10000 to 30000 km Telecommunications
(constellations) positioning science
Geostationary Earth orbit GEO
35786 km Telecommunications positioning science
Elliptical orbit Between 800 and
27000 km Telecommunications
Hyperbolic orbit Up to several million
km Interplanetary missions
ITU Frequency Spectrum Allocations
Communication Satellites
bull Another issue is the presence of the Van Allen belts - layers of highly charged particles trapped by the earths magnetic field
bull Any satellite flying within them would be destroyed fairly quickly by the highly-energetic charged particles trapped there by the earths magnetic field
bull Hence there are three regions in which satellites can be placed safely - illustrated in the following figure
Communication Satellites
Communication satellites and some of their properties including altitude above the earth round-trip delay time and number of satellites needed for global coverage
Communication Satellites
Geostationary Satellites
bull Each downward beam can be focused on a small geographical area so multiple upward and downward transmissions can take place simultaneously
bull Typically the spot beams are elliptically shaped and can be as small as a few hundred km in diameter
bull A communication satellite for the United States typically has one wide beam for the contiguous 48 states plus spot beams for Alaska and Hawaii
VSAT systems
bull VSAT (Very Small Aperture Terminal) ndash a satellite communication system that serves home and business users for data voice and video signals
bull Tiny terminals have 1-meter or smaller antennas (versus 10 m for a standard GEO antenna) and can put out about 1 watt of power
bull A VSAT end user has a box that interfaces between the users computer and an outside antenna with a transceiver
bull The tranceiver receives sends a signal to a satellite transponder
Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull The MEO (Medium-Earth Orbit) satellites are between the two Van Allen belts
bull Takes something like 6 hours to circle the earthbull As MEO are lower than the GEOs (typically
16000 km above Earth) they have a smaller footprint on the ground and require less powerful transmitters to reach them
bull Currently they are not used for telecommunications but in navigation systems
Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull The 24 GPS (Global Positioning System) satellites orbiting at about 18000 km are American but free to use by anyone
bull Russia is using Glonass ndash 24 satellites orbiting at 19100 km
bull European Union works on Galileo ndash 30 satellite MEO navigation system orbiting at 23200 km - global navigation satellite system (GNSS) (2019)
bull China is building Compass ndash 35 satellites ndash 5 GEO and 30 MEO at 21100 km (10 in use and offering services now) (2020)
Low-Earth Orbit Satellitesbull A Low Earth Orbit (LEO) is generally defined as
an orbit below an altitude of approximately 2000 kilometers and above 160 kilometers ndash almost all human spaceflights have taken place in LEO
bull (-) large numbers of LEO are needed for a complete system due to their rapid motion (26000 to 27000 km per hour)
bull (+) satellites are very close to the earth so the ground stations do not need much power
bull (+) the round-trip delay is only a few milliseconds
Low-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull Because these LEO orbits are not geostationary a network (or constellation) of satellites is required to provide continuous coverage
bull LEOs are used for a variety of civil scientific and military roles including Earth observation radar optical telecoms and demonstrator
bull Some use as many as 66 satellites (Iridium ndash satellite phones)
Low-Earth Orbit Satellitesbull The Iridium satellite constellation - group of
satellites providing voice and data coverage to satellite phones pagers and integrated transceivers over Earths entire surface
bull Originally developed in 1992 services started in 1998 bankrupted in August 1999 and subsequently restarted in March 2001 (513 000 subscribers in 2011)
bull Satellites are at a height of approximately 781 kmbull Customers include the maritime aviation and oil
exploration industries as well as people traveling in parts of the world lacking a telecommunications infrastructure (eg deserts mountains jungles and some Third World countries)
Iridium
bull The Iridium satellites are in circular polar orbits
bull They are arranged in north-south necklaces with one satellite every 32 degrees of latitude
bull With six satellite necklaces the entire earth is covered
bull Each satellite can support up to 1100 concurrent phone calls and weighs about 680 kg
Iridium
bull Each satellite has a maximum of 48 cells (spot beams) with a total of 1628 cells over the surface of the earth
bull Each satellite has a capacity of 3840 channels or 253440 in all
bull Some of these are used for paging and navigation while others are used for data and voice
bull An interesting property of Iridium is that communication between distant customers takes place in space with one satellite relaying data to the next one
bull A caller at the North Pole contacts a satellite directly overhead - the call is relayed via other satellites and finally sent down to the called at the South Pole
Globalstar
bull Globalstar - based on 48 LEO satellites but uses a different switching scheme than that of Iridium (relays calls from satellite to satellite which requires sophisticated switching equipment in the satellites)
bull Globalstar uses a traditional bent-pipe design - a call originating at the North Pole is sent back to earth and picked up by the large ground station
bull The call is then routed via a terrestrial network to the ground station nearest the callee and delivered by a bent-pipe connection as shown
bull Advantage - puts much of the complexity on the ground where it is easier to manage (412300 subscribers in 2010)
Teledesic
bull Teledesic was as high-speed wireless switched global network -an IP-based system designed to support data voice and video at the same quality level as fiber-based terrestrial systems - a global Internet-in-the-Skyldquo providing broadband and Internet access
bull Originally (1995) planning 840 active satellites with in-orbit spares at an altitude of 700 km
bull Scaled (1997) to 288 active satellites at 1400 kmbull Officially suspended its satellite construction work on
October 1 2002bull Funding from Microsoft (investing US$30 million for an
85 stake) Craig McCaw Bill Gates Paul Allen and Saudi prince Alwaleed bin Talal and for achieving allocation on the Ka-band frequency spectrum for non-geostationary services
Highly elliptical orbit
bull HEO ndash an elliptic orbit with a low-altitude (about 1000 kilometres) perigee and a high-altitude (over 35786 kilometres) apogee
bull Advantage - long dwell times at a point in the sky during the approach to and descent from apogee - phenomenon known as apogee dwell (acts like GEO) (3-4 hours can receive signal with 06 m antenna)
bull Used by Sirius Satellite Radio (operating in North America) the Molniya communication satelites (at least 3) (Russia)
Satellite Applications
bull Communication The main application for satellites today is in communication Communication satellites act as relay stations in the sky and permit reliable long-distance communication worldwide
bull Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS) service This is a TV signal distribution system designed to distribute signals directly to consumers
Satellite Applications
bull Satellite Cell Phones Satellite-based cellular telephone service is under development The proposed new systems use low-earth-orbit satellites to perform the relay services to the main telephone system or to make connection directly between any two cellular telephones using the system
Satellite Applications
bull Digital Satellite Radio One of the newest satellite applications is in digital satellite radio or the digital audio radio service (DARS) ndash This service provides hundreds of channels of
music news sports and talk radio to car portable and home radios
ndash It provides full continuous coverage of the station you select wherever you are in the United States
ndash Its digital transmission techniques ensure high-quality stereo sound that is immune to noise
ndash The satellites transmit other information such as song title and artist type of music and other data which are displayed on a LCD screen
Satellite Applications
bull Surveillance satellites can look at the earth and transmit what they see back to ground stations for a wide variety of purposes including military intelligence meteorological applications and mapping
bull Satellite navigation systems can provide global coverage unavailable with land-based systems satellites
Global Positioning System
bull The Global Positioning System (GPS) also known as Navstar is a satellite-based navigation system that can be used by anyone with an appropriate receiver to pinpoint his or her location on earth
bull GPS was developed by the US Air Force for the Department of Defense as a continuous global radio navigation system
bull The GPS system consists of three major segments the space segment the control segment and the user segment
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentndash The space segment is the constellation of
satellites orbiting above the earth that contain transmitters which send highly accurate timing information to GPS receivers on earth
bull The GPS consists of 24 main operational satellites and 3 active spare satellites arranged in six orbits of 3 or 4 satellites each
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentbull Each of the satellites contains four highly accurate
atomic clocks
bull These clocks are used to generate a unique pseudorandom code identifying the specific satellite that is transmitted to earth
bull The satellite also transmits a set of digitally coded ephemeris data that completely defines its precise orbit
Global Positioning System
The GPS space segment
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentndash The control segment of the GPS system
refers to the various ground stations that monitor the satellites and provide control and update information
bull The master control station is operated by the US Air Force in Colorado Springs
bull Four additional monitoring and control stations constantly monitor the satellites and collect range information from each
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentbull The information is sent back to the master
control station in Colorado where all the information is collected and position data on each satellite calculated
bull The master control station then transmits new ephemeris and clock data to each satellite on the S-band uplink once per day
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash A GPS receiver is a complex superheterodyne
microwave receiver designed to pick up the GPS signals decode them and then compute the location of the receiver
ndash The output is usually an LCD display giving latitude longitude and altitude information andor a map of the area
ndash The most widely used GPS receiver is the popular handheld portable type not much larger than an oversized handheld calculator
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash The receiver performs a time multiplexing
operation on the four satellites within view of the receiver
ndash The data is extracted from each of the four satellites and stored in the receiverrsquos memory
ndash Data from three satellites is needed to fix the receiverrsquos position
ndash If data from a fourth satellite is available altitude can be calculated
Global Positioning System
GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
How triangulation works to locate a GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications ndash The primary application of the GPS is
military and related navigationndash GPS is used by all services for ships
aircraft and ground troopsndash Most civilian applications also involve
navigation which is usually marine or aviation-related
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications
ndash Commercial applications include surveying mapmaking and construction
ndash Vehicle location is a growing application for trucking and delivery companies taxi bus and train transportation
ndash Police fire ambulance and forest services also use GPS
ndash A new hobby called geocaching uses GPS receivers In this sport one team hides an item or ldquotreasurerdquo and then gives the other team coordinates to follow to find the treasure within a given time
Design of the Satellite Link
bull The satellite link is probably the most basic in microwave communications since a line-of-sight path typically exists between the Earth and space
bull This means that an imaginary line extending between the transmitting or receiving Earth station and the satellite antenna passes only through the atmosphere and not ground obstacles
bull Such a link is governed by free-space propagation with only limited variation with respect to time due to various constituents of the atmosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull Free-space attenuation is determined by the inverse square law which states that the power
received is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
bull The same law applies to the amount of light that reaches our eyes from a distant point source such as an automobile headlight or star
bull There are however a number of additional effects that produce a significant amount of degradation and time variation
bull These include rain terrain effects such as absorption by trees and walls and some less-obvious impairment produced by unstable conditions of the air and ionosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull It is the job of the communication engineer to identify all of the significant contributions to performance and make sure that they are properly taken into account
bull The required factors include the performance of the satellite itself the configuration and performance of the uplink and downlink Earth stations and the impact of the propagation medium in the frequency band of interest
bull 1990+rsquos NGSO applications development and GEO expansion1990-951048708Proposals of non-geostationary (NGSO) systems for mobile communications1048708Continuing growth of VSATs around the world1048708Spectrum allocation for non-GEO systems1048708Continuing growth of DBS DirectTV created19971048708Launch of first batch of LEO for hand-held terminals (Iridium)1048708Voice-service portables and paging-service pocket size mobile terminals launched (Inmarsat)1998-2000 Mobile LEO systems initiate service and fail afterwards (IridiumGlobalstar)
Historical Overview
Altitudes of orbits above the earth
bull There are 3 common types of satellite based on altitude ie GEO MEO amp LEOOrbit Altitude Missions possible
Low-Earth orbit LEO 250 to 1500 km
Earth observation meteorology
telecommunications (constellations)
Medium-Earth orbit MEO
10000 to 30000 km Telecommunications
(constellations) positioning science
Geostationary Earth orbit GEO
35786 km Telecommunications positioning science
Elliptical orbit Between 800 and
27000 km Telecommunications
Hyperbolic orbit Up to several million
km Interplanetary missions
ITU Frequency Spectrum Allocations
Communication Satellites
bull Another issue is the presence of the Van Allen belts - layers of highly charged particles trapped by the earths magnetic field
bull Any satellite flying within them would be destroyed fairly quickly by the highly-energetic charged particles trapped there by the earths magnetic field
bull Hence there are three regions in which satellites can be placed safely - illustrated in the following figure
Communication Satellites
Communication satellites and some of their properties including altitude above the earth round-trip delay time and number of satellites needed for global coverage
Communication Satellites
Geostationary Satellites
bull Each downward beam can be focused on a small geographical area so multiple upward and downward transmissions can take place simultaneously
bull Typically the spot beams are elliptically shaped and can be as small as a few hundred km in diameter
bull A communication satellite for the United States typically has one wide beam for the contiguous 48 states plus spot beams for Alaska and Hawaii
VSAT systems
bull VSAT (Very Small Aperture Terminal) ndash a satellite communication system that serves home and business users for data voice and video signals
bull Tiny terminals have 1-meter or smaller antennas (versus 10 m for a standard GEO antenna) and can put out about 1 watt of power
bull A VSAT end user has a box that interfaces between the users computer and an outside antenna with a transceiver
bull The tranceiver receives sends a signal to a satellite transponder
Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull The MEO (Medium-Earth Orbit) satellites are between the two Van Allen belts
bull Takes something like 6 hours to circle the earthbull As MEO are lower than the GEOs (typically
16000 km above Earth) they have a smaller footprint on the ground and require less powerful transmitters to reach them
bull Currently they are not used for telecommunications but in navigation systems
Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull The 24 GPS (Global Positioning System) satellites orbiting at about 18000 km are American but free to use by anyone
bull Russia is using Glonass ndash 24 satellites orbiting at 19100 km
bull European Union works on Galileo ndash 30 satellite MEO navigation system orbiting at 23200 km - global navigation satellite system (GNSS) (2019)
bull China is building Compass ndash 35 satellites ndash 5 GEO and 30 MEO at 21100 km (10 in use and offering services now) (2020)
Low-Earth Orbit Satellitesbull A Low Earth Orbit (LEO) is generally defined as
an orbit below an altitude of approximately 2000 kilometers and above 160 kilometers ndash almost all human spaceflights have taken place in LEO
bull (-) large numbers of LEO are needed for a complete system due to their rapid motion (26000 to 27000 km per hour)
bull (+) satellites are very close to the earth so the ground stations do not need much power
bull (+) the round-trip delay is only a few milliseconds
Low-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull Because these LEO orbits are not geostationary a network (or constellation) of satellites is required to provide continuous coverage
bull LEOs are used for a variety of civil scientific and military roles including Earth observation radar optical telecoms and demonstrator
bull Some use as many as 66 satellites (Iridium ndash satellite phones)
Low-Earth Orbit Satellitesbull The Iridium satellite constellation - group of
satellites providing voice and data coverage to satellite phones pagers and integrated transceivers over Earths entire surface
bull Originally developed in 1992 services started in 1998 bankrupted in August 1999 and subsequently restarted in March 2001 (513 000 subscribers in 2011)
bull Satellites are at a height of approximately 781 kmbull Customers include the maritime aviation and oil
exploration industries as well as people traveling in parts of the world lacking a telecommunications infrastructure (eg deserts mountains jungles and some Third World countries)
Iridium
bull The Iridium satellites are in circular polar orbits
bull They are arranged in north-south necklaces with one satellite every 32 degrees of latitude
bull With six satellite necklaces the entire earth is covered
bull Each satellite can support up to 1100 concurrent phone calls and weighs about 680 kg
Iridium
bull Each satellite has a maximum of 48 cells (spot beams) with a total of 1628 cells over the surface of the earth
bull Each satellite has a capacity of 3840 channels or 253440 in all
bull Some of these are used for paging and navigation while others are used for data and voice
bull An interesting property of Iridium is that communication between distant customers takes place in space with one satellite relaying data to the next one
bull A caller at the North Pole contacts a satellite directly overhead - the call is relayed via other satellites and finally sent down to the called at the South Pole
Globalstar
bull Globalstar - based on 48 LEO satellites but uses a different switching scheme than that of Iridium (relays calls from satellite to satellite which requires sophisticated switching equipment in the satellites)
bull Globalstar uses a traditional bent-pipe design - a call originating at the North Pole is sent back to earth and picked up by the large ground station
bull The call is then routed via a terrestrial network to the ground station nearest the callee and delivered by a bent-pipe connection as shown
bull Advantage - puts much of the complexity on the ground where it is easier to manage (412300 subscribers in 2010)
Teledesic
bull Teledesic was as high-speed wireless switched global network -an IP-based system designed to support data voice and video at the same quality level as fiber-based terrestrial systems - a global Internet-in-the-Skyldquo providing broadband and Internet access
bull Originally (1995) planning 840 active satellites with in-orbit spares at an altitude of 700 km
bull Scaled (1997) to 288 active satellites at 1400 kmbull Officially suspended its satellite construction work on
October 1 2002bull Funding from Microsoft (investing US$30 million for an
85 stake) Craig McCaw Bill Gates Paul Allen and Saudi prince Alwaleed bin Talal and for achieving allocation on the Ka-band frequency spectrum for non-geostationary services
Highly elliptical orbit
bull HEO ndash an elliptic orbit with a low-altitude (about 1000 kilometres) perigee and a high-altitude (over 35786 kilometres) apogee
bull Advantage - long dwell times at a point in the sky during the approach to and descent from apogee - phenomenon known as apogee dwell (acts like GEO) (3-4 hours can receive signal with 06 m antenna)
bull Used by Sirius Satellite Radio (operating in North America) the Molniya communication satelites (at least 3) (Russia)
Satellite Applications
bull Communication The main application for satellites today is in communication Communication satellites act as relay stations in the sky and permit reliable long-distance communication worldwide
bull Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS) service This is a TV signal distribution system designed to distribute signals directly to consumers
Satellite Applications
bull Satellite Cell Phones Satellite-based cellular telephone service is under development The proposed new systems use low-earth-orbit satellites to perform the relay services to the main telephone system or to make connection directly between any two cellular telephones using the system
Satellite Applications
bull Digital Satellite Radio One of the newest satellite applications is in digital satellite radio or the digital audio radio service (DARS) ndash This service provides hundreds of channels of
music news sports and talk radio to car portable and home radios
ndash It provides full continuous coverage of the station you select wherever you are in the United States
ndash Its digital transmission techniques ensure high-quality stereo sound that is immune to noise
ndash The satellites transmit other information such as song title and artist type of music and other data which are displayed on a LCD screen
Satellite Applications
bull Surveillance satellites can look at the earth and transmit what they see back to ground stations for a wide variety of purposes including military intelligence meteorological applications and mapping
bull Satellite navigation systems can provide global coverage unavailable with land-based systems satellites
Global Positioning System
bull The Global Positioning System (GPS) also known as Navstar is a satellite-based navigation system that can be used by anyone with an appropriate receiver to pinpoint his or her location on earth
bull GPS was developed by the US Air Force for the Department of Defense as a continuous global radio navigation system
bull The GPS system consists of three major segments the space segment the control segment and the user segment
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentndash The space segment is the constellation of
satellites orbiting above the earth that contain transmitters which send highly accurate timing information to GPS receivers on earth
bull The GPS consists of 24 main operational satellites and 3 active spare satellites arranged in six orbits of 3 or 4 satellites each
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentbull Each of the satellites contains four highly accurate
atomic clocks
bull These clocks are used to generate a unique pseudorandom code identifying the specific satellite that is transmitted to earth
bull The satellite also transmits a set of digitally coded ephemeris data that completely defines its precise orbit
Global Positioning System
The GPS space segment
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentndash The control segment of the GPS system
refers to the various ground stations that monitor the satellites and provide control and update information
bull The master control station is operated by the US Air Force in Colorado Springs
bull Four additional monitoring and control stations constantly monitor the satellites and collect range information from each
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentbull The information is sent back to the master
control station in Colorado where all the information is collected and position data on each satellite calculated
bull The master control station then transmits new ephemeris and clock data to each satellite on the S-band uplink once per day
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash A GPS receiver is a complex superheterodyne
microwave receiver designed to pick up the GPS signals decode them and then compute the location of the receiver
ndash The output is usually an LCD display giving latitude longitude and altitude information andor a map of the area
ndash The most widely used GPS receiver is the popular handheld portable type not much larger than an oversized handheld calculator
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash The receiver performs a time multiplexing
operation on the four satellites within view of the receiver
ndash The data is extracted from each of the four satellites and stored in the receiverrsquos memory
ndash Data from three satellites is needed to fix the receiverrsquos position
ndash If data from a fourth satellite is available altitude can be calculated
Global Positioning System
GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
How triangulation works to locate a GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications ndash The primary application of the GPS is
military and related navigationndash GPS is used by all services for ships
aircraft and ground troopsndash Most civilian applications also involve
navigation which is usually marine or aviation-related
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications
ndash Commercial applications include surveying mapmaking and construction
ndash Vehicle location is a growing application for trucking and delivery companies taxi bus and train transportation
ndash Police fire ambulance and forest services also use GPS
ndash A new hobby called geocaching uses GPS receivers In this sport one team hides an item or ldquotreasurerdquo and then gives the other team coordinates to follow to find the treasure within a given time
Design of the Satellite Link
bull The satellite link is probably the most basic in microwave communications since a line-of-sight path typically exists between the Earth and space
bull This means that an imaginary line extending between the transmitting or receiving Earth station and the satellite antenna passes only through the atmosphere and not ground obstacles
bull Such a link is governed by free-space propagation with only limited variation with respect to time due to various constituents of the atmosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull Free-space attenuation is determined by the inverse square law which states that the power
received is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
bull The same law applies to the amount of light that reaches our eyes from a distant point source such as an automobile headlight or star
bull There are however a number of additional effects that produce a significant amount of degradation and time variation
bull These include rain terrain effects such as absorption by trees and walls and some less-obvious impairment produced by unstable conditions of the air and ionosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull It is the job of the communication engineer to identify all of the significant contributions to performance and make sure that they are properly taken into account
bull The required factors include the performance of the satellite itself the configuration and performance of the uplink and downlink Earth stations and the impact of the propagation medium in the frequency band of interest
Altitudes of orbits above the earth
bull There are 3 common types of satellite based on altitude ie GEO MEO amp LEOOrbit Altitude Missions possible
Low-Earth orbit LEO 250 to 1500 km
Earth observation meteorology
telecommunications (constellations)
Medium-Earth orbit MEO
10000 to 30000 km Telecommunications
(constellations) positioning science
Geostationary Earth orbit GEO
35786 km Telecommunications positioning science
Elliptical orbit Between 800 and
27000 km Telecommunications
Hyperbolic orbit Up to several million
km Interplanetary missions
ITU Frequency Spectrum Allocations
Communication Satellites
bull Another issue is the presence of the Van Allen belts - layers of highly charged particles trapped by the earths magnetic field
bull Any satellite flying within them would be destroyed fairly quickly by the highly-energetic charged particles trapped there by the earths magnetic field
bull Hence there are three regions in which satellites can be placed safely - illustrated in the following figure
Communication Satellites
Communication satellites and some of their properties including altitude above the earth round-trip delay time and number of satellites needed for global coverage
Communication Satellites
Geostationary Satellites
bull Each downward beam can be focused on a small geographical area so multiple upward and downward transmissions can take place simultaneously
bull Typically the spot beams are elliptically shaped and can be as small as a few hundred km in diameter
bull A communication satellite for the United States typically has one wide beam for the contiguous 48 states plus spot beams for Alaska and Hawaii
VSAT systems
bull VSAT (Very Small Aperture Terminal) ndash a satellite communication system that serves home and business users for data voice and video signals
bull Tiny terminals have 1-meter or smaller antennas (versus 10 m for a standard GEO antenna) and can put out about 1 watt of power
bull A VSAT end user has a box that interfaces between the users computer and an outside antenna with a transceiver
bull The tranceiver receives sends a signal to a satellite transponder
Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull The MEO (Medium-Earth Orbit) satellites are between the two Van Allen belts
bull Takes something like 6 hours to circle the earthbull As MEO are lower than the GEOs (typically
16000 km above Earth) they have a smaller footprint on the ground and require less powerful transmitters to reach them
bull Currently they are not used for telecommunications but in navigation systems
Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull The 24 GPS (Global Positioning System) satellites orbiting at about 18000 km are American but free to use by anyone
bull Russia is using Glonass ndash 24 satellites orbiting at 19100 km
bull European Union works on Galileo ndash 30 satellite MEO navigation system orbiting at 23200 km - global navigation satellite system (GNSS) (2019)
bull China is building Compass ndash 35 satellites ndash 5 GEO and 30 MEO at 21100 km (10 in use and offering services now) (2020)
Low-Earth Orbit Satellitesbull A Low Earth Orbit (LEO) is generally defined as
an orbit below an altitude of approximately 2000 kilometers and above 160 kilometers ndash almost all human spaceflights have taken place in LEO
bull (-) large numbers of LEO are needed for a complete system due to their rapid motion (26000 to 27000 km per hour)
bull (+) satellites are very close to the earth so the ground stations do not need much power
bull (+) the round-trip delay is only a few milliseconds
Low-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull Because these LEO orbits are not geostationary a network (or constellation) of satellites is required to provide continuous coverage
bull LEOs are used for a variety of civil scientific and military roles including Earth observation radar optical telecoms and demonstrator
bull Some use as many as 66 satellites (Iridium ndash satellite phones)
Low-Earth Orbit Satellitesbull The Iridium satellite constellation - group of
satellites providing voice and data coverage to satellite phones pagers and integrated transceivers over Earths entire surface
bull Originally developed in 1992 services started in 1998 bankrupted in August 1999 and subsequently restarted in March 2001 (513 000 subscribers in 2011)
bull Satellites are at a height of approximately 781 kmbull Customers include the maritime aviation and oil
exploration industries as well as people traveling in parts of the world lacking a telecommunications infrastructure (eg deserts mountains jungles and some Third World countries)
Iridium
bull The Iridium satellites are in circular polar orbits
bull They are arranged in north-south necklaces with one satellite every 32 degrees of latitude
bull With six satellite necklaces the entire earth is covered
bull Each satellite can support up to 1100 concurrent phone calls and weighs about 680 kg
Iridium
bull Each satellite has a maximum of 48 cells (spot beams) with a total of 1628 cells over the surface of the earth
bull Each satellite has a capacity of 3840 channels or 253440 in all
bull Some of these are used for paging and navigation while others are used for data and voice
bull An interesting property of Iridium is that communication between distant customers takes place in space with one satellite relaying data to the next one
bull A caller at the North Pole contacts a satellite directly overhead - the call is relayed via other satellites and finally sent down to the called at the South Pole
Globalstar
bull Globalstar - based on 48 LEO satellites but uses a different switching scheme than that of Iridium (relays calls from satellite to satellite which requires sophisticated switching equipment in the satellites)
bull Globalstar uses a traditional bent-pipe design - a call originating at the North Pole is sent back to earth and picked up by the large ground station
bull The call is then routed via a terrestrial network to the ground station nearest the callee and delivered by a bent-pipe connection as shown
bull Advantage - puts much of the complexity on the ground where it is easier to manage (412300 subscribers in 2010)
Teledesic
bull Teledesic was as high-speed wireless switched global network -an IP-based system designed to support data voice and video at the same quality level as fiber-based terrestrial systems - a global Internet-in-the-Skyldquo providing broadband and Internet access
bull Originally (1995) planning 840 active satellites with in-orbit spares at an altitude of 700 km
bull Scaled (1997) to 288 active satellites at 1400 kmbull Officially suspended its satellite construction work on
October 1 2002bull Funding from Microsoft (investing US$30 million for an
85 stake) Craig McCaw Bill Gates Paul Allen and Saudi prince Alwaleed bin Talal and for achieving allocation on the Ka-band frequency spectrum for non-geostationary services
Highly elliptical orbit
bull HEO ndash an elliptic orbit with a low-altitude (about 1000 kilometres) perigee and a high-altitude (over 35786 kilometres) apogee
bull Advantage - long dwell times at a point in the sky during the approach to and descent from apogee - phenomenon known as apogee dwell (acts like GEO) (3-4 hours can receive signal with 06 m antenna)
bull Used by Sirius Satellite Radio (operating in North America) the Molniya communication satelites (at least 3) (Russia)
Satellite Applications
bull Communication The main application for satellites today is in communication Communication satellites act as relay stations in the sky and permit reliable long-distance communication worldwide
bull Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS) service This is a TV signal distribution system designed to distribute signals directly to consumers
Satellite Applications
bull Satellite Cell Phones Satellite-based cellular telephone service is under development The proposed new systems use low-earth-orbit satellites to perform the relay services to the main telephone system or to make connection directly between any two cellular telephones using the system
Satellite Applications
bull Digital Satellite Radio One of the newest satellite applications is in digital satellite radio or the digital audio radio service (DARS) ndash This service provides hundreds of channels of
music news sports and talk radio to car portable and home radios
ndash It provides full continuous coverage of the station you select wherever you are in the United States
ndash Its digital transmission techniques ensure high-quality stereo sound that is immune to noise
ndash The satellites transmit other information such as song title and artist type of music and other data which are displayed on a LCD screen
Satellite Applications
bull Surveillance satellites can look at the earth and transmit what they see back to ground stations for a wide variety of purposes including military intelligence meteorological applications and mapping
bull Satellite navigation systems can provide global coverage unavailable with land-based systems satellites
Global Positioning System
bull The Global Positioning System (GPS) also known as Navstar is a satellite-based navigation system that can be used by anyone with an appropriate receiver to pinpoint his or her location on earth
bull GPS was developed by the US Air Force for the Department of Defense as a continuous global radio navigation system
bull The GPS system consists of three major segments the space segment the control segment and the user segment
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentndash The space segment is the constellation of
satellites orbiting above the earth that contain transmitters which send highly accurate timing information to GPS receivers on earth
bull The GPS consists of 24 main operational satellites and 3 active spare satellites arranged in six orbits of 3 or 4 satellites each
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentbull Each of the satellites contains four highly accurate
atomic clocks
bull These clocks are used to generate a unique pseudorandom code identifying the specific satellite that is transmitted to earth
bull The satellite also transmits a set of digitally coded ephemeris data that completely defines its precise orbit
Global Positioning System
The GPS space segment
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentndash The control segment of the GPS system
refers to the various ground stations that monitor the satellites and provide control and update information
bull The master control station is operated by the US Air Force in Colorado Springs
bull Four additional monitoring and control stations constantly monitor the satellites and collect range information from each
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentbull The information is sent back to the master
control station in Colorado where all the information is collected and position data on each satellite calculated
bull The master control station then transmits new ephemeris and clock data to each satellite on the S-band uplink once per day
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash A GPS receiver is a complex superheterodyne
microwave receiver designed to pick up the GPS signals decode them and then compute the location of the receiver
ndash The output is usually an LCD display giving latitude longitude and altitude information andor a map of the area
ndash The most widely used GPS receiver is the popular handheld portable type not much larger than an oversized handheld calculator
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash The receiver performs a time multiplexing
operation on the four satellites within view of the receiver
ndash The data is extracted from each of the four satellites and stored in the receiverrsquos memory
ndash Data from three satellites is needed to fix the receiverrsquos position
ndash If data from a fourth satellite is available altitude can be calculated
Global Positioning System
GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
How triangulation works to locate a GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications ndash The primary application of the GPS is
military and related navigationndash GPS is used by all services for ships
aircraft and ground troopsndash Most civilian applications also involve
navigation which is usually marine or aviation-related
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications
ndash Commercial applications include surveying mapmaking and construction
ndash Vehicle location is a growing application for trucking and delivery companies taxi bus and train transportation
ndash Police fire ambulance and forest services also use GPS
ndash A new hobby called geocaching uses GPS receivers In this sport one team hides an item or ldquotreasurerdquo and then gives the other team coordinates to follow to find the treasure within a given time
Design of the Satellite Link
bull The satellite link is probably the most basic in microwave communications since a line-of-sight path typically exists between the Earth and space
bull This means that an imaginary line extending between the transmitting or receiving Earth station and the satellite antenna passes only through the atmosphere and not ground obstacles
bull Such a link is governed by free-space propagation with only limited variation with respect to time due to various constituents of the atmosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull Free-space attenuation is determined by the inverse square law which states that the power
received is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
bull The same law applies to the amount of light that reaches our eyes from a distant point source such as an automobile headlight or star
bull There are however a number of additional effects that produce a significant amount of degradation and time variation
bull These include rain terrain effects such as absorption by trees and walls and some less-obvious impairment produced by unstable conditions of the air and ionosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull It is the job of the communication engineer to identify all of the significant contributions to performance and make sure that they are properly taken into account
bull The required factors include the performance of the satellite itself the configuration and performance of the uplink and downlink Earth stations and the impact of the propagation medium in the frequency band of interest
ITU Frequency Spectrum Allocations
Communication Satellites
bull Another issue is the presence of the Van Allen belts - layers of highly charged particles trapped by the earths magnetic field
bull Any satellite flying within them would be destroyed fairly quickly by the highly-energetic charged particles trapped there by the earths magnetic field
bull Hence there are three regions in which satellites can be placed safely - illustrated in the following figure
Communication Satellites
Communication satellites and some of their properties including altitude above the earth round-trip delay time and number of satellites needed for global coverage
Communication Satellites
Geostationary Satellites
bull Each downward beam can be focused on a small geographical area so multiple upward and downward transmissions can take place simultaneously
bull Typically the spot beams are elliptically shaped and can be as small as a few hundred km in diameter
bull A communication satellite for the United States typically has one wide beam for the contiguous 48 states plus spot beams for Alaska and Hawaii
VSAT systems
bull VSAT (Very Small Aperture Terminal) ndash a satellite communication system that serves home and business users for data voice and video signals
bull Tiny terminals have 1-meter or smaller antennas (versus 10 m for a standard GEO antenna) and can put out about 1 watt of power
bull A VSAT end user has a box that interfaces between the users computer and an outside antenna with a transceiver
bull The tranceiver receives sends a signal to a satellite transponder
Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull The MEO (Medium-Earth Orbit) satellites are between the two Van Allen belts
bull Takes something like 6 hours to circle the earthbull As MEO are lower than the GEOs (typically
16000 km above Earth) they have a smaller footprint on the ground and require less powerful transmitters to reach them
bull Currently they are not used for telecommunications but in navigation systems
Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull The 24 GPS (Global Positioning System) satellites orbiting at about 18000 km are American but free to use by anyone
bull Russia is using Glonass ndash 24 satellites orbiting at 19100 km
bull European Union works on Galileo ndash 30 satellite MEO navigation system orbiting at 23200 km - global navigation satellite system (GNSS) (2019)
bull China is building Compass ndash 35 satellites ndash 5 GEO and 30 MEO at 21100 km (10 in use and offering services now) (2020)
Low-Earth Orbit Satellitesbull A Low Earth Orbit (LEO) is generally defined as
an orbit below an altitude of approximately 2000 kilometers and above 160 kilometers ndash almost all human spaceflights have taken place in LEO
bull (-) large numbers of LEO are needed for a complete system due to their rapid motion (26000 to 27000 km per hour)
bull (+) satellites are very close to the earth so the ground stations do not need much power
bull (+) the round-trip delay is only a few milliseconds
Low-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull Because these LEO orbits are not geostationary a network (or constellation) of satellites is required to provide continuous coverage
bull LEOs are used for a variety of civil scientific and military roles including Earth observation radar optical telecoms and demonstrator
bull Some use as many as 66 satellites (Iridium ndash satellite phones)
Low-Earth Orbit Satellitesbull The Iridium satellite constellation - group of
satellites providing voice and data coverage to satellite phones pagers and integrated transceivers over Earths entire surface
bull Originally developed in 1992 services started in 1998 bankrupted in August 1999 and subsequently restarted in March 2001 (513 000 subscribers in 2011)
bull Satellites are at a height of approximately 781 kmbull Customers include the maritime aviation and oil
exploration industries as well as people traveling in parts of the world lacking a telecommunications infrastructure (eg deserts mountains jungles and some Third World countries)
Iridium
bull The Iridium satellites are in circular polar orbits
bull They are arranged in north-south necklaces with one satellite every 32 degrees of latitude
bull With six satellite necklaces the entire earth is covered
bull Each satellite can support up to 1100 concurrent phone calls and weighs about 680 kg
Iridium
bull Each satellite has a maximum of 48 cells (spot beams) with a total of 1628 cells over the surface of the earth
bull Each satellite has a capacity of 3840 channels or 253440 in all
bull Some of these are used for paging and navigation while others are used for data and voice
bull An interesting property of Iridium is that communication between distant customers takes place in space with one satellite relaying data to the next one
bull A caller at the North Pole contacts a satellite directly overhead - the call is relayed via other satellites and finally sent down to the called at the South Pole
Globalstar
bull Globalstar - based on 48 LEO satellites but uses a different switching scheme than that of Iridium (relays calls from satellite to satellite which requires sophisticated switching equipment in the satellites)
bull Globalstar uses a traditional bent-pipe design - a call originating at the North Pole is sent back to earth and picked up by the large ground station
bull The call is then routed via a terrestrial network to the ground station nearest the callee and delivered by a bent-pipe connection as shown
bull Advantage - puts much of the complexity on the ground where it is easier to manage (412300 subscribers in 2010)
Teledesic
bull Teledesic was as high-speed wireless switched global network -an IP-based system designed to support data voice and video at the same quality level as fiber-based terrestrial systems - a global Internet-in-the-Skyldquo providing broadband and Internet access
bull Originally (1995) planning 840 active satellites with in-orbit spares at an altitude of 700 km
bull Scaled (1997) to 288 active satellites at 1400 kmbull Officially suspended its satellite construction work on
October 1 2002bull Funding from Microsoft (investing US$30 million for an
85 stake) Craig McCaw Bill Gates Paul Allen and Saudi prince Alwaleed bin Talal and for achieving allocation on the Ka-band frequency spectrum for non-geostationary services
Highly elliptical orbit
bull HEO ndash an elliptic orbit with a low-altitude (about 1000 kilometres) perigee and a high-altitude (over 35786 kilometres) apogee
bull Advantage - long dwell times at a point in the sky during the approach to and descent from apogee - phenomenon known as apogee dwell (acts like GEO) (3-4 hours can receive signal with 06 m antenna)
bull Used by Sirius Satellite Radio (operating in North America) the Molniya communication satelites (at least 3) (Russia)
Satellite Applications
bull Communication The main application for satellites today is in communication Communication satellites act as relay stations in the sky and permit reliable long-distance communication worldwide
bull Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS) service This is a TV signal distribution system designed to distribute signals directly to consumers
Satellite Applications
bull Satellite Cell Phones Satellite-based cellular telephone service is under development The proposed new systems use low-earth-orbit satellites to perform the relay services to the main telephone system or to make connection directly between any two cellular telephones using the system
Satellite Applications
bull Digital Satellite Radio One of the newest satellite applications is in digital satellite radio or the digital audio radio service (DARS) ndash This service provides hundreds of channels of
music news sports and talk radio to car portable and home radios
ndash It provides full continuous coverage of the station you select wherever you are in the United States
ndash Its digital transmission techniques ensure high-quality stereo sound that is immune to noise
ndash The satellites transmit other information such as song title and artist type of music and other data which are displayed on a LCD screen
Satellite Applications
bull Surveillance satellites can look at the earth and transmit what they see back to ground stations for a wide variety of purposes including military intelligence meteorological applications and mapping
bull Satellite navigation systems can provide global coverage unavailable with land-based systems satellites
Global Positioning System
bull The Global Positioning System (GPS) also known as Navstar is a satellite-based navigation system that can be used by anyone with an appropriate receiver to pinpoint his or her location on earth
bull GPS was developed by the US Air Force for the Department of Defense as a continuous global radio navigation system
bull The GPS system consists of three major segments the space segment the control segment and the user segment
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentndash The space segment is the constellation of
satellites orbiting above the earth that contain transmitters which send highly accurate timing information to GPS receivers on earth
bull The GPS consists of 24 main operational satellites and 3 active spare satellites arranged in six orbits of 3 or 4 satellites each
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentbull Each of the satellites contains four highly accurate
atomic clocks
bull These clocks are used to generate a unique pseudorandom code identifying the specific satellite that is transmitted to earth
bull The satellite also transmits a set of digitally coded ephemeris data that completely defines its precise orbit
Global Positioning System
The GPS space segment
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentndash The control segment of the GPS system
refers to the various ground stations that monitor the satellites and provide control and update information
bull The master control station is operated by the US Air Force in Colorado Springs
bull Four additional monitoring and control stations constantly monitor the satellites and collect range information from each
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentbull The information is sent back to the master
control station in Colorado where all the information is collected and position data on each satellite calculated
bull The master control station then transmits new ephemeris and clock data to each satellite on the S-band uplink once per day
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash A GPS receiver is a complex superheterodyne
microwave receiver designed to pick up the GPS signals decode them and then compute the location of the receiver
ndash The output is usually an LCD display giving latitude longitude and altitude information andor a map of the area
ndash The most widely used GPS receiver is the popular handheld portable type not much larger than an oversized handheld calculator
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash The receiver performs a time multiplexing
operation on the four satellites within view of the receiver
ndash The data is extracted from each of the four satellites and stored in the receiverrsquos memory
ndash Data from three satellites is needed to fix the receiverrsquos position
ndash If data from a fourth satellite is available altitude can be calculated
Global Positioning System
GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
How triangulation works to locate a GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications ndash The primary application of the GPS is
military and related navigationndash GPS is used by all services for ships
aircraft and ground troopsndash Most civilian applications also involve
navigation which is usually marine or aviation-related
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications
ndash Commercial applications include surveying mapmaking and construction
ndash Vehicle location is a growing application for trucking and delivery companies taxi bus and train transportation
ndash Police fire ambulance and forest services also use GPS
ndash A new hobby called geocaching uses GPS receivers In this sport one team hides an item or ldquotreasurerdquo and then gives the other team coordinates to follow to find the treasure within a given time
Design of the Satellite Link
bull The satellite link is probably the most basic in microwave communications since a line-of-sight path typically exists between the Earth and space
bull This means that an imaginary line extending between the transmitting or receiving Earth station and the satellite antenna passes only through the atmosphere and not ground obstacles
bull Such a link is governed by free-space propagation with only limited variation with respect to time due to various constituents of the atmosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull Free-space attenuation is determined by the inverse square law which states that the power
received is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
bull The same law applies to the amount of light that reaches our eyes from a distant point source such as an automobile headlight or star
bull There are however a number of additional effects that produce a significant amount of degradation and time variation
bull These include rain terrain effects such as absorption by trees and walls and some less-obvious impairment produced by unstable conditions of the air and ionosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull It is the job of the communication engineer to identify all of the significant contributions to performance and make sure that they are properly taken into account
bull The required factors include the performance of the satellite itself the configuration and performance of the uplink and downlink Earth stations and the impact of the propagation medium in the frequency band of interest
Communication Satellites
bull Another issue is the presence of the Van Allen belts - layers of highly charged particles trapped by the earths magnetic field
bull Any satellite flying within them would be destroyed fairly quickly by the highly-energetic charged particles trapped there by the earths magnetic field
bull Hence there are three regions in which satellites can be placed safely - illustrated in the following figure
Communication Satellites
Communication satellites and some of their properties including altitude above the earth round-trip delay time and number of satellites needed for global coverage
Communication Satellites
Geostationary Satellites
bull Each downward beam can be focused on a small geographical area so multiple upward and downward transmissions can take place simultaneously
bull Typically the spot beams are elliptically shaped and can be as small as a few hundred km in diameter
bull A communication satellite for the United States typically has one wide beam for the contiguous 48 states plus spot beams for Alaska and Hawaii
VSAT systems
bull VSAT (Very Small Aperture Terminal) ndash a satellite communication system that serves home and business users for data voice and video signals
bull Tiny terminals have 1-meter or smaller antennas (versus 10 m for a standard GEO antenna) and can put out about 1 watt of power
bull A VSAT end user has a box that interfaces between the users computer and an outside antenna with a transceiver
bull The tranceiver receives sends a signal to a satellite transponder
Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull The MEO (Medium-Earth Orbit) satellites are between the two Van Allen belts
bull Takes something like 6 hours to circle the earthbull As MEO are lower than the GEOs (typically
16000 km above Earth) they have a smaller footprint on the ground and require less powerful transmitters to reach them
bull Currently they are not used for telecommunications but in navigation systems
Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull The 24 GPS (Global Positioning System) satellites orbiting at about 18000 km are American but free to use by anyone
bull Russia is using Glonass ndash 24 satellites orbiting at 19100 km
bull European Union works on Galileo ndash 30 satellite MEO navigation system orbiting at 23200 km - global navigation satellite system (GNSS) (2019)
bull China is building Compass ndash 35 satellites ndash 5 GEO and 30 MEO at 21100 km (10 in use and offering services now) (2020)
Low-Earth Orbit Satellitesbull A Low Earth Orbit (LEO) is generally defined as
an orbit below an altitude of approximately 2000 kilometers and above 160 kilometers ndash almost all human spaceflights have taken place in LEO
bull (-) large numbers of LEO are needed for a complete system due to their rapid motion (26000 to 27000 km per hour)
bull (+) satellites are very close to the earth so the ground stations do not need much power
bull (+) the round-trip delay is only a few milliseconds
Low-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull Because these LEO orbits are not geostationary a network (or constellation) of satellites is required to provide continuous coverage
bull LEOs are used for a variety of civil scientific and military roles including Earth observation radar optical telecoms and demonstrator
bull Some use as many as 66 satellites (Iridium ndash satellite phones)
Low-Earth Orbit Satellitesbull The Iridium satellite constellation - group of
satellites providing voice and data coverage to satellite phones pagers and integrated transceivers over Earths entire surface
bull Originally developed in 1992 services started in 1998 bankrupted in August 1999 and subsequently restarted in March 2001 (513 000 subscribers in 2011)
bull Satellites are at a height of approximately 781 kmbull Customers include the maritime aviation and oil
exploration industries as well as people traveling in parts of the world lacking a telecommunications infrastructure (eg deserts mountains jungles and some Third World countries)
Iridium
bull The Iridium satellites are in circular polar orbits
bull They are arranged in north-south necklaces with one satellite every 32 degrees of latitude
bull With six satellite necklaces the entire earth is covered
bull Each satellite can support up to 1100 concurrent phone calls and weighs about 680 kg
Iridium
bull Each satellite has a maximum of 48 cells (spot beams) with a total of 1628 cells over the surface of the earth
bull Each satellite has a capacity of 3840 channels or 253440 in all
bull Some of these are used for paging and navigation while others are used for data and voice
bull An interesting property of Iridium is that communication between distant customers takes place in space with one satellite relaying data to the next one
bull A caller at the North Pole contacts a satellite directly overhead - the call is relayed via other satellites and finally sent down to the called at the South Pole
Globalstar
bull Globalstar - based on 48 LEO satellites but uses a different switching scheme than that of Iridium (relays calls from satellite to satellite which requires sophisticated switching equipment in the satellites)
bull Globalstar uses a traditional bent-pipe design - a call originating at the North Pole is sent back to earth and picked up by the large ground station
bull The call is then routed via a terrestrial network to the ground station nearest the callee and delivered by a bent-pipe connection as shown
bull Advantage - puts much of the complexity on the ground where it is easier to manage (412300 subscribers in 2010)
Teledesic
bull Teledesic was as high-speed wireless switched global network -an IP-based system designed to support data voice and video at the same quality level as fiber-based terrestrial systems - a global Internet-in-the-Skyldquo providing broadband and Internet access
bull Originally (1995) planning 840 active satellites with in-orbit spares at an altitude of 700 km
bull Scaled (1997) to 288 active satellites at 1400 kmbull Officially suspended its satellite construction work on
October 1 2002bull Funding from Microsoft (investing US$30 million for an
85 stake) Craig McCaw Bill Gates Paul Allen and Saudi prince Alwaleed bin Talal and for achieving allocation on the Ka-band frequency spectrum for non-geostationary services
Highly elliptical orbit
bull HEO ndash an elliptic orbit with a low-altitude (about 1000 kilometres) perigee and a high-altitude (over 35786 kilometres) apogee
bull Advantage - long dwell times at a point in the sky during the approach to and descent from apogee - phenomenon known as apogee dwell (acts like GEO) (3-4 hours can receive signal with 06 m antenna)
bull Used by Sirius Satellite Radio (operating in North America) the Molniya communication satelites (at least 3) (Russia)
Satellite Applications
bull Communication The main application for satellites today is in communication Communication satellites act as relay stations in the sky and permit reliable long-distance communication worldwide
bull Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS) service This is a TV signal distribution system designed to distribute signals directly to consumers
Satellite Applications
bull Satellite Cell Phones Satellite-based cellular telephone service is under development The proposed new systems use low-earth-orbit satellites to perform the relay services to the main telephone system or to make connection directly between any two cellular telephones using the system
Satellite Applications
bull Digital Satellite Radio One of the newest satellite applications is in digital satellite radio or the digital audio radio service (DARS) ndash This service provides hundreds of channels of
music news sports and talk radio to car portable and home radios
ndash It provides full continuous coverage of the station you select wherever you are in the United States
ndash Its digital transmission techniques ensure high-quality stereo sound that is immune to noise
ndash The satellites transmit other information such as song title and artist type of music and other data which are displayed on a LCD screen
Satellite Applications
bull Surveillance satellites can look at the earth and transmit what they see back to ground stations for a wide variety of purposes including military intelligence meteorological applications and mapping
bull Satellite navigation systems can provide global coverage unavailable with land-based systems satellites
Global Positioning System
bull The Global Positioning System (GPS) also known as Navstar is a satellite-based navigation system that can be used by anyone with an appropriate receiver to pinpoint his or her location on earth
bull GPS was developed by the US Air Force for the Department of Defense as a continuous global radio navigation system
bull The GPS system consists of three major segments the space segment the control segment and the user segment
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentndash The space segment is the constellation of
satellites orbiting above the earth that contain transmitters which send highly accurate timing information to GPS receivers on earth
bull The GPS consists of 24 main operational satellites and 3 active spare satellites arranged in six orbits of 3 or 4 satellites each
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentbull Each of the satellites contains four highly accurate
atomic clocks
bull These clocks are used to generate a unique pseudorandom code identifying the specific satellite that is transmitted to earth
bull The satellite also transmits a set of digitally coded ephemeris data that completely defines its precise orbit
Global Positioning System
The GPS space segment
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentndash The control segment of the GPS system
refers to the various ground stations that monitor the satellites and provide control and update information
bull The master control station is operated by the US Air Force in Colorado Springs
bull Four additional monitoring and control stations constantly monitor the satellites and collect range information from each
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentbull The information is sent back to the master
control station in Colorado where all the information is collected and position data on each satellite calculated
bull The master control station then transmits new ephemeris and clock data to each satellite on the S-band uplink once per day
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash A GPS receiver is a complex superheterodyne
microwave receiver designed to pick up the GPS signals decode them and then compute the location of the receiver
ndash The output is usually an LCD display giving latitude longitude and altitude information andor a map of the area
ndash The most widely used GPS receiver is the popular handheld portable type not much larger than an oversized handheld calculator
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash The receiver performs a time multiplexing
operation on the four satellites within view of the receiver
ndash The data is extracted from each of the four satellites and stored in the receiverrsquos memory
ndash Data from three satellites is needed to fix the receiverrsquos position
ndash If data from a fourth satellite is available altitude can be calculated
Global Positioning System
GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
How triangulation works to locate a GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications ndash The primary application of the GPS is
military and related navigationndash GPS is used by all services for ships
aircraft and ground troopsndash Most civilian applications also involve
navigation which is usually marine or aviation-related
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications
ndash Commercial applications include surveying mapmaking and construction
ndash Vehicle location is a growing application for trucking and delivery companies taxi bus and train transportation
ndash Police fire ambulance and forest services also use GPS
ndash A new hobby called geocaching uses GPS receivers In this sport one team hides an item or ldquotreasurerdquo and then gives the other team coordinates to follow to find the treasure within a given time
Design of the Satellite Link
bull The satellite link is probably the most basic in microwave communications since a line-of-sight path typically exists between the Earth and space
bull This means that an imaginary line extending between the transmitting or receiving Earth station and the satellite antenna passes only through the atmosphere and not ground obstacles
bull Such a link is governed by free-space propagation with only limited variation with respect to time due to various constituents of the atmosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull Free-space attenuation is determined by the inverse square law which states that the power
received is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
bull The same law applies to the amount of light that reaches our eyes from a distant point source such as an automobile headlight or star
bull There are however a number of additional effects that produce a significant amount of degradation and time variation
bull These include rain terrain effects such as absorption by trees and walls and some less-obvious impairment produced by unstable conditions of the air and ionosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull It is the job of the communication engineer to identify all of the significant contributions to performance and make sure that they are properly taken into account
bull The required factors include the performance of the satellite itself the configuration and performance of the uplink and downlink Earth stations and the impact of the propagation medium in the frequency band of interest
Communication Satellites
Communication satellites and some of their properties including altitude above the earth round-trip delay time and number of satellites needed for global coverage
Communication Satellites
Geostationary Satellites
bull Each downward beam can be focused on a small geographical area so multiple upward and downward transmissions can take place simultaneously
bull Typically the spot beams are elliptically shaped and can be as small as a few hundred km in diameter
bull A communication satellite for the United States typically has one wide beam for the contiguous 48 states plus spot beams for Alaska and Hawaii
VSAT systems
bull VSAT (Very Small Aperture Terminal) ndash a satellite communication system that serves home and business users for data voice and video signals
bull Tiny terminals have 1-meter or smaller antennas (versus 10 m for a standard GEO antenna) and can put out about 1 watt of power
bull A VSAT end user has a box that interfaces between the users computer and an outside antenna with a transceiver
bull The tranceiver receives sends a signal to a satellite transponder
Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull The MEO (Medium-Earth Orbit) satellites are between the two Van Allen belts
bull Takes something like 6 hours to circle the earthbull As MEO are lower than the GEOs (typically
16000 km above Earth) they have a smaller footprint on the ground and require less powerful transmitters to reach them
bull Currently they are not used for telecommunications but in navigation systems
Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull The 24 GPS (Global Positioning System) satellites orbiting at about 18000 km are American but free to use by anyone
bull Russia is using Glonass ndash 24 satellites orbiting at 19100 km
bull European Union works on Galileo ndash 30 satellite MEO navigation system orbiting at 23200 km - global navigation satellite system (GNSS) (2019)
bull China is building Compass ndash 35 satellites ndash 5 GEO and 30 MEO at 21100 km (10 in use and offering services now) (2020)
Low-Earth Orbit Satellitesbull A Low Earth Orbit (LEO) is generally defined as
an orbit below an altitude of approximately 2000 kilometers and above 160 kilometers ndash almost all human spaceflights have taken place in LEO
bull (-) large numbers of LEO are needed for a complete system due to their rapid motion (26000 to 27000 km per hour)
bull (+) satellites are very close to the earth so the ground stations do not need much power
bull (+) the round-trip delay is only a few milliseconds
Low-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull Because these LEO orbits are not geostationary a network (or constellation) of satellites is required to provide continuous coverage
bull LEOs are used for a variety of civil scientific and military roles including Earth observation radar optical telecoms and demonstrator
bull Some use as many as 66 satellites (Iridium ndash satellite phones)
Low-Earth Orbit Satellitesbull The Iridium satellite constellation - group of
satellites providing voice and data coverage to satellite phones pagers and integrated transceivers over Earths entire surface
bull Originally developed in 1992 services started in 1998 bankrupted in August 1999 and subsequently restarted in March 2001 (513 000 subscribers in 2011)
bull Satellites are at a height of approximately 781 kmbull Customers include the maritime aviation and oil
exploration industries as well as people traveling in parts of the world lacking a telecommunications infrastructure (eg deserts mountains jungles and some Third World countries)
Iridium
bull The Iridium satellites are in circular polar orbits
bull They are arranged in north-south necklaces with one satellite every 32 degrees of latitude
bull With six satellite necklaces the entire earth is covered
bull Each satellite can support up to 1100 concurrent phone calls and weighs about 680 kg
Iridium
bull Each satellite has a maximum of 48 cells (spot beams) with a total of 1628 cells over the surface of the earth
bull Each satellite has a capacity of 3840 channels or 253440 in all
bull Some of these are used for paging and navigation while others are used for data and voice
bull An interesting property of Iridium is that communication between distant customers takes place in space with one satellite relaying data to the next one
bull A caller at the North Pole contacts a satellite directly overhead - the call is relayed via other satellites and finally sent down to the called at the South Pole
Globalstar
bull Globalstar - based on 48 LEO satellites but uses a different switching scheme than that of Iridium (relays calls from satellite to satellite which requires sophisticated switching equipment in the satellites)
bull Globalstar uses a traditional bent-pipe design - a call originating at the North Pole is sent back to earth and picked up by the large ground station
bull The call is then routed via a terrestrial network to the ground station nearest the callee and delivered by a bent-pipe connection as shown
bull Advantage - puts much of the complexity on the ground where it is easier to manage (412300 subscribers in 2010)
Teledesic
bull Teledesic was as high-speed wireless switched global network -an IP-based system designed to support data voice and video at the same quality level as fiber-based terrestrial systems - a global Internet-in-the-Skyldquo providing broadband and Internet access
bull Originally (1995) planning 840 active satellites with in-orbit spares at an altitude of 700 km
bull Scaled (1997) to 288 active satellites at 1400 kmbull Officially suspended its satellite construction work on
October 1 2002bull Funding from Microsoft (investing US$30 million for an
85 stake) Craig McCaw Bill Gates Paul Allen and Saudi prince Alwaleed bin Talal and for achieving allocation on the Ka-band frequency spectrum for non-geostationary services
Highly elliptical orbit
bull HEO ndash an elliptic orbit with a low-altitude (about 1000 kilometres) perigee and a high-altitude (over 35786 kilometres) apogee
bull Advantage - long dwell times at a point in the sky during the approach to and descent from apogee - phenomenon known as apogee dwell (acts like GEO) (3-4 hours can receive signal with 06 m antenna)
bull Used by Sirius Satellite Radio (operating in North America) the Molniya communication satelites (at least 3) (Russia)
Satellite Applications
bull Communication The main application for satellites today is in communication Communication satellites act as relay stations in the sky and permit reliable long-distance communication worldwide
bull Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS) service This is a TV signal distribution system designed to distribute signals directly to consumers
Satellite Applications
bull Satellite Cell Phones Satellite-based cellular telephone service is under development The proposed new systems use low-earth-orbit satellites to perform the relay services to the main telephone system or to make connection directly between any two cellular telephones using the system
Satellite Applications
bull Digital Satellite Radio One of the newest satellite applications is in digital satellite radio or the digital audio radio service (DARS) ndash This service provides hundreds of channels of
music news sports and talk radio to car portable and home radios
ndash It provides full continuous coverage of the station you select wherever you are in the United States
ndash Its digital transmission techniques ensure high-quality stereo sound that is immune to noise
ndash The satellites transmit other information such as song title and artist type of music and other data which are displayed on a LCD screen
Satellite Applications
bull Surveillance satellites can look at the earth and transmit what they see back to ground stations for a wide variety of purposes including military intelligence meteorological applications and mapping
bull Satellite navigation systems can provide global coverage unavailable with land-based systems satellites
Global Positioning System
bull The Global Positioning System (GPS) also known as Navstar is a satellite-based navigation system that can be used by anyone with an appropriate receiver to pinpoint his or her location on earth
bull GPS was developed by the US Air Force for the Department of Defense as a continuous global radio navigation system
bull The GPS system consists of three major segments the space segment the control segment and the user segment
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentndash The space segment is the constellation of
satellites orbiting above the earth that contain transmitters which send highly accurate timing information to GPS receivers on earth
bull The GPS consists of 24 main operational satellites and 3 active spare satellites arranged in six orbits of 3 or 4 satellites each
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentbull Each of the satellites contains four highly accurate
atomic clocks
bull These clocks are used to generate a unique pseudorandom code identifying the specific satellite that is transmitted to earth
bull The satellite also transmits a set of digitally coded ephemeris data that completely defines its precise orbit
Global Positioning System
The GPS space segment
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentndash The control segment of the GPS system
refers to the various ground stations that monitor the satellites and provide control and update information
bull The master control station is operated by the US Air Force in Colorado Springs
bull Four additional monitoring and control stations constantly monitor the satellites and collect range information from each
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentbull The information is sent back to the master
control station in Colorado where all the information is collected and position data on each satellite calculated
bull The master control station then transmits new ephemeris and clock data to each satellite on the S-band uplink once per day
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash A GPS receiver is a complex superheterodyne
microwave receiver designed to pick up the GPS signals decode them and then compute the location of the receiver
ndash The output is usually an LCD display giving latitude longitude and altitude information andor a map of the area
ndash The most widely used GPS receiver is the popular handheld portable type not much larger than an oversized handheld calculator
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash The receiver performs a time multiplexing
operation on the four satellites within view of the receiver
ndash The data is extracted from each of the four satellites and stored in the receiverrsquos memory
ndash Data from three satellites is needed to fix the receiverrsquos position
ndash If data from a fourth satellite is available altitude can be calculated
Global Positioning System
GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
How triangulation works to locate a GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications ndash The primary application of the GPS is
military and related navigationndash GPS is used by all services for ships
aircraft and ground troopsndash Most civilian applications also involve
navigation which is usually marine or aviation-related
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications
ndash Commercial applications include surveying mapmaking and construction
ndash Vehicle location is a growing application for trucking and delivery companies taxi bus and train transportation
ndash Police fire ambulance and forest services also use GPS
ndash A new hobby called geocaching uses GPS receivers In this sport one team hides an item or ldquotreasurerdquo and then gives the other team coordinates to follow to find the treasure within a given time
Design of the Satellite Link
bull The satellite link is probably the most basic in microwave communications since a line-of-sight path typically exists between the Earth and space
bull This means that an imaginary line extending between the transmitting or receiving Earth station and the satellite antenna passes only through the atmosphere and not ground obstacles
bull Such a link is governed by free-space propagation with only limited variation with respect to time due to various constituents of the atmosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull Free-space attenuation is determined by the inverse square law which states that the power
received is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
bull The same law applies to the amount of light that reaches our eyes from a distant point source such as an automobile headlight or star
bull There are however a number of additional effects that produce a significant amount of degradation and time variation
bull These include rain terrain effects such as absorption by trees and walls and some less-obvious impairment produced by unstable conditions of the air and ionosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull It is the job of the communication engineer to identify all of the significant contributions to performance and make sure that they are properly taken into account
bull The required factors include the performance of the satellite itself the configuration and performance of the uplink and downlink Earth stations and the impact of the propagation medium in the frequency band of interest
Communication Satellites
Geostationary Satellites
bull Each downward beam can be focused on a small geographical area so multiple upward and downward transmissions can take place simultaneously
bull Typically the spot beams are elliptically shaped and can be as small as a few hundred km in diameter
bull A communication satellite for the United States typically has one wide beam for the contiguous 48 states plus spot beams for Alaska and Hawaii
VSAT systems
bull VSAT (Very Small Aperture Terminal) ndash a satellite communication system that serves home and business users for data voice and video signals
bull Tiny terminals have 1-meter or smaller antennas (versus 10 m for a standard GEO antenna) and can put out about 1 watt of power
bull A VSAT end user has a box that interfaces between the users computer and an outside antenna with a transceiver
bull The tranceiver receives sends a signal to a satellite transponder
Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull The MEO (Medium-Earth Orbit) satellites are between the two Van Allen belts
bull Takes something like 6 hours to circle the earthbull As MEO are lower than the GEOs (typically
16000 km above Earth) they have a smaller footprint on the ground and require less powerful transmitters to reach them
bull Currently they are not used for telecommunications but in navigation systems
Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull The 24 GPS (Global Positioning System) satellites orbiting at about 18000 km are American but free to use by anyone
bull Russia is using Glonass ndash 24 satellites orbiting at 19100 km
bull European Union works on Galileo ndash 30 satellite MEO navigation system orbiting at 23200 km - global navigation satellite system (GNSS) (2019)
bull China is building Compass ndash 35 satellites ndash 5 GEO and 30 MEO at 21100 km (10 in use and offering services now) (2020)
Low-Earth Orbit Satellitesbull A Low Earth Orbit (LEO) is generally defined as
an orbit below an altitude of approximately 2000 kilometers and above 160 kilometers ndash almost all human spaceflights have taken place in LEO
bull (-) large numbers of LEO are needed for a complete system due to their rapid motion (26000 to 27000 km per hour)
bull (+) satellites are very close to the earth so the ground stations do not need much power
bull (+) the round-trip delay is only a few milliseconds
Low-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull Because these LEO orbits are not geostationary a network (or constellation) of satellites is required to provide continuous coverage
bull LEOs are used for a variety of civil scientific and military roles including Earth observation radar optical telecoms and demonstrator
bull Some use as many as 66 satellites (Iridium ndash satellite phones)
Low-Earth Orbit Satellitesbull The Iridium satellite constellation - group of
satellites providing voice and data coverage to satellite phones pagers and integrated transceivers over Earths entire surface
bull Originally developed in 1992 services started in 1998 bankrupted in August 1999 and subsequently restarted in March 2001 (513 000 subscribers in 2011)
bull Satellites are at a height of approximately 781 kmbull Customers include the maritime aviation and oil
exploration industries as well as people traveling in parts of the world lacking a telecommunications infrastructure (eg deserts mountains jungles and some Third World countries)
Iridium
bull The Iridium satellites are in circular polar orbits
bull They are arranged in north-south necklaces with one satellite every 32 degrees of latitude
bull With six satellite necklaces the entire earth is covered
bull Each satellite can support up to 1100 concurrent phone calls and weighs about 680 kg
Iridium
bull Each satellite has a maximum of 48 cells (spot beams) with a total of 1628 cells over the surface of the earth
bull Each satellite has a capacity of 3840 channels or 253440 in all
bull Some of these are used for paging and navigation while others are used for data and voice
bull An interesting property of Iridium is that communication between distant customers takes place in space with one satellite relaying data to the next one
bull A caller at the North Pole contacts a satellite directly overhead - the call is relayed via other satellites and finally sent down to the called at the South Pole
Globalstar
bull Globalstar - based on 48 LEO satellites but uses a different switching scheme than that of Iridium (relays calls from satellite to satellite which requires sophisticated switching equipment in the satellites)
bull Globalstar uses a traditional bent-pipe design - a call originating at the North Pole is sent back to earth and picked up by the large ground station
bull The call is then routed via a terrestrial network to the ground station nearest the callee and delivered by a bent-pipe connection as shown
bull Advantage - puts much of the complexity on the ground where it is easier to manage (412300 subscribers in 2010)
Teledesic
bull Teledesic was as high-speed wireless switched global network -an IP-based system designed to support data voice and video at the same quality level as fiber-based terrestrial systems - a global Internet-in-the-Skyldquo providing broadband and Internet access
bull Originally (1995) planning 840 active satellites with in-orbit spares at an altitude of 700 km
bull Scaled (1997) to 288 active satellites at 1400 kmbull Officially suspended its satellite construction work on
October 1 2002bull Funding from Microsoft (investing US$30 million for an
85 stake) Craig McCaw Bill Gates Paul Allen and Saudi prince Alwaleed bin Talal and for achieving allocation on the Ka-band frequency spectrum for non-geostationary services
Highly elliptical orbit
bull HEO ndash an elliptic orbit with a low-altitude (about 1000 kilometres) perigee and a high-altitude (over 35786 kilometres) apogee
bull Advantage - long dwell times at a point in the sky during the approach to and descent from apogee - phenomenon known as apogee dwell (acts like GEO) (3-4 hours can receive signal with 06 m antenna)
bull Used by Sirius Satellite Radio (operating in North America) the Molniya communication satelites (at least 3) (Russia)
Satellite Applications
bull Communication The main application for satellites today is in communication Communication satellites act as relay stations in the sky and permit reliable long-distance communication worldwide
bull Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS) service This is a TV signal distribution system designed to distribute signals directly to consumers
Satellite Applications
bull Satellite Cell Phones Satellite-based cellular telephone service is under development The proposed new systems use low-earth-orbit satellites to perform the relay services to the main telephone system or to make connection directly between any two cellular telephones using the system
Satellite Applications
bull Digital Satellite Radio One of the newest satellite applications is in digital satellite radio or the digital audio radio service (DARS) ndash This service provides hundreds of channels of
music news sports and talk radio to car portable and home radios
ndash It provides full continuous coverage of the station you select wherever you are in the United States
ndash Its digital transmission techniques ensure high-quality stereo sound that is immune to noise
ndash The satellites transmit other information such as song title and artist type of music and other data which are displayed on a LCD screen
Satellite Applications
bull Surveillance satellites can look at the earth and transmit what they see back to ground stations for a wide variety of purposes including military intelligence meteorological applications and mapping
bull Satellite navigation systems can provide global coverage unavailable with land-based systems satellites
Global Positioning System
bull The Global Positioning System (GPS) also known as Navstar is a satellite-based navigation system that can be used by anyone with an appropriate receiver to pinpoint his or her location on earth
bull GPS was developed by the US Air Force for the Department of Defense as a continuous global radio navigation system
bull The GPS system consists of three major segments the space segment the control segment and the user segment
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentndash The space segment is the constellation of
satellites orbiting above the earth that contain transmitters which send highly accurate timing information to GPS receivers on earth
bull The GPS consists of 24 main operational satellites and 3 active spare satellites arranged in six orbits of 3 or 4 satellites each
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentbull Each of the satellites contains four highly accurate
atomic clocks
bull These clocks are used to generate a unique pseudorandom code identifying the specific satellite that is transmitted to earth
bull The satellite also transmits a set of digitally coded ephemeris data that completely defines its precise orbit
Global Positioning System
The GPS space segment
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentndash The control segment of the GPS system
refers to the various ground stations that monitor the satellites and provide control and update information
bull The master control station is operated by the US Air Force in Colorado Springs
bull Four additional monitoring and control stations constantly monitor the satellites and collect range information from each
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentbull The information is sent back to the master
control station in Colorado where all the information is collected and position data on each satellite calculated
bull The master control station then transmits new ephemeris and clock data to each satellite on the S-band uplink once per day
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash A GPS receiver is a complex superheterodyne
microwave receiver designed to pick up the GPS signals decode them and then compute the location of the receiver
ndash The output is usually an LCD display giving latitude longitude and altitude information andor a map of the area
ndash The most widely used GPS receiver is the popular handheld portable type not much larger than an oversized handheld calculator
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash The receiver performs a time multiplexing
operation on the four satellites within view of the receiver
ndash The data is extracted from each of the four satellites and stored in the receiverrsquos memory
ndash Data from three satellites is needed to fix the receiverrsquos position
ndash If data from a fourth satellite is available altitude can be calculated
Global Positioning System
GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
How triangulation works to locate a GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications ndash The primary application of the GPS is
military and related navigationndash GPS is used by all services for ships
aircraft and ground troopsndash Most civilian applications also involve
navigation which is usually marine or aviation-related
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications
ndash Commercial applications include surveying mapmaking and construction
ndash Vehicle location is a growing application for trucking and delivery companies taxi bus and train transportation
ndash Police fire ambulance and forest services also use GPS
ndash A new hobby called geocaching uses GPS receivers In this sport one team hides an item or ldquotreasurerdquo and then gives the other team coordinates to follow to find the treasure within a given time
Design of the Satellite Link
bull The satellite link is probably the most basic in microwave communications since a line-of-sight path typically exists between the Earth and space
bull This means that an imaginary line extending between the transmitting or receiving Earth station and the satellite antenna passes only through the atmosphere and not ground obstacles
bull Such a link is governed by free-space propagation with only limited variation with respect to time due to various constituents of the atmosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull Free-space attenuation is determined by the inverse square law which states that the power
received is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
bull The same law applies to the amount of light that reaches our eyes from a distant point source such as an automobile headlight or star
bull There are however a number of additional effects that produce a significant amount of degradation and time variation
bull These include rain terrain effects such as absorption by trees and walls and some less-obvious impairment produced by unstable conditions of the air and ionosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull It is the job of the communication engineer to identify all of the significant contributions to performance and make sure that they are properly taken into account
bull The required factors include the performance of the satellite itself the configuration and performance of the uplink and downlink Earth stations and the impact of the propagation medium in the frequency band of interest
Geostationary Satellites
bull Each downward beam can be focused on a small geographical area so multiple upward and downward transmissions can take place simultaneously
bull Typically the spot beams are elliptically shaped and can be as small as a few hundred km in diameter
bull A communication satellite for the United States typically has one wide beam for the contiguous 48 states plus spot beams for Alaska and Hawaii
VSAT systems
bull VSAT (Very Small Aperture Terminal) ndash a satellite communication system that serves home and business users for data voice and video signals
bull Tiny terminals have 1-meter or smaller antennas (versus 10 m for a standard GEO antenna) and can put out about 1 watt of power
bull A VSAT end user has a box that interfaces between the users computer and an outside antenna with a transceiver
bull The tranceiver receives sends a signal to a satellite transponder
Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull The MEO (Medium-Earth Orbit) satellites are between the two Van Allen belts
bull Takes something like 6 hours to circle the earthbull As MEO are lower than the GEOs (typically
16000 km above Earth) they have a smaller footprint on the ground and require less powerful transmitters to reach them
bull Currently they are not used for telecommunications but in navigation systems
Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull The 24 GPS (Global Positioning System) satellites orbiting at about 18000 km are American but free to use by anyone
bull Russia is using Glonass ndash 24 satellites orbiting at 19100 km
bull European Union works on Galileo ndash 30 satellite MEO navigation system orbiting at 23200 km - global navigation satellite system (GNSS) (2019)
bull China is building Compass ndash 35 satellites ndash 5 GEO and 30 MEO at 21100 km (10 in use and offering services now) (2020)
Low-Earth Orbit Satellitesbull A Low Earth Orbit (LEO) is generally defined as
an orbit below an altitude of approximately 2000 kilometers and above 160 kilometers ndash almost all human spaceflights have taken place in LEO
bull (-) large numbers of LEO are needed for a complete system due to their rapid motion (26000 to 27000 km per hour)
bull (+) satellites are very close to the earth so the ground stations do not need much power
bull (+) the round-trip delay is only a few milliseconds
Low-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull Because these LEO orbits are not geostationary a network (or constellation) of satellites is required to provide continuous coverage
bull LEOs are used for a variety of civil scientific and military roles including Earth observation radar optical telecoms and demonstrator
bull Some use as many as 66 satellites (Iridium ndash satellite phones)
Low-Earth Orbit Satellitesbull The Iridium satellite constellation - group of
satellites providing voice and data coverage to satellite phones pagers and integrated transceivers over Earths entire surface
bull Originally developed in 1992 services started in 1998 bankrupted in August 1999 and subsequently restarted in March 2001 (513 000 subscribers in 2011)
bull Satellites are at a height of approximately 781 kmbull Customers include the maritime aviation and oil
exploration industries as well as people traveling in parts of the world lacking a telecommunications infrastructure (eg deserts mountains jungles and some Third World countries)
Iridium
bull The Iridium satellites are in circular polar orbits
bull They are arranged in north-south necklaces with one satellite every 32 degrees of latitude
bull With six satellite necklaces the entire earth is covered
bull Each satellite can support up to 1100 concurrent phone calls and weighs about 680 kg
Iridium
bull Each satellite has a maximum of 48 cells (spot beams) with a total of 1628 cells over the surface of the earth
bull Each satellite has a capacity of 3840 channels or 253440 in all
bull Some of these are used for paging and navigation while others are used for data and voice
bull An interesting property of Iridium is that communication between distant customers takes place in space with one satellite relaying data to the next one
bull A caller at the North Pole contacts a satellite directly overhead - the call is relayed via other satellites and finally sent down to the called at the South Pole
Globalstar
bull Globalstar - based on 48 LEO satellites but uses a different switching scheme than that of Iridium (relays calls from satellite to satellite which requires sophisticated switching equipment in the satellites)
bull Globalstar uses a traditional bent-pipe design - a call originating at the North Pole is sent back to earth and picked up by the large ground station
bull The call is then routed via a terrestrial network to the ground station nearest the callee and delivered by a bent-pipe connection as shown
bull Advantage - puts much of the complexity on the ground where it is easier to manage (412300 subscribers in 2010)
Teledesic
bull Teledesic was as high-speed wireless switched global network -an IP-based system designed to support data voice and video at the same quality level as fiber-based terrestrial systems - a global Internet-in-the-Skyldquo providing broadband and Internet access
bull Originally (1995) planning 840 active satellites with in-orbit spares at an altitude of 700 km
bull Scaled (1997) to 288 active satellites at 1400 kmbull Officially suspended its satellite construction work on
October 1 2002bull Funding from Microsoft (investing US$30 million for an
85 stake) Craig McCaw Bill Gates Paul Allen and Saudi prince Alwaleed bin Talal and for achieving allocation on the Ka-band frequency spectrum for non-geostationary services
Highly elliptical orbit
bull HEO ndash an elliptic orbit with a low-altitude (about 1000 kilometres) perigee and a high-altitude (over 35786 kilometres) apogee
bull Advantage - long dwell times at a point in the sky during the approach to and descent from apogee - phenomenon known as apogee dwell (acts like GEO) (3-4 hours can receive signal with 06 m antenna)
bull Used by Sirius Satellite Radio (operating in North America) the Molniya communication satelites (at least 3) (Russia)
Satellite Applications
bull Communication The main application for satellites today is in communication Communication satellites act as relay stations in the sky and permit reliable long-distance communication worldwide
bull Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS) service This is a TV signal distribution system designed to distribute signals directly to consumers
Satellite Applications
bull Satellite Cell Phones Satellite-based cellular telephone service is under development The proposed new systems use low-earth-orbit satellites to perform the relay services to the main telephone system or to make connection directly between any two cellular telephones using the system
Satellite Applications
bull Digital Satellite Radio One of the newest satellite applications is in digital satellite radio or the digital audio radio service (DARS) ndash This service provides hundreds of channels of
music news sports and talk radio to car portable and home radios
ndash It provides full continuous coverage of the station you select wherever you are in the United States
ndash Its digital transmission techniques ensure high-quality stereo sound that is immune to noise
ndash The satellites transmit other information such as song title and artist type of music and other data which are displayed on a LCD screen
Satellite Applications
bull Surveillance satellites can look at the earth and transmit what they see back to ground stations for a wide variety of purposes including military intelligence meteorological applications and mapping
bull Satellite navigation systems can provide global coverage unavailable with land-based systems satellites
Global Positioning System
bull The Global Positioning System (GPS) also known as Navstar is a satellite-based navigation system that can be used by anyone with an appropriate receiver to pinpoint his or her location on earth
bull GPS was developed by the US Air Force for the Department of Defense as a continuous global radio navigation system
bull The GPS system consists of three major segments the space segment the control segment and the user segment
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentndash The space segment is the constellation of
satellites orbiting above the earth that contain transmitters which send highly accurate timing information to GPS receivers on earth
bull The GPS consists of 24 main operational satellites and 3 active spare satellites arranged in six orbits of 3 or 4 satellites each
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentbull Each of the satellites contains four highly accurate
atomic clocks
bull These clocks are used to generate a unique pseudorandom code identifying the specific satellite that is transmitted to earth
bull The satellite also transmits a set of digitally coded ephemeris data that completely defines its precise orbit
Global Positioning System
The GPS space segment
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentndash The control segment of the GPS system
refers to the various ground stations that monitor the satellites and provide control and update information
bull The master control station is operated by the US Air Force in Colorado Springs
bull Four additional monitoring and control stations constantly monitor the satellites and collect range information from each
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentbull The information is sent back to the master
control station in Colorado where all the information is collected and position data on each satellite calculated
bull The master control station then transmits new ephemeris and clock data to each satellite on the S-band uplink once per day
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash A GPS receiver is a complex superheterodyne
microwave receiver designed to pick up the GPS signals decode them and then compute the location of the receiver
ndash The output is usually an LCD display giving latitude longitude and altitude information andor a map of the area
ndash The most widely used GPS receiver is the popular handheld portable type not much larger than an oversized handheld calculator
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash The receiver performs a time multiplexing
operation on the four satellites within view of the receiver
ndash The data is extracted from each of the four satellites and stored in the receiverrsquos memory
ndash Data from three satellites is needed to fix the receiverrsquos position
ndash If data from a fourth satellite is available altitude can be calculated
Global Positioning System
GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
How triangulation works to locate a GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications ndash The primary application of the GPS is
military and related navigationndash GPS is used by all services for ships
aircraft and ground troopsndash Most civilian applications also involve
navigation which is usually marine or aviation-related
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications
ndash Commercial applications include surveying mapmaking and construction
ndash Vehicle location is a growing application for trucking and delivery companies taxi bus and train transportation
ndash Police fire ambulance and forest services also use GPS
ndash A new hobby called geocaching uses GPS receivers In this sport one team hides an item or ldquotreasurerdquo and then gives the other team coordinates to follow to find the treasure within a given time
Design of the Satellite Link
bull The satellite link is probably the most basic in microwave communications since a line-of-sight path typically exists between the Earth and space
bull This means that an imaginary line extending between the transmitting or receiving Earth station and the satellite antenna passes only through the atmosphere and not ground obstacles
bull Such a link is governed by free-space propagation with only limited variation with respect to time due to various constituents of the atmosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull Free-space attenuation is determined by the inverse square law which states that the power
received is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
bull The same law applies to the amount of light that reaches our eyes from a distant point source such as an automobile headlight or star
bull There are however a number of additional effects that produce a significant amount of degradation and time variation
bull These include rain terrain effects such as absorption by trees and walls and some less-obvious impairment produced by unstable conditions of the air and ionosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull It is the job of the communication engineer to identify all of the significant contributions to performance and make sure that they are properly taken into account
bull The required factors include the performance of the satellite itself the configuration and performance of the uplink and downlink Earth stations and the impact of the propagation medium in the frequency band of interest
VSAT systems
bull VSAT (Very Small Aperture Terminal) ndash a satellite communication system that serves home and business users for data voice and video signals
bull Tiny terminals have 1-meter or smaller antennas (versus 10 m for a standard GEO antenna) and can put out about 1 watt of power
bull A VSAT end user has a box that interfaces between the users computer and an outside antenna with a transceiver
bull The tranceiver receives sends a signal to a satellite transponder
Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull The MEO (Medium-Earth Orbit) satellites are between the two Van Allen belts
bull Takes something like 6 hours to circle the earthbull As MEO are lower than the GEOs (typically
16000 km above Earth) they have a smaller footprint on the ground and require less powerful transmitters to reach them
bull Currently they are not used for telecommunications but in navigation systems
Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull The 24 GPS (Global Positioning System) satellites orbiting at about 18000 km are American but free to use by anyone
bull Russia is using Glonass ndash 24 satellites orbiting at 19100 km
bull European Union works on Galileo ndash 30 satellite MEO navigation system orbiting at 23200 km - global navigation satellite system (GNSS) (2019)
bull China is building Compass ndash 35 satellites ndash 5 GEO and 30 MEO at 21100 km (10 in use and offering services now) (2020)
Low-Earth Orbit Satellitesbull A Low Earth Orbit (LEO) is generally defined as
an orbit below an altitude of approximately 2000 kilometers and above 160 kilometers ndash almost all human spaceflights have taken place in LEO
bull (-) large numbers of LEO are needed for a complete system due to their rapid motion (26000 to 27000 km per hour)
bull (+) satellites are very close to the earth so the ground stations do not need much power
bull (+) the round-trip delay is only a few milliseconds
Low-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull Because these LEO orbits are not geostationary a network (or constellation) of satellites is required to provide continuous coverage
bull LEOs are used for a variety of civil scientific and military roles including Earth observation radar optical telecoms and demonstrator
bull Some use as many as 66 satellites (Iridium ndash satellite phones)
Low-Earth Orbit Satellitesbull The Iridium satellite constellation - group of
satellites providing voice and data coverage to satellite phones pagers and integrated transceivers over Earths entire surface
bull Originally developed in 1992 services started in 1998 bankrupted in August 1999 and subsequently restarted in March 2001 (513 000 subscribers in 2011)
bull Satellites are at a height of approximately 781 kmbull Customers include the maritime aviation and oil
exploration industries as well as people traveling in parts of the world lacking a telecommunications infrastructure (eg deserts mountains jungles and some Third World countries)
Iridium
bull The Iridium satellites are in circular polar orbits
bull They are arranged in north-south necklaces with one satellite every 32 degrees of latitude
bull With six satellite necklaces the entire earth is covered
bull Each satellite can support up to 1100 concurrent phone calls and weighs about 680 kg
Iridium
bull Each satellite has a maximum of 48 cells (spot beams) with a total of 1628 cells over the surface of the earth
bull Each satellite has a capacity of 3840 channels or 253440 in all
bull Some of these are used for paging and navigation while others are used for data and voice
bull An interesting property of Iridium is that communication between distant customers takes place in space with one satellite relaying data to the next one
bull A caller at the North Pole contacts a satellite directly overhead - the call is relayed via other satellites and finally sent down to the called at the South Pole
Globalstar
bull Globalstar - based on 48 LEO satellites but uses a different switching scheme than that of Iridium (relays calls from satellite to satellite which requires sophisticated switching equipment in the satellites)
bull Globalstar uses a traditional bent-pipe design - a call originating at the North Pole is sent back to earth and picked up by the large ground station
bull The call is then routed via a terrestrial network to the ground station nearest the callee and delivered by a bent-pipe connection as shown
bull Advantage - puts much of the complexity on the ground where it is easier to manage (412300 subscribers in 2010)
Teledesic
bull Teledesic was as high-speed wireless switched global network -an IP-based system designed to support data voice and video at the same quality level as fiber-based terrestrial systems - a global Internet-in-the-Skyldquo providing broadband and Internet access
bull Originally (1995) planning 840 active satellites with in-orbit spares at an altitude of 700 km
bull Scaled (1997) to 288 active satellites at 1400 kmbull Officially suspended its satellite construction work on
October 1 2002bull Funding from Microsoft (investing US$30 million for an
85 stake) Craig McCaw Bill Gates Paul Allen and Saudi prince Alwaleed bin Talal and for achieving allocation on the Ka-band frequency spectrum for non-geostationary services
Highly elliptical orbit
bull HEO ndash an elliptic orbit with a low-altitude (about 1000 kilometres) perigee and a high-altitude (over 35786 kilometres) apogee
bull Advantage - long dwell times at a point in the sky during the approach to and descent from apogee - phenomenon known as apogee dwell (acts like GEO) (3-4 hours can receive signal with 06 m antenna)
bull Used by Sirius Satellite Radio (operating in North America) the Molniya communication satelites (at least 3) (Russia)
Satellite Applications
bull Communication The main application for satellites today is in communication Communication satellites act as relay stations in the sky and permit reliable long-distance communication worldwide
bull Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS) service This is a TV signal distribution system designed to distribute signals directly to consumers
Satellite Applications
bull Satellite Cell Phones Satellite-based cellular telephone service is under development The proposed new systems use low-earth-orbit satellites to perform the relay services to the main telephone system or to make connection directly between any two cellular telephones using the system
Satellite Applications
bull Digital Satellite Radio One of the newest satellite applications is in digital satellite radio or the digital audio radio service (DARS) ndash This service provides hundreds of channels of
music news sports and talk radio to car portable and home radios
ndash It provides full continuous coverage of the station you select wherever you are in the United States
ndash Its digital transmission techniques ensure high-quality stereo sound that is immune to noise
ndash The satellites transmit other information such as song title and artist type of music and other data which are displayed on a LCD screen
Satellite Applications
bull Surveillance satellites can look at the earth and transmit what they see back to ground stations for a wide variety of purposes including military intelligence meteorological applications and mapping
bull Satellite navigation systems can provide global coverage unavailable with land-based systems satellites
Global Positioning System
bull The Global Positioning System (GPS) also known as Navstar is a satellite-based navigation system that can be used by anyone with an appropriate receiver to pinpoint his or her location on earth
bull GPS was developed by the US Air Force for the Department of Defense as a continuous global radio navigation system
bull The GPS system consists of three major segments the space segment the control segment and the user segment
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentndash The space segment is the constellation of
satellites orbiting above the earth that contain transmitters which send highly accurate timing information to GPS receivers on earth
bull The GPS consists of 24 main operational satellites and 3 active spare satellites arranged in six orbits of 3 or 4 satellites each
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentbull Each of the satellites contains four highly accurate
atomic clocks
bull These clocks are used to generate a unique pseudorandom code identifying the specific satellite that is transmitted to earth
bull The satellite also transmits a set of digitally coded ephemeris data that completely defines its precise orbit
Global Positioning System
The GPS space segment
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentndash The control segment of the GPS system
refers to the various ground stations that monitor the satellites and provide control and update information
bull The master control station is operated by the US Air Force in Colorado Springs
bull Four additional monitoring and control stations constantly monitor the satellites and collect range information from each
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentbull The information is sent back to the master
control station in Colorado where all the information is collected and position data on each satellite calculated
bull The master control station then transmits new ephemeris and clock data to each satellite on the S-band uplink once per day
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash A GPS receiver is a complex superheterodyne
microwave receiver designed to pick up the GPS signals decode them and then compute the location of the receiver
ndash The output is usually an LCD display giving latitude longitude and altitude information andor a map of the area
ndash The most widely used GPS receiver is the popular handheld portable type not much larger than an oversized handheld calculator
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash The receiver performs a time multiplexing
operation on the four satellites within view of the receiver
ndash The data is extracted from each of the four satellites and stored in the receiverrsquos memory
ndash Data from three satellites is needed to fix the receiverrsquos position
ndash If data from a fourth satellite is available altitude can be calculated
Global Positioning System
GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
How triangulation works to locate a GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications ndash The primary application of the GPS is
military and related navigationndash GPS is used by all services for ships
aircraft and ground troopsndash Most civilian applications also involve
navigation which is usually marine or aviation-related
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications
ndash Commercial applications include surveying mapmaking and construction
ndash Vehicle location is a growing application for trucking and delivery companies taxi bus and train transportation
ndash Police fire ambulance and forest services also use GPS
ndash A new hobby called geocaching uses GPS receivers In this sport one team hides an item or ldquotreasurerdquo and then gives the other team coordinates to follow to find the treasure within a given time
Design of the Satellite Link
bull The satellite link is probably the most basic in microwave communications since a line-of-sight path typically exists between the Earth and space
bull This means that an imaginary line extending between the transmitting or receiving Earth station and the satellite antenna passes only through the atmosphere and not ground obstacles
bull Such a link is governed by free-space propagation with only limited variation with respect to time due to various constituents of the atmosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull Free-space attenuation is determined by the inverse square law which states that the power
received is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
bull The same law applies to the amount of light that reaches our eyes from a distant point source such as an automobile headlight or star
bull There are however a number of additional effects that produce a significant amount of degradation and time variation
bull These include rain terrain effects such as absorption by trees and walls and some less-obvious impairment produced by unstable conditions of the air and ionosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull It is the job of the communication engineer to identify all of the significant contributions to performance and make sure that they are properly taken into account
bull The required factors include the performance of the satellite itself the configuration and performance of the uplink and downlink Earth stations and the impact of the propagation medium in the frequency band of interest
Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull The MEO (Medium-Earth Orbit) satellites are between the two Van Allen belts
bull Takes something like 6 hours to circle the earthbull As MEO are lower than the GEOs (typically
16000 km above Earth) they have a smaller footprint on the ground and require less powerful transmitters to reach them
bull Currently they are not used for telecommunications but in navigation systems
Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull The 24 GPS (Global Positioning System) satellites orbiting at about 18000 km are American but free to use by anyone
bull Russia is using Glonass ndash 24 satellites orbiting at 19100 km
bull European Union works on Galileo ndash 30 satellite MEO navigation system orbiting at 23200 km - global navigation satellite system (GNSS) (2019)
bull China is building Compass ndash 35 satellites ndash 5 GEO and 30 MEO at 21100 km (10 in use and offering services now) (2020)
Low-Earth Orbit Satellitesbull A Low Earth Orbit (LEO) is generally defined as
an orbit below an altitude of approximately 2000 kilometers and above 160 kilometers ndash almost all human spaceflights have taken place in LEO
bull (-) large numbers of LEO are needed for a complete system due to their rapid motion (26000 to 27000 km per hour)
bull (+) satellites are very close to the earth so the ground stations do not need much power
bull (+) the round-trip delay is only a few milliseconds
Low-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull Because these LEO orbits are not geostationary a network (or constellation) of satellites is required to provide continuous coverage
bull LEOs are used for a variety of civil scientific and military roles including Earth observation radar optical telecoms and demonstrator
bull Some use as many as 66 satellites (Iridium ndash satellite phones)
Low-Earth Orbit Satellitesbull The Iridium satellite constellation - group of
satellites providing voice and data coverage to satellite phones pagers and integrated transceivers over Earths entire surface
bull Originally developed in 1992 services started in 1998 bankrupted in August 1999 and subsequently restarted in March 2001 (513 000 subscribers in 2011)
bull Satellites are at a height of approximately 781 kmbull Customers include the maritime aviation and oil
exploration industries as well as people traveling in parts of the world lacking a telecommunications infrastructure (eg deserts mountains jungles and some Third World countries)
Iridium
bull The Iridium satellites are in circular polar orbits
bull They are arranged in north-south necklaces with one satellite every 32 degrees of latitude
bull With six satellite necklaces the entire earth is covered
bull Each satellite can support up to 1100 concurrent phone calls and weighs about 680 kg
Iridium
bull Each satellite has a maximum of 48 cells (spot beams) with a total of 1628 cells over the surface of the earth
bull Each satellite has a capacity of 3840 channels or 253440 in all
bull Some of these are used for paging and navigation while others are used for data and voice
bull An interesting property of Iridium is that communication between distant customers takes place in space with one satellite relaying data to the next one
bull A caller at the North Pole contacts a satellite directly overhead - the call is relayed via other satellites and finally sent down to the called at the South Pole
Globalstar
bull Globalstar - based on 48 LEO satellites but uses a different switching scheme than that of Iridium (relays calls from satellite to satellite which requires sophisticated switching equipment in the satellites)
bull Globalstar uses a traditional bent-pipe design - a call originating at the North Pole is sent back to earth and picked up by the large ground station
bull The call is then routed via a terrestrial network to the ground station nearest the callee and delivered by a bent-pipe connection as shown
bull Advantage - puts much of the complexity on the ground where it is easier to manage (412300 subscribers in 2010)
Teledesic
bull Teledesic was as high-speed wireless switched global network -an IP-based system designed to support data voice and video at the same quality level as fiber-based terrestrial systems - a global Internet-in-the-Skyldquo providing broadband and Internet access
bull Originally (1995) planning 840 active satellites with in-orbit spares at an altitude of 700 km
bull Scaled (1997) to 288 active satellites at 1400 kmbull Officially suspended its satellite construction work on
October 1 2002bull Funding from Microsoft (investing US$30 million for an
85 stake) Craig McCaw Bill Gates Paul Allen and Saudi prince Alwaleed bin Talal and for achieving allocation on the Ka-band frequency spectrum for non-geostationary services
Highly elliptical orbit
bull HEO ndash an elliptic orbit with a low-altitude (about 1000 kilometres) perigee and a high-altitude (over 35786 kilometres) apogee
bull Advantage - long dwell times at a point in the sky during the approach to and descent from apogee - phenomenon known as apogee dwell (acts like GEO) (3-4 hours can receive signal with 06 m antenna)
bull Used by Sirius Satellite Radio (operating in North America) the Molniya communication satelites (at least 3) (Russia)
Satellite Applications
bull Communication The main application for satellites today is in communication Communication satellites act as relay stations in the sky and permit reliable long-distance communication worldwide
bull Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS) service This is a TV signal distribution system designed to distribute signals directly to consumers
Satellite Applications
bull Satellite Cell Phones Satellite-based cellular telephone service is under development The proposed new systems use low-earth-orbit satellites to perform the relay services to the main telephone system or to make connection directly between any two cellular telephones using the system
Satellite Applications
bull Digital Satellite Radio One of the newest satellite applications is in digital satellite radio or the digital audio radio service (DARS) ndash This service provides hundreds of channels of
music news sports and talk radio to car portable and home radios
ndash It provides full continuous coverage of the station you select wherever you are in the United States
ndash Its digital transmission techniques ensure high-quality stereo sound that is immune to noise
ndash The satellites transmit other information such as song title and artist type of music and other data which are displayed on a LCD screen
Satellite Applications
bull Surveillance satellites can look at the earth and transmit what they see back to ground stations for a wide variety of purposes including military intelligence meteorological applications and mapping
bull Satellite navigation systems can provide global coverage unavailable with land-based systems satellites
Global Positioning System
bull The Global Positioning System (GPS) also known as Navstar is a satellite-based navigation system that can be used by anyone with an appropriate receiver to pinpoint his or her location on earth
bull GPS was developed by the US Air Force for the Department of Defense as a continuous global radio navigation system
bull The GPS system consists of three major segments the space segment the control segment and the user segment
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentndash The space segment is the constellation of
satellites orbiting above the earth that contain transmitters which send highly accurate timing information to GPS receivers on earth
bull The GPS consists of 24 main operational satellites and 3 active spare satellites arranged in six orbits of 3 or 4 satellites each
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentbull Each of the satellites contains four highly accurate
atomic clocks
bull These clocks are used to generate a unique pseudorandom code identifying the specific satellite that is transmitted to earth
bull The satellite also transmits a set of digitally coded ephemeris data that completely defines its precise orbit
Global Positioning System
The GPS space segment
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentndash The control segment of the GPS system
refers to the various ground stations that monitor the satellites and provide control and update information
bull The master control station is operated by the US Air Force in Colorado Springs
bull Four additional monitoring and control stations constantly monitor the satellites and collect range information from each
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentbull The information is sent back to the master
control station in Colorado where all the information is collected and position data on each satellite calculated
bull The master control station then transmits new ephemeris and clock data to each satellite on the S-band uplink once per day
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash A GPS receiver is a complex superheterodyne
microwave receiver designed to pick up the GPS signals decode them and then compute the location of the receiver
ndash The output is usually an LCD display giving latitude longitude and altitude information andor a map of the area
ndash The most widely used GPS receiver is the popular handheld portable type not much larger than an oversized handheld calculator
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash The receiver performs a time multiplexing
operation on the four satellites within view of the receiver
ndash The data is extracted from each of the four satellites and stored in the receiverrsquos memory
ndash Data from three satellites is needed to fix the receiverrsquos position
ndash If data from a fourth satellite is available altitude can be calculated
Global Positioning System
GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
How triangulation works to locate a GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications ndash The primary application of the GPS is
military and related navigationndash GPS is used by all services for ships
aircraft and ground troopsndash Most civilian applications also involve
navigation which is usually marine or aviation-related
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications
ndash Commercial applications include surveying mapmaking and construction
ndash Vehicle location is a growing application for trucking and delivery companies taxi bus and train transportation
ndash Police fire ambulance and forest services also use GPS
ndash A new hobby called geocaching uses GPS receivers In this sport one team hides an item or ldquotreasurerdquo and then gives the other team coordinates to follow to find the treasure within a given time
Design of the Satellite Link
bull The satellite link is probably the most basic in microwave communications since a line-of-sight path typically exists between the Earth and space
bull This means that an imaginary line extending between the transmitting or receiving Earth station and the satellite antenna passes only through the atmosphere and not ground obstacles
bull Such a link is governed by free-space propagation with only limited variation with respect to time due to various constituents of the atmosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull Free-space attenuation is determined by the inverse square law which states that the power
received is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
bull The same law applies to the amount of light that reaches our eyes from a distant point source such as an automobile headlight or star
bull There are however a number of additional effects that produce a significant amount of degradation and time variation
bull These include rain terrain effects such as absorption by trees and walls and some less-obvious impairment produced by unstable conditions of the air and ionosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull It is the job of the communication engineer to identify all of the significant contributions to performance and make sure that they are properly taken into account
bull The required factors include the performance of the satellite itself the configuration and performance of the uplink and downlink Earth stations and the impact of the propagation medium in the frequency band of interest
Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull The 24 GPS (Global Positioning System) satellites orbiting at about 18000 km are American but free to use by anyone
bull Russia is using Glonass ndash 24 satellites orbiting at 19100 km
bull European Union works on Galileo ndash 30 satellite MEO navigation system orbiting at 23200 km - global navigation satellite system (GNSS) (2019)
bull China is building Compass ndash 35 satellites ndash 5 GEO and 30 MEO at 21100 km (10 in use and offering services now) (2020)
Low-Earth Orbit Satellitesbull A Low Earth Orbit (LEO) is generally defined as
an orbit below an altitude of approximately 2000 kilometers and above 160 kilometers ndash almost all human spaceflights have taken place in LEO
bull (-) large numbers of LEO are needed for a complete system due to their rapid motion (26000 to 27000 km per hour)
bull (+) satellites are very close to the earth so the ground stations do not need much power
bull (+) the round-trip delay is only a few milliseconds
Low-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull Because these LEO orbits are not geostationary a network (or constellation) of satellites is required to provide continuous coverage
bull LEOs are used for a variety of civil scientific and military roles including Earth observation radar optical telecoms and demonstrator
bull Some use as many as 66 satellites (Iridium ndash satellite phones)
Low-Earth Orbit Satellitesbull The Iridium satellite constellation - group of
satellites providing voice and data coverage to satellite phones pagers and integrated transceivers over Earths entire surface
bull Originally developed in 1992 services started in 1998 bankrupted in August 1999 and subsequently restarted in March 2001 (513 000 subscribers in 2011)
bull Satellites are at a height of approximately 781 kmbull Customers include the maritime aviation and oil
exploration industries as well as people traveling in parts of the world lacking a telecommunications infrastructure (eg deserts mountains jungles and some Third World countries)
Iridium
bull The Iridium satellites are in circular polar orbits
bull They are arranged in north-south necklaces with one satellite every 32 degrees of latitude
bull With six satellite necklaces the entire earth is covered
bull Each satellite can support up to 1100 concurrent phone calls and weighs about 680 kg
Iridium
bull Each satellite has a maximum of 48 cells (spot beams) with a total of 1628 cells over the surface of the earth
bull Each satellite has a capacity of 3840 channels or 253440 in all
bull Some of these are used for paging and navigation while others are used for data and voice
bull An interesting property of Iridium is that communication between distant customers takes place in space with one satellite relaying data to the next one
bull A caller at the North Pole contacts a satellite directly overhead - the call is relayed via other satellites and finally sent down to the called at the South Pole
Globalstar
bull Globalstar - based on 48 LEO satellites but uses a different switching scheme than that of Iridium (relays calls from satellite to satellite which requires sophisticated switching equipment in the satellites)
bull Globalstar uses a traditional bent-pipe design - a call originating at the North Pole is sent back to earth and picked up by the large ground station
bull The call is then routed via a terrestrial network to the ground station nearest the callee and delivered by a bent-pipe connection as shown
bull Advantage - puts much of the complexity on the ground where it is easier to manage (412300 subscribers in 2010)
Teledesic
bull Teledesic was as high-speed wireless switched global network -an IP-based system designed to support data voice and video at the same quality level as fiber-based terrestrial systems - a global Internet-in-the-Skyldquo providing broadband and Internet access
bull Originally (1995) planning 840 active satellites with in-orbit spares at an altitude of 700 km
bull Scaled (1997) to 288 active satellites at 1400 kmbull Officially suspended its satellite construction work on
October 1 2002bull Funding from Microsoft (investing US$30 million for an
85 stake) Craig McCaw Bill Gates Paul Allen and Saudi prince Alwaleed bin Talal and for achieving allocation on the Ka-band frequency spectrum for non-geostationary services
Highly elliptical orbit
bull HEO ndash an elliptic orbit with a low-altitude (about 1000 kilometres) perigee and a high-altitude (over 35786 kilometres) apogee
bull Advantage - long dwell times at a point in the sky during the approach to and descent from apogee - phenomenon known as apogee dwell (acts like GEO) (3-4 hours can receive signal with 06 m antenna)
bull Used by Sirius Satellite Radio (operating in North America) the Molniya communication satelites (at least 3) (Russia)
Satellite Applications
bull Communication The main application for satellites today is in communication Communication satellites act as relay stations in the sky and permit reliable long-distance communication worldwide
bull Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS) service This is a TV signal distribution system designed to distribute signals directly to consumers
Satellite Applications
bull Satellite Cell Phones Satellite-based cellular telephone service is under development The proposed new systems use low-earth-orbit satellites to perform the relay services to the main telephone system or to make connection directly between any two cellular telephones using the system
Satellite Applications
bull Digital Satellite Radio One of the newest satellite applications is in digital satellite radio or the digital audio radio service (DARS) ndash This service provides hundreds of channels of
music news sports and talk radio to car portable and home radios
ndash It provides full continuous coverage of the station you select wherever you are in the United States
ndash Its digital transmission techniques ensure high-quality stereo sound that is immune to noise
ndash The satellites transmit other information such as song title and artist type of music and other data which are displayed on a LCD screen
Satellite Applications
bull Surveillance satellites can look at the earth and transmit what they see back to ground stations for a wide variety of purposes including military intelligence meteorological applications and mapping
bull Satellite navigation systems can provide global coverage unavailable with land-based systems satellites
Global Positioning System
bull The Global Positioning System (GPS) also known as Navstar is a satellite-based navigation system that can be used by anyone with an appropriate receiver to pinpoint his or her location on earth
bull GPS was developed by the US Air Force for the Department of Defense as a continuous global radio navigation system
bull The GPS system consists of three major segments the space segment the control segment and the user segment
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentndash The space segment is the constellation of
satellites orbiting above the earth that contain transmitters which send highly accurate timing information to GPS receivers on earth
bull The GPS consists of 24 main operational satellites and 3 active spare satellites arranged in six orbits of 3 or 4 satellites each
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentbull Each of the satellites contains four highly accurate
atomic clocks
bull These clocks are used to generate a unique pseudorandom code identifying the specific satellite that is transmitted to earth
bull The satellite also transmits a set of digitally coded ephemeris data that completely defines its precise orbit
Global Positioning System
The GPS space segment
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentndash The control segment of the GPS system
refers to the various ground stations that monitor the satellites and provide control and update information
bull The master control station is operated by the US Air Force in Colorado Springs
bull Four additional monitoring and control stations constantly monitor the satellites and collect range information from each
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentbull The information is sent back to the master
control station in Colorado where all the information is collected and position data on each satellite calculated
bull The master control station then transmits new ephemeris and clock data to each satellite on the S-band uplink once per day
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash A GPS receiver is a complex superheterodyne
microwave receiver designed to pick up the GPS signals decode them and then compute the location of the receiver
ndash The output is usually an LCD display giving latitude longitude and altitude information andor a map of the area
ndash The most widely used GPS receiver is the popular handheld portable type not much larger than an oversized handheld calculator
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash The receiver performs a time multiplexing
operation on the four satellites within view of the receiver
ndash The data is extracted from each of the four satellites and stored in the receiverrsquos memory
ndash Data from three satellites is needed to fix the receiverrsquos position
ndash If data from a fourth satellite is available altitude can be calculated
Global Positioning System
GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
How triangulation works to locate a GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications ndash The primary application of the GPS is
military and related navigationndash GPS is used by all services for ships
aircraft and ground troopsndash Most civilian applications also involve
navigation which is usually marine or aviation-related
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications
ndash Commercial applications include surveying mapmaking and construction
ndash Vehicle location is a growing application for trucking and delivery companies taxi bus and train transportation
ndash Police fire ambulance and forest services also use GPS
ndash A new hobby called geocaching uses GPS receivers In this sport one team hides an item or ldquotreasurerdquo and then gives the other team coordinates to follow to find the treasure within a given time
Design of the Satellite Link
bull The satellite link is probably the most basic in microwave communications since a line-of-sight path typically exists between the Earth and space
bull This means that an imaginary line extending between the transmitting or receiving Earth station and the satellite antenna passes only through the atmosphere and not ground obstacles
bull Such a link is governed by free-space propagation with only limited variation with respect to time due to various constituents of the atmosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull Free-space attenuation is determined by the inverse square law which states that the power
received is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
bull The same law applies to the amount of light that reaches our eyes from a distant point source such as an automobile headlight or star
bull There are however a number of additional effects that produce a significant amount of degradation and time variation
bull These include rain terrain effects such as absorption by trees and walls and some less-obvious impairment produced by unstable conditions of the air and ionosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull It is the job of the communication engineer to identify all of the significant contributions to performance and make sure that they are properly taken into account
bull The required factors include the performance of the satellite itself the configuration and performance of the uplink and downlink Earth stations and the impact of the propagation medium in the frequency band of interest
Low-Earth Orbit Satellitesbull A Low Earth Orbit (LEO) is generally defined as
an orbit below an altitude of approximately 2000 kilometers and above 160 kilometers ndash almost all human spaceflights have taken place in LEO
bull (-) large numbers of LEO are needed for a complete system due to their rapid motion (26000 to 27000 km per hour)
bull (+) satellites are very close to the earth so the ground stations do not need much power
bull (+) the round-trip delay is only a few milliseconds
Low-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull Because these LEO orbits are not geostationary a network (or constellation) of satellites is required to provide continuous coverage
bull LEOs are used for a variety of civil scientific and military roles including Earth observation radar optical telecoms and demonstrator
bull Some use as many as 66 satellites (Iridium ndash satellite phones)
Low-Earth Orbit Satellitesbull The Iridium satellite constellation - group of
satellites providing voice and data coverage to satellite phones pagers and integrated transceivers over Earths entire surface
bull Originally developed in 1992 services started in 1998 bankrupted in August 1999 and subsequently restarted in March 2001 (513 000 subscribers in 2011)
bull Satellites are at a height of approximately 781 kmbull Customers include the maritime aviation and oil
exploration industries as well as people traveling in parts of the world lacking a telecommunications infrastructure (eg deserts mountains jungles and some Third World countries)
Iridium
bull The Iridium satellites are in circular polar orbits
bull They are arranged in north-south necklaces with one satellite every 32 degrees of latitude
bull With six satellite necklaces the entire earth is covered
bull Each satellite can support up to 1100 concurrent phone calls and weighs about 680 kg
Iridium
bull Each satellite has a maximum of 48 cells (spot beams) with a total of 1628 cells over the surface of the earth
bull Each satellite has a capacity of 3840 channels or 253440 in all
bull Some of these are used for paging and navigation while others are used for data and voice
bull An interesting property of Iridium is that communication between distant customers takes place in space with one satellite relaying data to the next one
bull A caller at the North Pole contacts a satellite directly overhead - the call is relayed via other satellites and finally sent down to the called at the South Pole
Globalstar
bull Globalstar - based on 48 LEO satellites but uses a different switching scheme than that of Iridium (relays calls from satellite to satellite which requires sophisticated switching equipment in the satellites)
bull Globalstar uses a traditional bent-pipe design - a call originating at the North Pole is sent back to earth and picked up by the large ground station
bull The call is then routed via a terrestrial network to the ground station nearest the callee and delivered by a bent-pipe connection as shown
bull Advantage - puts much of the complexity on the ground where it is easier to manage (412300 subscribers in 2010)
Teledesic
bull Teledesic was as high-speed wireless switched global network -an IP-based system designed to support data voice and video at the same quality level as fiber-based terrestrial systems - a global Internet-in-the-Skyldquo providing broadband and Internet access
bull Originally (1995) planning 840 active satellites with in-orbit spares at an altitude of 700 km
bull Scaled (1997) to 288 active satellites at 1400 kmbull Officially suspended its satellite construction work on
October 1 2002bull Funding from Microsoft (investing US$30 million for an
85 stake) Craig McCaw Bill Gates Paul Allen and Saudi prince Alwaleed bin Talal and for achieving allocation on the Ka-band frequency spectrum for non-geostationary services
Highly elliptical orbit
bull HEO ndash an elliptic orbit with a low-altitude (about 1000 kilometres) perigee and a high-altitude (over 35786 kilometres) apogee
bull Advantage - long dwell times at a point in the sky during the approach to and descent from apogee - phenomenon known as apogee dwell (acts like GEO) (3-4 hours can receive signal with 06 m antenna)
bull Used by Sirius Satellite Radio (operating in North America) the Molniya communication satelites (at least 3) (Russia)
Satellite Applications
bull Communication The main application for satellites today is in communication Communication satellites act as relay stations in the sky and permit reliable long-distance communication worldwide
bull Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS) service This is a TV signal distribution system designed to distribute signals directly to consumers
Satellite Applications
bull Satellite Cell Phones Satellite-based cellular telephone service is under development The proposed new systems use low-earth-orbit satellites to perform the relay services to the main telephone system or to make connection directly between any two cellular telephones using the system
Satellite Applications
bull Digital Satellite Radio One of the newest satellite applications is in digital satellite radio or the digital audio radio service (DARS) ndash This service provides hundreds of channels of
music news sports and talk radio to car portable and home radios
ndash It provides full continuous coverage of the station you select wherever you are in the United States
ndash Its digital transmission techniques ensure high-quality stereo sound that is immune to noise
ndash The satellites transmit other information such as song title and artist type of music and other data which are displayed on a LCD screen
Satellite Applications
bull Surveillance satellites can look at the earth and transmit what they see back to ground stations for a wide variety of purposes including military intelligence meteorological applications and mapping
bull Satellite navigation systems can provide global coverage unavailable with land-based systems satellites
Global Positioning System
bull The Global Positioning System (GPS) also known as Navstar is a satellite-based navigation system that can be used by anyone with an appropriate receiver to pinpoint his or her location on earth
bull GPS was developed by the US Air Force for the Department of Defense as a continuous global radio navigation system
bull The GPS system consists of three major segments the space segment the control segment and the user segment
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentndash The space segment is the constellation of
satellites orbiting above the earth that contain transmitters which send highly accurate timing information to GPS receivers on earth
bull The GPS consists of 24 main operational satellites and 3 active spare satellites arranged in six orbits of 3 or 4 satellites each
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentbull Each of the satellites contains four highly accurate
atomic clocks
bull These clocks are used to generate a unique pseudorandom code identifying the specific satellite that is transmitted to earth
bull The satellite also transmits a set of digitally coded ephemeris data that completely defines its precise orbit
Global Positioning System
The GPS space segment
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentndash The control segment of the GPS system
refers to the various ground stations that monitor the satellites and provide control and update information
bull The master control station is operated by the US Air Force in Colorado Springs
bull Four additional monitoring and control stations constantly monitor the satellites and collect range information from each
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentbull The information is sent back to the master
control station in Colorado where all the information is collected and position data on each satellite calculated
bull The master control station then transmits new ephemeris and clock data to each satellite on the S-band uplink once per day
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash A GPS receiver is a complex superheterodyne
microwave receiver designed to pick up the GPS signals decode them and then compute the location of the receiver
ndash The output is usually an LCD display giving latitude longitude and altitude information andor a map of the area
ndash The most widely used GPS receiver is the popular handheld portable type not much larger than an oversized handheld calculator
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash The receiver performs a time multiplexing
operation on the four satellites within view of the receiver
ndash The data is extracted from each of the four satellites and stored in the receiverrsquos memory
ndash Data from three satellites is needed to fix the receiverrsquos position
ndash If data from a fourth satellite is available altitude can be calculated
Global Positioning System
GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
How triangulation works to locate a GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications ndash The primary application of the GPS is
military and related navigationndash GPS is used by all services for ships
aircraft and ground troopsndash Most civilian applications also involve
navigation which is usually marine or aviation-related
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications
ndash Commercial applications include surveying mapmaking and construction
ndash Vehicle location is a growing application for trucking and delivery companies taxi bus and train transportation
ndash Police fire ambulance and forest services also use GPS
ndash A new hobby called geocaching uses GPS receivers In this sport one team hides an item or ldquotreasurerdquo and then gives the other team coordinates to follow to find the treasure within a given time
Design of the Satellite Link
bull The satellite link is probably the most basic in microwave communications since a line-of-sight path typically exists between the Earth and space
bull This means that an imaginary line extending between the transmitting or receiving Earth station and the satellite antenna passes only through the atmosphere and not ground obstacles
bull Such a link is governed by free-space propagation with only limited variation with respect to time due to various constituents of the atmosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull Free-space attenuation is determined by the inverse square law which states that the power
received is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
bull The same law applies to the amount of light that reaches our eyes from a distant point source such as an automobile headlight or star
bull There are however a number of additional effects that produce a significant amount of degradation and time variation
bull These include rain terrain effects such as absorption by trees and walls and some less-obvious impairment produced by unstable conditions of the air and ionosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull It is the job of the communication engineer to identify all of the significant contributions to performance and make sure that they are properly taken into account
bull The required factors include the performance of the satellite itself the configuration and performance of the uplink and downlink Earth stations and the impact of the propagation medium in the frequency band of interest
Low-Earth Orbit Satellites
bull Because these LEO orbits are not geostationary a network (or constellation) of satellites is required to provide continuous coverage
bull LEOs are used for a variety of civil scientific and military roles including Earth observation radar optical telecoms and demonstrator
bull Some use as many as 66 satellites (Iridium ndash satellite phones)
Low-Earth Orbit Satellitesbull The Iridium satellite constellation - group of
satellites providing voice and data coverage to satellite phones pagers and integrated transceivers over Earths entire surface
bull Originally developed in 1992 services started in 1998 bankrupted in August 1999 and subsequently restarted in March 2001 (513 000 subscribers in 2011)
bull Satellites are at a height of approximately 781 kmbull Customers include the maritime aviation and oil
exploration industries as well as people traveling in parts of the world lacking a telecommunications infrastructure (eg deserts mountains jungles and some Third World countries)
Iridium
bull The Iridium satellites are in circular polar orbits
bull They are arranged in north-south necklaces with one satellite every 32 degrees of latitude
bull With six satellite necklaces the entire earth is covered
bull Each satellite can support up to 1100 concurrent phone calls and weighs about 680 kg
Iridium
bull Each satellite has a maximum of 48 cells (spot beams) with a total of 1628 cells over the surface of the earth
bull Each satellite has a capacity of 3840 channels or 253440 in all
bull Some of these are used for paging and navigation while others are used for data and voice
bull An interesting property of Iridium is that communication between distant customers takes place in space with one satellite relaying data to the next one
bull A caller at the North Pole contacts a satellite directly overhead - the call is relayed via other satellites and finally sent down to the called at the South Pole
Globalstar
bull Globalstar - based on 48 LEO satellites but uses a different switching scheme than that of Iridium (relays calls from satellite to satellite which requires sophisticated switching equipment in the satellites)
bull Globalstar uses a traditional bent-pipe design - a call originating at the North Pole is sent back to earth and picked up by the large ground station
bull The call is then routed via a terrestrial network to the ground station nearest the callee and delivered by a bent-pipe connection as shown
bull Advantage - puts much of the complexity on the ground where it is easier to manage (412300 subscribers in 2010)
Teledesic
bull Teledesic was as high-speed wireless switched global network -an IP-based system designed to support data voice and video at the same quality level as fiber-based terrestrial systems - a global Internet-in-the-Skyldquo providing broadband and Internet access
bull Originally (1995) planning 840 active satellites with in-orbit spares at an altitude of 700 km
bull Scaled (1997) to 288 active satellites at 1400 kmbull Officially suspended its satellite construction work on
October 1 2002bull Funding from Microsoft (investing US$30 million for an
85 stake) Craig McCaw Bill Gates Paul Allen and Saudi prince Alwaleed bin Talal and for achieving allocation on the Ka-band frequency spectrum for non-geostationary services
Highly elliptical orbit
bull HEO ndash an elliptic orbit with a low-altitude (about 1000 kilometres) perigee and a high-altitude (over 35786 kilometres) apogee
bull Advantage - long dwell times at a point in the sky during the approach to and descent from apogee - phenomenon known as apogee dwell (acts like GEO) (3-4 hours can receive signal with 06 m antenna)
bull Used by Sirius Satellite Radio (operating in North America) the Molniya communication satelites (at least 3) (Russia)
Satellite Applications
bull Communication The main application for satellites today is in communication Communication satellites act as relay stations in the sky and permit reliable long-distance communication worldwide
bull Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS) service This is a TV signal distribution system designed to distribute signals directly to consumers
Satellite Applications
bull Satellite Cell Phones Satellite-based cellular telephone service is under development The proposed new systems use low-earth-orbit satellites to perform the relay services to the main telephone system or to make connection directly between any two cellular telephones using the system
Satellite Applications
bull Digital Satellite Radio One of the newest satellite applications is in digital satellite radio or the digital audio radio service (DARS) ndash This service provides hundreds of channels of
music news sports and talk radio to car portable and home radios
ndash It provides full continuous coverage of the station you select wherever you are in the United States
ndash Its digital transmission techniques ensure high-quality stereo sound that is immune to noise
ndash The satellites transmit other information such as song title and artist type of music and other data which are displayed on a LCD screen
Satellite Applications
bull Surveillance satellites can look at the earth and transmit what they see back to ground stations for a wide variety of purposes including military intelligence meteorological applications and mapping
bull Satellite navigation systems can provide global coverage unavailable with land-based systems satellites
Global Positioning System
bull The Global Positioning System (GPS) also known as Navstar is a satellite-based navigation system that can be used by anyone with an appropriate receiver to pinpoint his or her location on earth
bull GPS was developed by the US Air Force for the Department of Defense as a continuous global radio navigation system
bull The GPS system consists of three major segments the space segment the control segment and the user segment
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentndash The space segment is the constellation of
satellites orbiting above the earth that contain transmitters which send highly accurate timing information to GPS receivers on earth
bull The GPS consists of 24 main operational satellites and 3 active spare satellites arranged in six orbits of 3 or 4 satellites each
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentbull Each of the satellites contains four highly accurate
atomic clocks
bull These clocks are used to generate a unique pseudorandom code identifying the specific satellite that is transmitted to earth
bull The satellite also transmits a set of digitally coded ephemeris data that completely defines its precise orbit
Global Positioning System
The GPS space segment
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentndash The control segment of the GPS system
refers to the various ground stations that monitor the satellites and provide control and update information
bull The master control station is operated by the US Air Force in Colorado Springs
bull Four additional monitoring and control stations constantly monitor the satellites and collect range information from each
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentbull The information is sent back to the master
control station in Colorado where all the information is collected and position data on each satellite calculated
bull The master control station then transmits new ephemeris and clock data to each satellite on the S-band uplink once per day
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash A GPS receiver is a complex superheterodyne
microwave receiver designed to pick up the GPS signals decode them and then compute the location of the receiver
ndash The output is usually an LCD display giving latitude longitude and altitude information andor a map of the area
ndash The most widely used GPS receiver is the popular handheld portable type not much larger than an oversized handheld calculator
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash The receiver performs a time multiplexing
operation on the four satellites within view of the receiver
ndash The data is extracted from each of the four satellites and stored in the receiverrsquos memory
ndash Data from three satellites is needed to fix the receiverrsquos position
ndash If data from a fourth satellite is available altitude can be calculated
Global Positioning System
GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
How triangulation works to locate a GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications ndash The primary application of the GPS is
military and related navigationndash GPS is used by all services for ships
aircraft and ground troopsndash Most civilian applications also involve
navigation which is usually marine or aviation-related
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications
ndash Commercial applications include surveying mapmaking and construction
ndash Vehicle location is a growing application for trucking and delivery companies taxi bus and train transportation
ndash Police fire ambulance and forest services also use GPS
ndash A new hobby called geocaching uses GPS receivers In this sport one team hides an item or ldquotreasurerdquo and then gives the other team coordinates to follow to find the treasure within a given time
Design of the Satellite Link
bull The satellite link is probably the most basic in microwave communications since a line-of-sight path typically exists between the Earth and space
bull This means that an imaginary line extending between the transmitting or receiving Earth station and the satellite antenna passes only through the atmosphere and not ground obstacles
bull Such a link is governed by free-space propagation with only limited variation with respect to time due to various constituents of the atmosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull Free-space attenuation is determined by the inverse square law which states that the power
received is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
bull The same law applies to the amount of light that reaches our eyes from a distant point source such as an automobile headlight or star
bull There are however a number of additional effects that produce a significant amount of degradation and time variation
bull These include rain terrain effects such as absorption by trees and walls and some less-obvious impairment produced by unstable conditions of the air and ionosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull It is the job of the communication engineer to identify all of the significant contributions to performance and make sure that they are properly taken into account
bull The required factors include the performance of the satellite itself the configuration and performance of the uplink and downlink Earth stations and the impact of the propagation medium in the frequency band of interest
Low-Earth Orbit Satellitesbull The Iridium satellite constellation - group of
satellites providing voice and data coverage to satellite phones pagers and integrated transceivers over Earths entire surface
bull Originally developed in 1992 services started in 1998 bankrupted in August 1999 and subsequently restarted in March 2001 (513 000 subscribers in 2011)
bull Satellites are at a height of approximately 781 kmbull Customers include the maritime aviation and oil
exploration industries as well as people traveling in parts of the world lacking a telecommunications infrastructure (eg deserts mountains jungles and some Third World countries)
Iridium
bull The Iridium satellites are in circular polar orbits
bull They are arranged in north-south necklaces with one satellite every 32 degrees of latitude
bull With six satellite necklaces the entire earth is covered
bull Each satellite can support up to 1100 concurrent phone calls and weighs about 680 kg
Iridium
bull Each satellite has a maximum of 48 cells (spot beams) with a total of 1628 cells over the surface of the earth
bull Each satellite has a capacity of 3840 channels or 253440 in all
bull Some of these are used for paging and navigation while others are used for data and voice
bull An interesting property of Iridium is that communication between distant customers takes place in space with one satellite relaying data to the next one
bull A caller at the North Pole contacts a satellite directly overhead - the call is relayed via other satellites and finally sent down to the called at the South Pole
Globalstar
bull Globalstar - based on 48 LEO satellites but uses a different switching scheme than that of Iridium (relays calls from satellite to satellite which requires sophisticated switching equipment in the satellites)
bull Globalstar uses a traditional bent-pipe design - a call originating at the North Pole is sent back to earth and picked up by the large ground station
bull The call is then routed via a terrestrial network to the ground station nearest the callee and delivered by a bent-pipe connection as shown
bull Advantage - puts much of the complexity on the ground where it is easier to manage (412300 subscribers in 2010)
Teledesic
bull Teledesic was as high-speed wireless switched global network -an IP-based system designed to support data voice and video at the same quality level as fiber-based terrestrial systems - a global Internet-in-the-Skyldquo providing broadband and Internet access
bull Originally (1995) planning 840 active satellites with in-orbit spares at an altitude of 700 km
bull Scaled (1997) to 288 active satellites at 1400 kmbull Officially suspended its satellite construction work on
October 1 2002bull Funding from Microsoft (investing US$30 million for an
85 stake) Craig McCaw Bill Gates Paul Allen and Saudi prince Alwaleed bin Talal and for achieving allocation on the Ka-band frequency spectrum for non-geostationary services
Highly elliptical orbit
bull HEO ndash an elliptic orbit with a low-altitude (about 1000 kilometres) perigee and a high-altitude (over 35786 kilometres) apogee
bull Advantage - long dwell times at a point in the sky during the approach to and descent from apogee - phenomenon known as apogee dwell (acts like GEO) (3-4 hours can receive signal with 06 m antenna)
bull Used by Sirius Satellite Radio (operating in North America) the Molniya communication satelites (at least 3) (Russia)
Satellite Applications
bull Communication The main application for satellites today is in communication Communication satellites act as relay stations in the sky and permit reliable long-distance communication worldwide
bull Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS) service This is a TV signal distribution system designed to distribute signals directly to consumers
Satellite Applications
bull Satellite Cell Phones Satellite-based cellular telephone service is under development The proposed new systems use low-earth-orbit satellites to perform the relay services to the main telephone system or to make connection directly between any two cellular telephones using the system
Satellite Applications
bull Digital Satellite Radio One of the newest satellite applications is in digital satellite radio or the digital audio radio service (DARS) ndash This service provides hundreds of channels of
music news sports and talk radio to car portable and home radios
ndash It provides full continuous coverage of the station you select wherever you are in the United States
ndash Its digital transmission techniques ensure high-quality stereo sound that is immune to noise
ndash The satellites transmit other information such as song title and artist type of music and other data which are displayed on a LCD screen
Satellite Applications
bull Surveillance satellites can look at the earth and transmit what they see back to ground stations for a wide variety of purposes including military intelligence meteorological applications and mapping
bull Satellite navigation systems can provide global coverage unavailable with land-based systems satellites
Global Positioning System
bull The Global Positioning System (GPS) also known as Navstar is a satellite-based navigation system that can be used by anyone with an appropriate receiver to pinpoint his or her location on earth
bull GPS was developed by the US Air Force for the Department of Defense as a continuous global radio navigation system
bull The GPS system consists of three major segments the space segment the control segment and the user segment
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentndash The space segment is the constellation of
satellites orbiting above the earth that contain transmitters which send highly accurate timing information to GPS receivers on earth
bull The GPS consists of 24 main operational satellites and 3 active spare satellites arranged in six orbits of 3 or 4 satellites each
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentbull Each of the satellites contains four highly accurate
atomic clocks
bull These clocks are used to generate a unique pseudorandom code identifying the specific satellite that is transmitted to earth
bull The satellite also transmits a set of digitally coded ephemeris data that completely defines its precise orbit
Global Positioning System
The GPS space segment
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentndash The control segment of the GPS system
refers to the various ground stations that monitor the satellites and provide control and update information
bull The master control station is operated by the US Air Force in Colorado Springs
bull Four additional monitoring and control stations constantly monitor the satellites and collect range information from each
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentbull The information is sent back to the master
control station in Colorado where all the information is collected and position data on each satellite calculated
bull The master control station then transmits new ephemeris and clock data to each satellite on the S-band uplink once per day
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash A GPS receiver is a complex superheterodyne
microwave receiver designed to pick up the GPS signals decode them and then compute the location of the receiver
ndash The output is usually an LCD display giving latitude longitude and altitude information andor a map of the area
ndash The most widely used GPS receiver is the popular handheld portable type not much larger than an oversized handheld calculator
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash The receiver performs a time multiplexing
operation on the four satellites within view of the receiver
ndash The data is extracted from each of the four satellites and stored in the receiverrsquos memory
ndash Data from three satellites is needed to fix the receiverrsquos position
ndash If data from a fourth satellite is available altitude can be calculated
Global Positioning System
GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
How triangulation works to locate a GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications ndash The primary application of the GPS is
military and related navigationndash GPS is used by all services for ships
aircraft and ground troopsndash Most civilian applications also involve
navigation which is usually marine or aviation-related
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications
ndash Commercial applications include surveying mapmaking and construction
ndash Vehicle location is a growing application for trucking and delivery companies taxi bus and train transportation
ndash Police fire ambulance and forest services also use GPS
ndash A new hobby called geocaching uses GPS receivers In this sport one team hides an item or ldquotreasurerdquo and then gives the other team coordinates to follow to find the treasure within a given time
Design of the Satellite Link
bull The satellite link is probably the most basic in microwave communications since a line-of-sight path typically exists between the Earth and space
bull This means that an imaginary line extending between the transmitting or receiving Earth station and the satellite antenna passes only through the atmosphere and not ground obstacles
bull Such a link is governed by free-space propagation with only limited variation with respect to time due to various constituents of the atmosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull Free-space attenuation is determined by the inverse square law which states that the power
received is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
bull The same law applies to the amount of light that reaches our eyes from a distant point source such as an automobile headlight or star
bull There are however a number of additional effects that produce a significant amount of degradation and time variation
bull These include rain terrain effects such as absorption by trees and walls and some less-obvious impairment produced by unstable conditions of the air and ionosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull It is the job of the communication engineer to identify all of the significant contributions to performance and make sure that they are properly taken into account
bull The required factors include the performance of the satellite itself the configuration and performance of the uplink and downlink Earth stations and the impact of the propagation medium in the frequency band of interest
Iridium
bull The Iridium satellites are in circular polar orbits
bull They are arranged in north-south necklaces with one satellite every 32 degrees of latitude
bull With six satellite necklaces the entire earth is covered
bull Each satellite can support up to 1100 concurrent phone calls and weighs about 680 kg
Iridium
bull Each satellite has a maximum of 48 cells (spot beams) with a total of 1628 cells over the surface of the earth
bull Each satellite has a capacity of 3840 channels or 253440 in all
bull Some of these are used for paging and navigation while others are used for data and voice
bull An interesting property of Iridium is that communication between distant customers takes place in space with one satellite relaying data to the next one
bull A caller at the North Pole contacts a satellite directly overhead - the call is relayed via other satellites and finally sent down to the called at the South Pole
Globalstar
bull Globalstar - based on 48 LEO satellites but uses a different switching scheme than that of Iridium (relays calls from satellite to satellite which requires sophisticated switching equipment in the satellites)
bull Globalstar uses a traditional bent-pipe design - a call originating at the North Pole is sent back to earth and picked up by the large ground station
bull The call is then routed via a terrestrial network to the ground station nearest the callee and delivered by a bent-pipe connection as shown
bull Advantage - puts much of the complexity on the ground where it is easier to manage (412300 subscribers in 2010)
Teledesic
bull Teledesic was as high-speed wireless switched global network -an IP-based system designed to support data voice and video at the same quality level as fiber-based terrestrial systems - a global Internet-in-the-Skyldquo providing broadband and Internet access
bull Originally (1995) planning 840 active satellites with in-orbit spares at an altitude of 700 km
bull Scaled (1997) to 288 active satellites at 1400 kmbull Officially suspended its satellite construction work on
October 1 2002bull Funding from Microsoft (investing US$30 million for an
85 stake) Craig McCaw Bill Gates Paul Allen and Saudi prince Alwaleed bin Talal and for achieving allocation on the Ka-band frequency spectrum for non-geostationary services
Highly elliptical orbit
bull HEO ndash an elliptic orbit with a low-altitude (about 1000 kilometres) perigee and a high-altitude (over 35786 kilometres) apogee
bull Advantage - long dwell times at a point in the sky during the approach to and descent from apogee - phenomenon known as apogee dwell (acts like GEO) (3-4 hours can receive signal with 06 m antenna)
bull Used by Sirius Satellite Radio (operating in North America) the Molniya communication satelites (at least 3) (Russia)
Satellite Applications
bull Communication The main application for satellites today is in communication Communication satellites act as relay stations in the sky and permit reliable long-distance communication worldwide
bull Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS) service This is a TV signal distribution system designed to distribute signals directly to consumers
Satellite Applications
bull Satellite Cell Phones Satellite-based cellular telephone service is under development The proposed new systems use low-earth-orbit satellites to perform the relay services to the main telephone system or to make connection directly between any two cellular telephones using the system
Satellite Applications
bull Digital Satellite Radio One of the newest satellite applications is in digital satellite radio or the digital audio radio service (DARS) ndash This service provides hundreds of channels of
music news sports and talk radio to car portable and home radios
ndash It provides full continuous coverage of the station you select wherever you are in the United States
ndash Its digital transmission techniques ensure high-quality stereo sound that is immune to noise
ndash The satellites transmit other information such as song title and artist type of music and other data which are displayed on a LCD screen
Satellite Applications
bull Surveillance satellites can look at the earth and transmit what they see back to ground stations for a wide variety of purposes including military intelligence meteorological applications and mapping
bull Satellite navigation systems can provide global coverage unavailable with land-based systems satellites
Global Positioning System
bull The Global Positioning System (GPS) also known as Navstar is a satellite-based navigation system that can be used by anyone with an appropriate receiver to pinpoint his or her location on earth
bull GPS was developed by the US Air Force for the Department of Defense as a continuous global radio navigation system
bull The GPS system consists of three major segments the space segment the control segment and the user segment
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentndash The space segment is the constellation of
satellites orbiting above the earth that contain transmitters which send highly accurate timing information to GPS receivers on earth
bull The GPS consists of 24 main operational satellites and 3 active spare satellites arranged in six orbits of 3 or 4 satellites each
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentbull Each of the satellites contains four highly accurate
atomic clocks
bull These clocks are used to generate a unique pseudorandom code identifying the specific satellite that is transmitted to earth
bull The satellite also transmits a set of digitally coded ephemeris data that completely defines its precise orbit
Global Positioning System
The GPS space segment
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentndash The control segment of the GPS system
refers to the various ground stations that monitor the satellites and provide control and update information
bull The master control station is operated by the US Air Force in Colorado Springs
bull Four additional monitoring and control stations constantly monitor the satellites and collect range information from each
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentbull The information is sent back to the master
control station in Colorado where all the information is collected and position data on each satellite calculated
bull The master control station then transmits new ephemeris and clock data to each satellite on the S-band uplink once per day
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash A GPS receiver is a complex superheterodyne
microwave receiver designed to pick up the GPS signals decode them and then compute the location of the receiver
ndash The output is usually an LCD display giving latitude longitude and altitude information andor a map of the area
ndash The most widely used GPS receiver is the popular handheld portable type not much larger than an oversized handheld calculator
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash The receiver performs a time multiplexing
operation on the four satellites within view of the receiver
ndash The data is extracted from each of the four satellites and stored in the receiverrsquos memory
ndash Data from three satellites is needed to fix the receiverrsquos position
ndash If data from a fourth satellite is available altitude can be calculated
Global Positioning System
GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
How triangulation works to locate a GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications ndash The primary application of the GPS is
military and related navigationndash GPS is used by all services for ships
aircraft and ground troopsndash Most civilian applications also involve
navigation which is usually marine or aviation-related
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications
ndash Commercial applications include surveying mapmaking and construction
ndash Vehicle location is a growing application for trucking and delivery companies taxi bus and train transportation
ndash Police fire ambulance and forest services also use GPS
ndash A new hobby called geocaching uses GPS receivers In this sport one team hides an item or ldquotreasurerdquo and then gives the other team coordinates to follow to find the treasure within a given time
Design of the Satellite Link
bull The satellite link is probably the most basic in microwave communications since a line-of-sight path typically exists between the Earth and space
bull This means that an imaginary line extending between the transmitting or receiving Earth station and the satellite antenna passes only through the atmosphere and not ground obstacles
bull Such a link is governed by free-space propagation with only limited variation with respect to time due to various constituents of the atmosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull Free-space attenuation is determined by the inverse square law which states that the power
received is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
bull The same law applies to the amount of light that reaches our eyes from a distant point source such as an automobile headlight or star
bull There are however a number of additional effects that produce a significant amount of degradation and time variation
bull These include rain terrain effects such as absorption by trees and walls and some less-obvious impairment produced by unstable conditions of the air and ionosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull It is the job of the communication engineer to identify all of the significant contributions to performance and make sure that they are properly taken into account
bull The required factors include the performance of the satellite itself the configuration and performance of the uplink and downlink Earth stations and the impact of the propagation medium in the frequency band of interest
Iridium
bull Each satellite has a maximum of 48 cells (spot beams) with a total of 1628 cells over the surface of the earth
bull Each satellite has a capacity of 3840 channels or 253440 in all
bull Some of these are used for paging and navigation while others are used for data and voice
bull An interesting property of Iridium is that communication between distant customers takes place in space with one satellite relaying data to the next one
bull A caller at the North Pole contacts a satellite directly overhead - the call is relayed via other satellites and finally sent down to the called at the South Pole
Globalstar
bull Globalstar - based on 48 LEO satellites but uses a different switching scheme than that of Iridium (relays calls from satellite to satellite which requires sophisticated switching equipment in the satellites)
bull Globalstar uses a traditional bent-pipe design - a call originating at the North Pole is sent back to earth and picked up by the large ground station
bull The call is then routed via a terrestrial network to the ground station nearest the callee and delivered by a bent-pipe connection as shown
bull Advantage - puts much of the complexity on the ground where it is easier to manage (412300 subscribers in 2010)
Teledesic
bull Teledesic was as high-speed wireless switched global network -an IP-based system designed to support data voice and video at the same quality level as fiber-based terrestrial systems - a global Internet-in-the-Skyldquo providing broadband and Internet access
bull Originally (1995) planning 840 active satellites with in-orbit spares at an altitude of 700 km
bull Scaled (1997) to 288 active satellites at 1400 kmbull Officially suspended its satellite construction work on
October 1 2002bull Funding from Microsoft (investing US$30 million for an
85 stake) Craig McCaw Bill Gates Paul Allen and Saudi prince Alwaleed bin Talal and for achieving allocation on the Ka-band frequency spectrum for non-geostationary services
Highly elliptical orbit
bull HEO ndash an elliptic orbit with a low-altitude (about 1000 kilometres) perigee and a high-altitude (over 35786 kilometres) apogee
bull Advantage - long dwell times at a point in the sky during the approach to and descent from apogee - phenomenon known as apogee dwell (acts like GEO) (3-4 hours can receive signal with 06 m antenna)
bull Used by Sirius Satellite Radio (operating in North America) the Molniya communication satelites (at least 3) (Russia)
Satellite Applications
bull Communication The main application for satellites today is in communication Communication satellites act as relay stations in the sky and permit reliable long-distance communication worldwide
bull Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS) service This is a TV signal distribution system designed to distribute signals directly to consumers
Satellite Applications
bull Satellite Cell Phones Satellite-based cellular telephone service is under development The proposed new systems use low-earth-orbit satellites to perform the relay services to the main telephone system or to make connection directly between any two cellular telephones using the system
Satellite Applications
bull Digital Satellite Radio One of the newest satellite applications is in digital satellite radio or the digital audio radio service (DARS) ndash This service provides hundreds of channels of
music news sports and talk radio to car portable and home radios
ndash It provides full continuous coverage of the station you select wherever you are in the United States
ndash Its digital transmission techniques ensure high-quality stereo sound that is immune to noise
ndash The satellites transmit other information such as song title and artist type of music and other data which are displayed on a LCD screen
Satellite Applications
bull Surveillance satellites can look at the earth and transmit what they see back to ground stations for a wide variety of purposes including military intelligence meteorological applications and mapping
bull Satellite navigation systems can provide global coverage unavailable with land-based systems satellites
Global Positioning System
bull The Global Positioning System (GPS) also known as Navstar is a satellite-based navigation system that can be used by anyone with an appropriate receiver to pinpoint his or her location on earth
bull GPS was developed by the US Air Force for the Department of Defense as a continuous global radio navigation system
bull The GPS system consists of three major segments the space segment the control segment and the user segment
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentndash The space segment is the constellation of
satellites orbiting above the earth that contain transmitters which send highly accurate timing information to GPS receivers on earth
bull The GPS consists of 24 main operational satellites and 3 active spare satellites arranged in six orbits of 3 or 4 satellites each
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentbull Each of the satellites contains four highly accurate
atomic clocks
bull These clocks are used to generate a unique pseudorandom code identifying the specific satellite that is transmitted to earth
bull The satellite also transmits a set of digitally coded ephemeris data that completely defines its precise orbit
Global Positioning System
The GPS space segment
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentndash The control segment of the GPS system
refers to the various ground stations that monitor the satellites and provide control and update information
bull The master control station is operated by the US Air Force in Colorado Springs
bull Four additional monitoring and control stations constantly monitor the satellites and collect range information from each
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentbull The information is sent back to the master
control station in Colorado where all the information is collected and position data on each satellite calculated
bull The master control station then transmits new ephemeris and clock data to each satellite on the S-band uplink once per day
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash A GPS receiver is a complex superheterodyne
microwave receiver designed to pick up the GPS signals decode them and then compute the location of the receiver
ndash The output is usually an LCD display giving latitude longitude and altitude information andor a map of the area
ndash The most widely used GPS receiver is the popular handheld portable type not much larger than an oversized handheld calculator
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash The receiver performs a time multiplexing
operation on the four satellites within view of the receiver
ndash The data is extracted from each of the four satellites and stored in the receiverrsquos memory
ndash Data from three satellites is needed to fix the receiverrsquos position
ndash If data from a fourth satellite is available altitude can be calculated
Global Positioning System
GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
How triangulation works to locate a GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications ndash The primary application of the GPS is
military and related navigationndash GPS is used by all services for ships
aircraft and ground troopsndash Most civilian applications also involve
navigation which is usually marine or aviation-related
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications
ndash Commercial applications include surveying mapmaking and construction
ndash Vehicle location is a growing application for trucking and delivery companies taxi bus and train transportation
ndash Police fire ambulance and forest services also use GPS
ndash A new hobby called geocaching uses GPS receivers In this sport one team hides an item or ldquotreasurerdquo and then gives the other team coordinates to follow to find the treasure within a given time
Design of the Satellite Link
bull The satellite link is probably the most basic in microwave communications since a line-of-sight path typically exists between the Earth and space
bull This means that an imaginary line extending between the transmitting or receiving Earth station and the satellite antenna passes only through the atmosphere and not ground obstacles
bull Such a link is governed by free-space propagation with only limited variation with respect to time due to various constituents of the atmosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull Free-space attenuation is determined by the inverse square law which states that the power
received is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
bull The same law applies to the amount of light that reaches our eyes from a distant point source such as an automobile headlight or star
bull There are however a number of additional effects that produce a significant amount of degradation and time variation
bull These include rain terrain effects such as absorption by trees and walls and some less-obvious impairment produced by unstable conditions of the air and ionosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull It is the job of the communication engineer to identify all of the significant contributions to performance and make sure that they are properly taken into account
bull The required factors include the performance of the satellite itself the configuration and performance of the uplink and downlink Earth stations and the impact of the propagation medium in the frequency band of interest
Globalstar
bull Globalstar - based on 48 LEO satellites but uses a different switching scheme than that of Iridium (relays calls from satellite to satellite which requires sophisticated switching equipment in the satellites)
bull Globalstar uses a traditional bent-pipe design - a call originating at the North Pole is sent back to earth and picked up by the large ground station
bull The call is then routed via a terrestrial network to the ground station nearest the callee and delivered by a bent-pipe connection as shown
bull Advantage - puts much of the complexity on the ground where it is easier to manage (412300 subscribers in 2010)
Teledesic
bull Teledesic was as high-speed wireless switched global network -an IP-based system designed to support data voice and video at the same quality level as fiber-based terrestrial systems - a global Internet-in-the-Skyldquo providing broadband and Internet access
bull Originally (1995) planning 840 active satellites with in-orbit spares at an altitude of 700 km
bull Scaled (1997) to 288 active satellites at 1400 kmbull Officially suspended its satellite construction work on
October 1 2002bull Funding from Microsoft (investing US$30 million for an
85 stake) Craig McCaw Bill Gates Paul Allen and Saudi prince Alwaleed bin Talal and for achieving allocation on the Ka-band frequency spectrum for non-geostationary services
Highly elliptical orbit
bull HEO ndash an elliptic orbit with a low-altitude (about 1000 kilometres) perigee and a high-altitude (over 35786 kilometres) apogee
bull Advantage - long dwell times at a point in the sky during the approach to and descent from apogee - phenomenon known as apogee dwell (acts like GEO) (3-4 hours can receive signal with 06 m antenna)
bull Used by Sirius Satellite Radio (operating in North America) the Molniya communication satelites (at least 3) (Russia)
Satellite Applications
bull Communication The main application for satellites today is in communication Communication satellites act as relay stations in the sky and permit reliable long-distance communication worldwide
bull Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS) service This is a TV signal distribution system designed to distribute signals directly to consumers
Satellite Applications
bull Satellite Cell Phones Satellite-based cellular telephone service is under development The proposed new systems use low-earth-orbit satellites to perform the relay services to the main telephone system or to make connection directly between any two cellular telephones using the system
Satellite Applications
bull Digital Satellite Radio One of the newest satellite applications is in digital satellite radio or the digital audio radio service (DARS) ndash This service provides hundreds of channels of
music news sports and talk radio to car portable and home radios
ndash It provides full continuous coverage of the station you select wherever you are in the United States
ndash Its digital transmission techniques ensure high-quality stereo sound that is immune to noise
ndash The satellites transmit other information such as song title and artist type of music and other data which are displayed on a LCD screen
Satellite Applications
bull Surveillance satellites can look at the earth and transmit what they see back to ground stations for a wide variety of purposes including military intelligence meteorological applications and mapping
bull Satellite navigation systems can provide global coverage unavailable with land-based systems satellites
Global Positioning System
bull The Global Positioning System (GPS) also known as Navstar is a satellite-based navigation system that can be used by anyone with an appropriate receiver to pinpoint his or her location on earth
bull GPS was developed by the US Air Force for the Department of Defense as a continuous global radio navigation system
bull The GPS system consists of three major segments the space segment the control segment and the user segment
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentndash The space segment is the constellation of
satellites orbiting above the earth that contain transmitters which send highly accurate timing information to GPS receivers on earth
bull The GPS consists of 24 main operational satellites and 3 active spare satellites arranged in six orbits of 3 or 4 satellites each
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentbull Each of the satellites contains four highly accurate
atomic clocks
bull These clocks are used to generate a unique pseudorandom code identifying the specific satellite that is transmitted to earth
bull The satellite also transmits a set of digitally coded ephemeris data that completely defines its precise orbit
Global Positioning System
The GPS space segment
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentndash The control segment of the GPS system
refers to the various ground stations that monitor the satellites and provide control and update information
bull The master control station is operated by the US Air Force in Colorado Springs
bull Four additional monitoring and control stations constantly monitor the satellites and collect range information from each
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentbull The information is sent back to the master
control station in Colorado where all the information is collected and position data on each satellite calculated
bull The master control station then transmits new ephemeris and clock data to each satellite on the S-band uplink once per day
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash A GPS receiver is a complex superheterodyne
microwave receiver designed to pick up the GPS signals decode them and then compute the location of the receiver
ndash The output is usually an LCD display giving latitude longitude and altitude information andor a map of the area
ndash The most widely used GPS receiver is the popular handheld portable type not much larger than an oversized handheld calculator
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash The receiver performs a time multiplexing
operation on the four satellites within view of the receiver
ndash The data is extracted from each of the four satellites and stored in the receiverrsquos memory
ndash Data from three satellites is needed to fix the receiverrsquos position
ndash If data from a fourth satellite is available altitude can be calculated
Global Positioning System
GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
How triangulation works to locate a GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications ndash The primary application of the GPS is
military and related navigationndash GPS is used by all services for ships
aircraft and ground troopsndash Most civilian applications also involve
navigation which is usually marine or aviation-related
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications
ndash Commercial applications include surveying mapmaking and construction
ndash Vehicle location is a growing application for trucking and delivery companies taxi bus and train transportation
ndash Police fire ambulance and forest services also use GPS
ndash A new hobby called geocaching uses GPS receivers In this sport one team hides an item or ldquotreasurerdquo and then gives the other team coordinates to follow to find the treasure within a given time
Design of the Satellite Link
bull The satellite link is probably the most basic in microwave communications since a line-of-sight path typically exists between the Earth and space
bull This means that an imaginary line extending between the transmitting or receiving Earth station and the satellite antenna passes only through the atmosphere and not ground obstacles
bull Such a link is governed by free-space propagation with only limited variation with respect to time due to various constituents of the atmosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull Free-space attenuation is determined by the inverse square law which states that the power
received is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
bull The same law applies to the amount of light that reaches our eyes from a distant point source such as an automobile headlight or star
bull There are however a number of additional effects that produce a significant amount of degradation and time variation
bull These include rain terrain effects such as absorption by trees and walls and some less-obvious impairment produced by unstable conditions of the air and ionosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull It is the job of the communication engineer to identify all of the significant contributions to performance and make sure that they are properly taken into account
bull The required factors include the performance of the satellite itself the configuration and performance of the uplink and downlink Earth stations and the impact of the propagation medium in the frequency band of interest
Teledesic
bull Teledesic was as high-speed wireless switched global network -an IP-based system designed to support data voice and video at the same quality level as fiber-based terrestrial systems - a global Internet-in-the-Skyldquo providing broadband and Internet access
bull Originally (1995) planning 840 active satellites with in-orbit spares at an altitude of 700 km
bull Scaled (1997) to 288 active satellites at 1400 kmbull Officially suspended its satellite construction work on
October 1 2002bull Funding from Microsoft (investing US$30 million for an
85 stake) Craig McCaw Bill Gates Paul Allen and Saudi prince Alwaleed bin Talal and for achieving allocation on the Ka-band frequency spectrum for non-geostationary services
Highly elliptical orbit
bull HEO ndash an elliptic orbit with a low-altitude (about 1000 kilometres) perigee and a high-altitude (over 35786 kilometres) apogee
bull Advantage - long dwell times at a point in the sky during the approach to and descent from apogee - phenomenon known as apogee dwell (acts like GEO) (3-4 hours can receive signal with 06 m antenna)
bull Used by Sirius Satellite Radio (operating in North America) the Molniya communication satelites (at least 3) (Russia)
Satellite Applications
bull Communication The main application for satellites today is in communication Communication satellites act as relay stations in the sky and permit reliable long-distance communication worldwide
bull Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS) service This is a TV signal distribution system designed to distribute signals directly to consumers
Satellite Applications
bull Satellite Cell Phones Satellite-based cellular telephone service is under development The proposed new systems use low-earth-orbit satellites to perform the relay services to the main telephone system or to make connection directly between any two cellular telephones using the system
Satellite Applications
bull Digital Satellite Radio One of the newest satellite applications is in digital satellite radio or the digital audio radio service (DARS) ndash This service provides hundreds of channels of
music news sports and talk radio to car portable and home radios
ndash It provides full continuous coverage of the station you select wherever you are in the United States
ndash Its digital transmission techniques ensure high-quality stereo sound that is immune to noise
ndash The satellites transmit other information such as song title and artist type of music and other data which are displayed on a LCD screen
Satellite Applications
bull Surveillance satellites can look at the earth and transmit what they see back to ground stations for a wide variety of purposes including military intelligence meteorological applications and mapping
bull Satellite navigation systems can provide global coverage unavailable with land-based systems satellites
Global Positioning System
bull The Global Positioning System (GPS) also known as Navstar is a satellite-based navigation system that can be used by anyone with an appropriate receiver to pinpoint his or her location on earth
bull GPS was developed by the US Air Force for the Department of Defense as a continuous global radio navigation system
bull The GPS system consists of three major segments the space segment the control segment and the user segment
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentndash The space segment is the constellation of
satellites orbiting above the earth that contain transmitters which send highly accurate timing information to GPS receivers on earth
bull The GPS consists of 24 main operational satellites and 3 active spare satellites arranged in six orbits of 3 or 4 satellites each
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentbull Each of the satellites contains four highly accurate
atomic clocks
bull These clocks are used to generate a unique pseudorandom code identifying the specific satellite that is transmitted to earth
bull The satellite also transmits a set of digitally coded ephemeris data that completely defines its precise orbit
Global Positioning System
The GPS space segment
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentndash The control segment of the GPS system
refers to the various ground stations that monitor the satellites and provide control and update information
bull The master control station is operated by the US Air Force in Colorado Springs
bull Four additional monitoring and control stations constantly monitor the satellites and collect range information from each
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentbull The information is sent back to the master
control station in Colorado where all the information is collected and position data on each satellite calculated
bull The master control station then transmits new ephemeris and clock data to each satellite on the S-band uplink once per day
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash A GPS receiver is a complex superheterodyne
microwave receiver designed to pick up the GPS signals decode them and then compute the location of the receiver
ndash The output is usually an LCD display giving latitude longitude and altitude information andor a map of the area
ndash The most widely used GPS receiver is the popular handheld portable type not much larger than an oversized handheld calculator
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash The receiver performs a time multiplexing
operation on the four satellites within view of the receiver
ndash The data is extracted from each of the four satellites and stored in the receiverrsquos memory
ndash Data from three satellites is needed to fix the receiverrsquos position
ndash If data from a fourth satellite is available altitude can be calculated
Global Positioning System
GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
How triangulation works to locate a GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications ndash The primary application of the GPS is
military and related navigationndash GPS is used by all services for ships
aircraft and ground troopsndash Most civilian applications also involve
navigation which is usually marine or aviation-related
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications
ndash Commercial applications include surveying mapmaking and construction
ndash Vehicle location is a growing application for trucking and delivery companies taxi bus and train transportation
ndash Police fire ambulance and forest services also use GPS
ndash A new hobby called geocaching uses GPS receivers In this sport one team hides an item or ldquotreasurerdquo and then gives the other team coordinates to follow to find the treasure within a given time
Design of the Satellite Link
bull The satellite link is probably the most basic in microwave communications since a line-of-sight path typically exists between the Earth and space
bull This means that an imaginary line extending between the transmitting or receiving Earth station and the satellite antenna passes only through the atmosphere and not ground obstacles
bull Such a link is governed by free-space propagation with only limited variation with respect to time due to various constituents of the atmosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull Free-space attenuation is determined by the inverse square law which states that the power
received is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
bull The same law applies to the amount of light that reaches our eyes from a distant point source such as an automobile headlight or star
bull There are however a number of additional effects that produce a significant amount of degradation and time variation
bull These include rain terrain effects such as absorption by trees and walls and some less-obvious impairment produced by unstable conditions of the air and ionosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull It is the job of the communication engineer to identify all of the significant contributions to performance and make sure that they are properly taken into account
bull The required factors include the performance of the satellite itself the configuration and performance of the uplink and downlink Earth stations and the impact of the propagation medium in the frequency band of interest
Highly elliptical orbit
bull HEO ndash an elliptic orbit with a low-altitude (about 1000 kilometres) perigee and a high-altitude (over 35786 kilometres) apogee
bull Advantage - long dwell times at a point in the sky during the approach to and descent from apogee - phenomenon known as apogee dwell (acts like GEO) (3-4 hours can receive signal with 06 m antenna)
bull Used by Sirius Satellite Radio (operating in North America) the Molniya communication satelites (at least 3) (Russia)
Satellite Applications
bull Communication The main application for satellites today is in communication Communication satellites act as relay stations in the sky and permit reliable long-distance communication worldwide
bull Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS) service This is a TV signal distribution system designed to distribute signals directly to consumers
Satellite Applications
bull Satellite Cell Phones Satellite-based cellular telephone service is under development The proposed new systems use low-earth-orbit satellites to perform the relay services to the main telephone system or to make connection directly between any two cellular telephones using the system
Satellite Applications
bull Digital Satellite Radio One of the newest satellite applications is in digital satellite radio or the digital audio radio service (DARS) ndash This service provides hundreds of channels of
music news sports and talk radio to car portable and home radios
ndash It provides full continuous coverage of the station you select wherever you are in the United States
ndash Its digital transmission techniques ensure high-quality stereo sound that is immune to noise
ndash The satellites transmit other information such as song title and artist type of music and other data which are displayed on a LCD screen
Satellite Applications
bull Surveillance satellites can look at the earth and transmit what they see back to ground stations for a wide variety of purposes including military intelligence meteorological applications and mapping
bull Satellite navigation systems can provide global coverage unavailable with land-based systems satellites
Global Positioning System
bull The Global Positioning System (GPS) also known as Navstar is a satellite-based navigation system that can be used by anyone with an appropriate receiver to pinpoint his or her location on earth
bull GPS was developed by the US Air Force for the Department of Defense as a continuous global radio navigation system
bull The GPS system consists of three major segments the space segment the control segment and the user segment
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentndash The space segment is the constellation of
satellites orbiting above the earth that contain transmitters which send highly accurate timing information to GPS receivers on earth
bull The GPS consists of 24 main operational satellites and 3 active spare satellites arranged in six orbits of 3 or 4 satellites each
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentbull Each of the satellites contains four highly accurate
atomic clocks
bull These clocks are used to generate a unique pseudorandom code identifying the specific satellite that is transmitted to earth
bull The satellite also transmits a set of digitally coded ephemeris data that completely defines its precise orbit
Global Positioning System
The GPS space segment
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentndash The control segment of the GPS system
refers to the various ground stations that monitor the satellites and provide control and update information
bull The master control station is operated by the US Air Force in Colorado Springs
bull Four additional monitoring and control stations constantly monitor the satellites and collect range information from each
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentbull The information is sent back to the master
control station in Colorado where all the information is collected and position data on each satellite calculated
bull The master control station then transmits new ephemeris and clock data to each satellite on the S-band uplink once per day
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash A GPS receiver is a complex superheterodyne
microwave receiver designed to pick up the GPS signals decode them and then compute the location of the receiver
ndash The output is usually an LCD display giving latitude longitude and altitude information andor a map of the area
ndash The most widely used GPS receiver is the popular handheld portable type not much larger than an oversized handheld calculator
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash The receiver performs a time multiplexing
operation on the four satellites within view of the receiver
ndash The data is extracted from each of the four satellites and stored in the receiverrsquos memory
ndash Data from three satellites is needed to fix the receiverrsquos position
ndash If data from a fourth satellite is available altitude can be calculated
Global Positioning System
GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
How triangulation works to locate a GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications ndash The primary application of the GPS is
military and related navigationndash GPS is used by all services for ships
aircraft and ground troopsndash Most civilian applications also involve
navigation which is usually marine or aviation-related
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications
ndash Commercial applications include surveying mapmaking and construction
ndash Vehicle location is a growing application for trucking and delivery companies taxi bus and train transportation
ndash Police fire ambulance and forest services also use GPS
ndash A new hobby called geocaching uses GPS receivers In this sport one team hides an item or ldquotreasurerdquo and then gives the other team coordinates to follow to find the treasure within a given time
Design of the Satellite Link
bull The satellite link is probably the most basic in microwave communications since a line-of-sight path typically exists between the Earth and space
bull This means that an imaginary line extending between the transmitting or receiving Earth station and the satellite antenna passes only through the atmosphere and not ground obstacles
bull Such a link is governed by free-space propagation with only limited variation with respect to time due to various constituents of the atmosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull Free-space attenuation is determined by the inverse square law which states that the power
received is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
bull The same law applies to the amount of light that reaches our eyes from a distant point source such as an automobile headlight or star
bull There are however a number of additional effects that produce a significant amount of degradation and time variation
bull These include rain terrain effects such as absorption by trees and walls and some less-obvious impairment produced by unstable conditions of the air and ionosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull It is the job of the communication engineer to identify all of the significant contributions to performance and make sure that they are properly taken into account
bull The required factors include the performance of the satellite itself the configuration and performance of the uplink and downlink Earth stations and the impact of the propagation medium in the frequency band of interest
Satellite Applications
bull Communication The main application for satellites today is in communication Communication satellites act as relay stations in the sky and permit reliable long-distance communication worldwide
bull Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS) service This is a TV signal distribution system designed to distribute signals directly to consumers
Satellite Applications
bull Satellite Cell Phones Satellite-based cellular telephone service is under development The proposed new systems use low-earth-orbit satellites to perform the relay services to the main telephone system or to make connection directly between any two cellular telephones using the system
Satellite Applications
bull Digital Satellite Radio One of the newest satellite applications is in digital satellite radio or the digital audio radio service (DARS) ndash This service provides hundreds of channels of
music news sports and talk radio to car portable and home radios
ndash It provides full continuous coverage of the station you select wherever you are in the United States
ndash Its digital transmission techniques ensure high-quality stereo sound that is immune to noise
ndash The satellites transmit other information such as song title and artist type of music and other data which are displayed on a LCD screen
Satellite Applications
bull Surveillance satellites can look at the earth and transmit what they see back to ground stations for a wide variety of purposes including military intelligence meteorological applications and mapping
bull Satellite navigation systems can provide global coverage unavailable with land-based systems satellites
Global Positioning System
bull The Global Positioning System (GPS) also known as Navstar is a satellite-based navigation system that can be used by anyone with an appropriate receiver to pinpoint his or her location on earth
bull GPS was developed by the US Air Force for the Department of Defense as a continuous global radio navigation system
bull The GPS system consists of three major segments the space segment the control segment and the user segment
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentndash The space segment is the constellation of
satellites orbiting above the earth that contain transmitters which send highly accurate timing information to GPS receivers on earth
bull The GPS consists of 24 main operational satellites and 3 active spare satellites arranged in six orbits of 3 or 4 satellites each
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentbull Each of the satellites contains four highly accurate
atomic clocks
bull These clocks are used to generate a unique pseudorandom code identifying the specific satellite that is transmitted to earth
bull The satellite also transmits a set of digitally coded ephemeris data that completely defines its precise orbit
Global Positioning System
The GPS space segment
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentndash The control segment of the GPS system
refers to the various ground stations that monitor the satellites and provide control and update information
bull The master control station is operated by the US Air Force in Colorado Springs
bull Four additional monitoring and control stations constantly monitor the satellites and collect range information from each
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentbull The information is sent back to the master
control station in Colorado where all the information is collected and position data on each satellite calculated
bull The master control station then transmits new ephemeris and clock data to each satellite on the S-band uplink once per day
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash A GPS receiver is a complex superheterodyne
microwave receiver designed to pick up the GPS signals decode them and then compute the location of the receiver
ndash The output is usually an LCD display giving latitude longitude and altitude information andor a map of the area
ndash The most widely used GPS receiver is the popular handheld portable type not much larger than an oversized handheld calculator
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash The receiver performs a time multiplexing
operation on the four satellites within view of the receiver
ndash The data is extracted from each of the four satellites and stored in the receiverrsquos memory
ndash Data from three satellites is needed to fix the receiverrsquos position
ndash If data from a fourth satellite is available altitude can be calculated
Global Positioning System
GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
How triangulation works to locate a GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications ndash The primary application of the GPS is
military and related navigationndash GPS is used by all services for ships
aircraft and ground troopsndash Most civilian applications also involve
navigation which is usually marine or aviation-related
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications
ndash Commercial applications include surveying mapmaking and construction
ndash Vehicle location is a growing application for trucking and delivery companies taxi bus and train transportation
ndash Police fire ambulance and forest services also use GPS
ndash A new hobby called geocaching uses GPS receivers In this sport one team hides an item or ldquotreasurerdquo and then gives the other team coordinates to follow to find the treasure within a given time
Design of the Satellite Link
bull The satellite link is probably the most basic in microwave communications since a line-of-sight path typically exists between the Earth and space
bull This means that an imaginary line extending between the transmitting or receiving Earth station and the satellite antenna passes only through the atmosphere and not ground obstacles
bull Such a link is governed by free-space propagation with only limited variation with respect to time due to various constituents of the atmosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull Free-space attenuation is determined by the inverse square law which states that the power
received is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
bull The same law applies to the amount of light that reaches our eyes from a distant point source such as an automobile headlight or star
bull There are however a number of additional effects that produce a significant amount of degradation and time variation
bull These include rain terrain effects such as absorption by trees and walls and some less-obvious impairment produced by unstable conditions of the air and ionosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull It is the job of the communication engineer to identify all of the significant contributions to performance and make sure that they are properly taken into account
bull The required factors include the performance of the satellite itself the configuration and performance of the uplink and downlink Earth stations and the impact of the propagation medium in the frequency band of interest
Satellite Applications
bull Satellite Cell Phones Satellite-based cellular telephone service is under development The proposed new systems use low-earth-orbit satellites to perform the relay services to the main telephone system or to make connection directly between any two cellular telephones using the system
Satellite Applications
bull Digital Satellite Radio One of the newest satellite applications is in digital satellite radio or the digital audio radio service (DARS) ndash This service provides hundreds of channels of
music news sports and talk radio to car portable and home radios
ndash It provides full continuous coverage of the station you select wherever you are in the United States
ndash Its digital transmission techniques ensure high-quality stereo sound that is immune to noise
ndash The satellites transmit other information such as song title and artist type of music and other data which are displayed on a LCD screen
Satellite Applications
bull Surveillance satellites can look at the earth and transmit what they see back to ground stations for a wide variety of purposes including military intelligence meteorological applications and mapping
bull Satellite navigation systems can provide global coverage unavailable with land-based systems satellites
Global Positioning System
bull The Global Positioning System (GPS) also known as Navstar is a satellite-based navigation system that can be used by anyone with an appropriate receiver to pinpoint his or her location on earth
bull GPS was developed by the US Air Force for the Department of Defense as a continuous global radio navigation system
bull The GPS system consists of three major segments the space segment the control segment and the user segment
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentndash The space segment is the constellation of
satellites orbiting above the earth that contain transmitters which send highly accurate timing information to GPS receivers on earth
bull The GPS consists of 24 main operational satellites and 3 active spare satellites arranged in six orbits of 3 or 4 satellites each
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentbull Each of the satellites contains four highly accurate
atomic clocks
bull These clocks are used to generate a unique pseudorandom code identifying the specific satellite that is transmitted to earth
bull The satellite also transmits a set of digitally coded ephemeris data that completely defines its precise orbit
Global Positioning System
The GPS space segment
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentndash The control segment of the GPS system
refers to the various ground stations that monitor the satellites and provide control and update information
bull The master control station is operated by the US Air Force in Colorado Springs
bull Four additional monitoring and control stations constantly monitor the satellites and collect range information from each
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentbull The information is sent back to the master
control station in Colorado where all the information is collected and position data on each satellite calculated
bull The master control station then transmits new ephemeris and clock data to each satellite on the S-band uplink once per day
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash A GPS receiver is a complex superheterodyne
microwave receiver designed to pick up the GPS signals decode them and then compute the location of the receiver
ndash The output is usually an LCD display giving latitude longitude and altitude information andor a map of the area
ndash The most widely used GPS receiver is the popular handheld portable type not much larger than an oversized handheld calculator
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash The receiver performs a time multiplexing
operation on the four satellites within view of the receiver
ndash The data is extracted from each of the four satellites and stored in the receiverrsquos memory
ndash Data from three satellites is needed to fix the receiverrsquos position
ndash If data from a fourth satellite is available altitude can be calculated
Global Positioning System
GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
How triangulation works to locate a GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications ndash The primary application of the GPS is
military and related navigationndash GPS is used by all services for ships
aircraft and ground troopsndash Most civilian applications also involve
navigation which is usually marine or aviation-related
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications
ndash Commercial applications include surveying mapmaking and construction
ndash Vehicle location is a growing application for trucking and delivery companies taxi bus and train transportation
ndash Police fire ambulance and forest services also use GPS
ndash A new hobby called geocaching uses GPS receivers In this sport one team hides an item or ldquotreasurerdquo and then gives the other team coordinates to follow to find the treasure within a given time
Design of the Satellite Link
bull The satellite link is probably the most basic in microwave communications since a line-of-sight path typically exists between the Earth and space
bull This means that an imaginary line extending between the transmitting or receiving Earth station and the satellite antenna passes only through the atmosphere and not ground obstacles
bull Such a link is governed by free-space propagation with only limited variation with respect to time due to various constituents of the atmosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull Free-space attenuation is determined by the inverse square law which states that the power
received is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
bull The same law applies to the amount of light that reaches our eyes from a distant point source such as an automobile headlight or star
bull There are however a number of additional effects that produce a significant amount of degradation and time variation
bull These include rain terrain effects such as absorption by trees and walls and some less-obvious impairment produced by unstable conditions of the air and ionosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull It is the job of the communication engineer to identify all of the significant contributions to performance and make sure that they are properly taken into account
bull The required factors include the performance of the satellite itself the configuration and performance of the uplink and downlink Earth stations and the impact of the propagation medium in the frequency band of interest
Satellite Applications
bull Digital Satellite Radio One of the newest satellite applications is in digital satellite radio or the digital audio radio service (DARS) ndash This service provides hundreds of channels of
music news sports and talk radio to car portable and home radios
ndash It provides full continuous coverage of the station you select wherever you are in the United States
ndash Its digital transmission techniques ensure high-quality stereo sound that is immune to noise
ndash The satellites transmit other information such as song title and artist type of music and other data which are displayed on a LCD screen
Satellite Applications
bull Surveillance satellites can look at the earth and transmit what they see back to ground stations for a wide variety of purposes including military intelligence meteorological applications and mapping
bull Satellite navigation systems can provide global coverage unavailable with land-based systems satellites
Global Positioning System
bull The Global Positioning System (GPS) also known as Navstar is a satellite-based navigation system that can be used by anyone with an appropriate receiver to pinpoint his or her location on earth
bull GPS was developed by the US Air Force for the Department of Defense as a continuous global radio navigation system
bull The GPS system consists of three major segments the space segment the control segment and the user segment
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentndash The space segment is the constellation of
satellites orbiting above the earth that contain transmitters which send highly accurate timing information to GPS receivers on earth
bull The GPS consists of 24 main operational satellites and 3 active spare satellites arranged in six orbits of 3 or 4 satellites each
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentbull Each of the satellites contains four highly accurate
atomic clocks
bull These clocks are used to generate a unique pseudorandom code identifying the specific satellite that is transmitted to earth
bull The satellite also transmits a set of digitally coded ephemeris data that completely defines its precise orbit
Global Positioning System
The GPS space segment
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentndash The control segment of the GPS system
refers to the various ground stations that monitor the satellites and provide control and update information
bull The master control station is operated by the US Air Force in Colorado Springs
bull Four additional monitoring and control stations constantly monitor the satellites and collect range information from each
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentbull The information is sent back to the master
control station in Colorado where all the information is collected and position data on each satellite calculated
bull The master control station then transmits new ephemeris and clock data to each satellite on the S-band uplink once per day
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash A GPS receiver is a complex superheterodyne
microwave receiver designed to pick up the GPS signals decode them and then compute the location of the receiver
ndash The output is usually an LCD display giving latitude longitude and altitude information andor a map of the area
ndash The most widely used GPS receiver is the popular handheld portable type not much larger than an oversized handheld calculator
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash The receiver performs a time multiplexing
operation on the four satellites within view of the receiver
ndash The data is extracted from each of the four satellites and stored in the receiverrsquos memory
ndash Data from three satellites is needed to fix the receiverrsquos position
ndash If data from a fourth satellite is available altitude can be calculated
Global Positioning System
GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
How triangulation works to locate a GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications ndash The primary application of the GPS is
military and related navigationndash GPS is used by all services for ships
aircraft and ground troopsndash Most civilian applications also involve
navigation which is usually marine or aviation-related
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications
ndash Commercial applications include surveying mapmaking and construction
ndash Vehicle location is a growing application for trucking and delivery companies taxi bus and train transportation
ndash Police fire ambulance and forest services also use GPS
ndash A new hobby called geocaching uses GPS receivers In this sport one team hides an item or ldquotreasurerdquo and then gives the other team coordinates to follow to find the treasure within a given time
Design of the Satellite Link
bull The satellite link is probably the most basic in microwave communications since a line-of-sight path typically exists between the Earth and space
bull This means that an imaginary line extending between the transmitting or receiving Earth station and the satellite antenna passes only through the atmosphere and not ground obstacles
bull Such a link is governed by free-space propagation with only limited variation with respect to time due to various constituents of the atmosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull Free-space attenuation is determined by the inverse square law which states that the power
received is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
bull The same law applies to the amount of light that reaches our eyes from a distant point source such as an automobile headlight or star
bull There are however a number of additional effects that produce a significant amount of degradation and time variation
bull These include rain terrain effects such as absorption by trees and walls and some less-obvious impairment produced by unstable conditions of the air and ionosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull It is the job of the communication engineer to identify all of the significant contributions to performance and make sure that they are properly taken into account
bull The required factors include the performance of the satellite itself the configuration and performance of the uplink and downlink Earth stations and the impact of the propagation medium in the frequency band of interest
Satellite Applications
bull Surveillance satellites can look at the earth and transmit what they see back to ground stations for a wide variety of purposes including military intelligence meteorological applications and mapping
bull Satellite navigation systems can provide global coverage unavailable with land-based systems satellites
Global Positioning System
bull The Global Positioning System (GPS) also known as Navstar is a satellite-based navigation system that can be used by anyone with an appropriate receiver to pinpoint his or her location on earth
bull GPS was developed by the US Air Force for the Department of Defense as a continuous global radio navigation system
bull The GPS system consists of three major segments the space segment the control segment and the user segment
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentndash The space segment is the constellation of
satellites orbiting above the earth that contain transmitters which send highly accurate timing information to GPS receivers on earth
bull The GPS consists of 24 main operational satellites and 3 active spare satellites arranged in six orbits of 3 or 4 satellites each
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentbull Each of the satellites contains four highly accurate
atomic clocks
bull These clocks are used to generate a unique pseudorandom code identifying the specific satellite that is transmitted to earth
bull The satellite also transmits a set of digitally coded ephemeris data that completely defines its precise orbit
Global Positioning System
The GPS space segment
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentndash The control segment of the GPS system
refers to the various ground stations that monitor the satellites and provide control and update information
bull The master control station is operated by the US Air Force in Colorado Springs
bull Four additional monitoring and control stations constantly monitor the satellites and collect range information from each
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentbull The information is sent back to the master
control station in Colorado where all the information is collected and position data on each satellite calculated
bull The master control station then transmits new ephemeris and clock data to each satellite on the S-band uplink once per day
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash A GPS receiver is a complex superheterodyne
microwave receiver designed to pick up the GPS signals decode them and then compute the location of the receiver
ndash The output is usually an LCD display giving latitude longitude and altitude information andor a map of the area
ndash The most widely used GPS receiver is the popular handheld portable type not much larger than an oversized handheld calculator
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash The receiver performs a time multiplexing
operation on the four satellites within view of the receiver
ndash The data is extracted from each of the four satellites and stored in the receiverrsquos memory
ndash Data from three satellites is needed to fix the receiverrsquos position
ndash If data from a fourth satellite is available altitude can be calculated
Global Positioning System
GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
How triangulation works to locate a GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications ndash The primary application of the GPS is
military and related navigationndash GPS is used by all services for ships
aircraft and ground troopsndash Most civilian applications also involve
navigation which is usually marine or aviation-related
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications
ndash Commercial applications include surveying mapmaking and construction
ndash Vehicle location is a growing application for trucking and delivery companies taxi bus and train transportation
ndash Police fire ambulance and forest services also use GPS
ndash A new hobby called geocaching uses GPS receivers In this sport one team hides an item or ldquotreasurerdquo and then gives the other team coordinates to follow to find the treasure within a given time
Design of the Satellite Link
bull The satellite link is probably the most basic in microwave communications since a line-of-sight path typically exists between the Earth and space
bull This means that an imaginary line extending between the transmitting or receiving Earth station and the satellite antenna passes only through the atmosphere and not ground obstacles
bull Such a link is governed by free-space propagation with only limited variation with respect to time due to various constituents of the atmosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull Free-space attenuation is determined by the inverse square law which states that the power
received is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
bull The same law applies to the amount of light that reaches our eyes from a distant point source such as an automobile headlight or star
bull There are however a number of additional effects that produce a significant amount of degradation and time variation
bull These include rain terrain effects such as absorption by trees and walls and some less-obvious impairment produced by unstable conditions of the air and ionosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull It is the job of the communication engineer to identify all of the significant contributions to performance and make sure that they are properly taken into account
bull The required factors include the performance of the satellite itself the configuration and performance of the uplink and downlink Earth stations and the impact of the propagation medium in the frequency band of interest
Global Positioning System
bull The Global Positioning System (GPS) also known as Navstar is a satellite-based navigation system that can be used by anyone with an appropriate receiver to pinpoint his or her location on earth
bull GPS was developed by the US Air Force for the Department of Defense as a continuous global radio navigation system
bull The GPS system consists of three major segments the space segment the control segment and the user segment
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentndash The space segment is the constellation of
satellites orbiting above the earth that contain transmitters which send highly accurate timing information to GPS receivers on earth
bull The GPS consists of 24 main operational satellites and 3 active spare satellites arranged in six orbits of 3 or 4 satellites each
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentbull Each of the satellites contains four highly accurate
atomic clocks
bull These clocks are used to generate a unique pseudorandom code identifying the specific satellite that is transmitted to earth
bull The satellite also transmits a set of digitally coded ephemeris data that completely defines its precise orbit
Global Positioning System
The GPS space segment
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentndash The control segment of the GPS system
refers to the various ground stations that monitor the satellites and provide control and update information
bull The master control station is operated by the US Air Force in Colorado Springs
bull Four additional monitoring and control stations constantly monitor the satellites and collect range information from each
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentbull The information is sent back to the master
control station in Colorado where all the information is collected and position data on each satellite calculated
bull The master control station then transmits new ephemeris and clock data to each satellite on the S-band uplink once per day
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash A GPS receiver is a complex superheterodyne
microwave receiver designed to pick up the GPS signals decode them and then compute the location of the receiver
ndash The output is usually an LCD display giving latitude longitude and altitude information andor a map of the area
ndash The most widely used GPS receiver is the popular handheld portable type not much larger than an oversized handheld calculator
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash The receiver performs a time multiplexing
operation on the four satellites within view of the receiver
ndash The data is extracted from each of the four satellites and stored in the receiverrsquos memory
ndash Data from three satellites is needed to fix the receiverrsquos position
ndash If data from a fourth satellite is available altitude can be calculated
Global Positioning System
GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
How triangulation works to locate a GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications ndash The primary application of the GPS is
military and related navigationndash GPS is used by all services for ships
aircraft and ground troopsndash Most civilian applications also involve
navigation which is usually marine or aviation-related
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications
ndash Commercial applications include surveying mapmaking and construction
ndash Vehicle location is a growing application for trucking and delivery companies taxi bus and train transportation
ndash Police fire ambulance and forest services also use GPS
ndash A new hobby called geocaching uses GPS receivers In this sport one team hides an item or ldquotreasurerdquo and then gives the other team coordinates to follow to find the treasure within a given time
Design of the Satellite Link
bull The satellite link is probably the most basic in microwave communications since a line-of-sight path typically exists between the Earth and space
bull This means that an imaginary line extending between the transmitting or receiving Earth station and the satellite antenna passes only through the atmosphere and not ground obstacles
bull Such a link is governed by free-space propagation with only limited variation with respect to time due to various constituents of the atmosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull Free-space attenuation is determined by the inverse square law which states that the power
received is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
bull The same law applies to the amount of light that reaches our eyes from a distant point source such as an automobile headlight or star
bull There are however a number of additional effects that produce a significant amount of degradation and time variation
bull These include rain terrain effects such as absorption by trees and walls and some less-obvious impairment produced by unstable conditions of the air and ionosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull It is the job of the communication engineer to identify all of the significant contributions to performance and make sure that they are properly taken into account
bull The required factors include the performance of the satellite itself the configuration and performance of the uplink and downlink Earth stations and the impact of the propagation medium in the frequency band of interest
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentndash The space segment is the constellation of
satellites orbiting above the earth that contain transmitters which send highly accurate timing information to GPS receivers on earth
bull The GPS consists of 24 main operational satellites and 3 active spare satellites arranged in six orbits of 3 or 4 satellites each
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentbull Each of the satellites contains four highly accurate
atomic clocks
bull These clocks are used to generate a unique pseudorandom code identifying the specific satellite that is transmitted to earth
bull The satellite also transmits a set of digitally coded ephemeris data that completely defines its precise orbit
Global Positioning System
The GPS space segment
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentndash The control segment of the GPS system
refers to the various ground stations that monitor the satellites and provide control and update information
bull The master control station is operated by the US Air Force in Colorado Springs
bull Four additional monitoring and control stations constantly monitor the satellites and collect range information from each
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentbull The information is sent back to the master
control station in Colorado where all the information is collected and position data on each satellite calculated
bull The master control station then transmits new ephemeris and clock data to each satellite on the S-band uplink once per day
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash A GPS receiver is a complex superheterodyne
microwave receiver designed to pick up the GPS signals decode them and then compute the location of the receiver
ndash The output is usually an LCD display giving latitude longitude and altitude information andor a map of the area
ndash The most widely used GPS receiver is the popular handheld portable type not much larger than an oversized handheld calculator
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash The receiver performs a time multiplexing
operation on the four satellites within view of the receiver
ndash The data is extracted from each of the four satellites and stored in the receiverrsquos memory
ndash Data from three satellites is needed to fix the receiverrsquos position
ndash If data from a fourth satellite is available altitude can be calculated
Global Positioning System
GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
How triangulation works to locate a GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications ndash The primary application of the GPS is
military and related navigationndash GPS is used by all services for ships
aircraft and ground troopsndash Most civilian applications also involve
navigation which is usually marine or aviation-related
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications
ndash Commercial applications include surveying mapmaking and construction
ndash Vehicle location is a growing application for trucking and delivery companies taxi bus and train transportation
ndash Police fire ambulance and forest services also use GPS
ndash A new hobby called geocaching uses GPS receivers In this sport one team hides an item or ldquotreasurerdquo and then gives the other team coordinates to follow to find the treasure within a given time
Design of the Satellite Link
bull The satellite link is probably the most basic in microwave communications since a line-of-sight path typically exists between the Earth and space
bull This means that an imaginary line extending between the transmitting or receiving Earth station and the satellite antenna passes only through the atmosphere and not ground obstacles
bull Such a link is governed by free-space propagation with only limited variation with respect to time due to various constituents of the atmosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull Free-space attenuation is determined by the inverse square law which states that the power
received is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
bull The same law applies to the amount of light that reaches our eyes from a distant point source such as an automobile headlight or star
bull There are however a number of additional effects that produce a significant amount of degradation and time variation
bull These include rain terrain effects such as absorption by trees and walls and some less-obvious impairment produced by unstable conditions of the air and ionosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull It is the job of the communication engineer to identify all of the significant contributions to performance and make sure that they are properly taken into account
bull The required factors include the performance of the satellite itself the configuration and performance of the uplink and downlink Earth stations and the impact of the propagation medium in the frequency band of interest
Global Positioning System
Space Segmentbull Each of the satellites contains four highly accurate
atomic clocks
bull These clocks are used to generate a unique pseudorandom code identifying the specific satellite that is transmitted to earth
bull The satellite also transmits a set of digitally coded ephemeris data that completely defines its precise orbit
Global Positioning System
The GPS space segment
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentndash The control segment of the GPS system
refers to the various ground stations that monitor the satellites and provide control and update information
bull The master control station is operated by the US Air Force in Colorado Springs
bull Four additional monitoring and control stations constantly monitor the satellites and collect range information from each
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentbull The information is sent back to the master
control station in Colorado where all the information is collected and position data on each satellite calculated
bull The master control station then transmits new ephemeris and clock data to each satellite on the S-band uplink once per day
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash A GPS receiver is a complex superheterodyne
microwave receiver designed to pick up the GPS signals decode them and then compute the location of the receiver
ndash The output is usually an LCD display giving latitude longitude and altitude information andor a map of the area
ndash The most widely used GPS receiver is the popular handheld portable type not much larger than an oversized handheld calculator
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash The receiver performs a time multiplexing
operation on the four satellites within view of the receiver
ndash The data is extracted from each of the four satellites and stored in the receiverrsquos memory
ndash Data from three satellites is needed to fix the receiverrsquos position
ndash If data from a fourth satellite is available altitude can be calculated
Global Positioning System
GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
How triangulation works to locate a GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications ndash The primary application of the GPS is
military and related navigationndash GPS is used by all services for ships
aircraft and ground troopsndash Most civilian applications also involve
navigation which is usually marine or aviation-related
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications
ndash Commercial applications include surveying mapmaking and construction
ndash Vehicle location is a growing application for trucking and delivery companies taxi bus and train transportation
ndash Police fire ambulance and forest services also use GPS
ndash A new hobby called geocaching uses GPS receivers In this sport one team hides an item or ldquotreasurerdquo and then gives the other team coordinates to follow to find the treasure within a given time
Design of the Satellite Link
bull The satellite link is probably the most basic in microwave communications since a line-of-sight path typically exists between the Earth and space
bull This means that an imaginary line extending between the transmitting or receiving Earth station and the satellite antenna passes only through the atmosphere and not ground obstacles
bull Such a link is governed by free-space propagation with only limited variation with respect to time due to various constituents of the atmosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull Free-space attenuation is determined by the inverse square law which states that the power
received is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
bull The same law applies to the amount of light that reaches our eyes from a distant point source such as an automobile headlight or star
bull There are however a number of additional effects that produce a significant amount of degradation and time variation
bull These include rain terrain effects such as absorption by trees and walls and some less-obvious impairment produced by unstable conditions of the air and ionosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull It is the job of the communication engineer to identify all of the significant contributions to performance and make sure that they are properly taken into account
bull The required factors include the performance of the satellite itself the configuration and performance of the uplink and downlink Earth stations and the impact of the propagation medium in the frequency band of interest
Global Positioning System
The GPS space segment
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentndash The control segment of the GPS system
refers to the various ground stations that monitor the satellites and provide control and update information
bull The master control station is operated by the US Air Force in Colorado Springs
bull Four additional monitoring and control stations constantly monitor the satellites and collect range information from each
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentbull The information is sent back to the master
control station in Colorado where all the information is collected and position data on each satellite calculated
bull The master control station then transmits new ephemeris and clock data to each satellite on the S-band uplink once per day
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash A GPS receiver is a complex superheterodyne
microwave receiver designed to pick up the GPS signals decode them and then compute the location of the receiver
ndash The output is usually an LCD display giving latitude longitude and altitude information andor a map of the area
ndash The most widely used GPS receiver is the popular handheld portable type not much larger than an oversized handheld calculator
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash The receiver performs a time multiplexing
operation on the four satellites within view of the receiver
ndash The data is extracted from each of the four satellites and stored in the receiverrsquos memory
ndash Data from three satellites is needed to fix the receiverrsquos position
ndash If data from a fourth satellite is available altitude can be calculated
Global Positioning System
GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
How triangulation works to locate a GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications ndash The primary application of the GPS is
military and related navigationndash GPS is used by all services for ships
aircraft and ground troopsndash Most civilian applications also involve
navigation which is usually marine or aviation-related
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications
ndash Commercial applications include surveying mapmaking and construction
ndash Vehicle location is a growing application for trucking and delivery companies taxi bus and train transportation
ndash Police fire ambulance and forest services also use GPS
ndash A new hobby called geocaching uses GPS receivers In this sport one team hides an item or ldquotreasurerdquo and then gives the other team coordinates to follow to find the treasure within a given time
Design of the Satellite Link
bull The satellite link is probably the most basic in microwave communications since a line-of-sight path typically exists between the Earth and space
bull This means that an imaginary line extending between the transmitting or receiving Earth station and the satellite antenna passes only through the atmosphere and not ground obstacles
bull Such a link is governed by free-space propagation with only limited variation with respect to time due to various constituents of the atmosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull Free-space attenuation is determined by the inverse square law which states that the power
received is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
bull The same law applies to the amount of light that reaches our eyes from a distant point source such as an automobile headlight or star
bull There are however a number of additional effects that produce a significant amount of degradation and time variation
bull These include rain terrain effects such as absorption by trees and walls and some less-obvious impairment produced by unstable conditions of the air and ionosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull It is the job of the communication engineer to identify all of the significant contributions to performance and make sure that they are properly taken into account
bull The required factors include the performance of the satellite itself the configuration and performance of the uplink and downlink Earth stations and the impact of the propagation medium in the frequency band of interest
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentndash The control segment of the GPS system
refers to the various ground stations that monitor the satellites and provide control and update information
bull The master control station is operated by the US Air Force in Colorado Springs
bull Four additional monitoring and control stations constantly monitor the satellites and collect range information from each
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentbull The information is sent back to the master
control station in Colorado where all the information is collected and position data on each satellite calculated
bull The master control station then transmits new ephemeris and clock data to each satellite on the S-band uplink once per day
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash A GPS receiver is a complex superheterodyne
microwave receiver designed to pick up the GPS signals decode them and then compute the location of the receiver
ndash The output is usually an LCD display giving latitude longitude and altitude information andor a map of the area
ndash The most widely used GPS receiver is the popular handheld portable type not much larger than an oversized handheld calculator
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash The receiver performs a time multiplexing
operation on the four satellites within view of the receiver
ndash The data is extracted from each of the four satellites and stored in the receiverrsquos memory
ndash Data from three satellites is needed to fix the receiverrsquos position
ndash If data from a fourth satellite is available altitude can be calculated
Global Positioning System
GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
How triangulation works to locate a GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications ndash The primary application of the GPS is
military and related navigationndash GPS is used by all services for ships
aircraft and ground troopsndash Most civilian applications also involve
navigation which is usually marine or aviation-related
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications
ndash Commercial applications include surveying mapmaking and construction
ndash Vehicle location is a growing application for trucking and delivery companies taxi bus and train transportation
ndash Police fire ambulance and forest services also use GPS
ndash A new hobby called geocaching uses GPS receivers In this sport one team hides an item or ldquotreasurerdquo and then gives the other team coordinates to follow to find the treasure within a given time
Design of the Satellite Link
bull The satellite link is probably the most basic in microwave communications since a line-of-sight path typically exists between the Earth and space
bull This means that an imaginary line extending between the transmitting or receiving Earth station and the satellite antenna passes only through the atmosphere and not ground obstacles
bull Such a link is governed by free-space propagation with only limited variation with respect to time due to various constituents of the atmosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull Free-space attenuation is determined by the inverse square law which states that the power
received is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
bull The same law applies to the amount of light that reaches our eyes from a distant point source such as an automobile headlight or star
bull There are however a number of additional effects that produce a significant amount of degradation and time variation
bull These include rain terrain effects such as absorption by trees and walls and some less-obvious impairment produced by unstable conditions of the air and ionosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull It is the job of the communication engineer to identify all of the significant contributions to performance and make sure that they are properly taken into account
bull The required factors include the performance of the satellite itself the configuration and performance of the uplink and downlink Earth stations and the impact of the propagation medium in the frequency band of interest
Global Positioning System
Control Segmentbull The information is sent back to the master
control station in Colorado where all the information is collected and position data on each satellite calculated
bull The master control station then transmits new ephemeris and clock data to each satellite on the S-band uplink once per day
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash A GPS receiver is a complex superheterodyne
microwave receiver designed to pick up the GPS signals decode them and then compute the location of the receiver
ndash The output is usually an LCD display giving latitude longitude and altitude information andor a map of the area
ndash The most widely used GPS receiver is the popular handheld portable type not much larger than an oversized handheld calculator
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash The receiver performs a time multiplexing
operation on the four satellites within view of the receiver
ndash The data is extracted from each of the four satellites and stored in the receiverrsquos memory
ndash Data from three satellites is needed to fix the receiverrsquos position
ndash If data from a fourth satellite is available altitude can be calculated
Global Positioning System
GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
How triangulation works to locate a GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications ndash The primary application of the GPS is
military and related navigationndash GPS is used by all services for ships
aircraft and ground troopsndash Most civilian applications also involve
navigation which is usually marine or aviation-related
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications
ndash Commercial applications include surveying mapmaking and construction
ndash Vehicle location is a growing application for trucking and delivery companies taxi bus and train transportation
ndash Police fire ambulance and forest services also use GPS
ndash A new hobby called geocaching uses GPS receivers In this sport one team hides an item or ldquotreasurerdquo and then gives the other team coordinates to follow to find the treasure within a given time
Design of the Satellite Link
bull The satellite link is probably the most basic in microwave communications since a line-of-sight path typically exists between the Earth and space
bull This means that an imaginary line extending between the transmitting or receiving Earth station and the satellite antenna passes only through the atmosphere and not ground obstacles
bull Such a link is governed by free-space propagation with only limited variation with respect to time due to various constituents of the atmosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull Free-space attenuation is determined by the inverse square law which states that the power
received is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
bull The same law applies to the amount of light that reaches our eyes from a distant point source such as an automobile headlight or star
bull There are however a number of additional effects that produce a significant amount of degradation and time variation
bull These include rain terrain effects such as absorption by trees and walls and some less-obvious impairment produced by unstable conditions of the air and ionosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull It is the job of the communication engineer to identify all of the significant contributions to performance and make sure that they are properly taken into account
bull The required factors include the performance of the satellite itself the configuration and performance of the uplink and downlink Earth stations and the impact of the propagation medium in the frequency band of interest
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash A GPS receiver is a complex superheterodyne
microwave receiver designed to pick up the GPS signals decode them and then compute the location of the receiver
ndash The output is usually an LCD display giving latitude longitude and altitude information andor a map of the area
ndash The most widely used GPS receiver is the popular handheld portable type not much larger than an oversized handheld calculator
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash The receiver performs a time multiplexing
operation on the four satellites within view of the receiver
ndash The data is extracted from each of the four satellites and stored in the receiverrsquos memory
ndash Data from three satellites is needed to fix the receiverrsquos position
ndash If data from a fourth satellite is available altitude can be calculated
Global Positioning System
GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
How triangulation works to locate a GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications ndash The primary application of the GPS is
military and related navigationndash GPS is used by all services for ships
aircraft and ground troopsndash Most civilian applications also involve
navigation which is usually marine or aviation-related
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications
ndash Commercial applications include surveying mapmaking and construction
ndash Vehicle location is a growing application for trucking and delivery companies taxi bus and train transportation
ndash Police fire ambulance and forest services also use GPS
ndash A new hobby called geocaching uses GPS receivers In this sport one team hides an item or ldquotreasurerdquo and then gives the other team coordinates to follow to find the treasure within a given time
Design of the Satellite Link
bull The satellite link is probably the most basic in microwave communications since a line-of-sight path typically exists between the Earth and space
bull This means that an imaginary line extending between the transmitting or receiving Earth station and the satellite antenna passes only through the atmosphere and not ground obstacles
bull Such a link is governed by free-space propagation with only limited variation with respect to time due to various constituents of the atmosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull Free-space attenuation is determined by the inverse square law which states that the power
received is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
bull The same law applies to the amount of light that reaches our eyes from a distant point source such as an automobile headlight or star
bull There are however a number of additional effects that produce a significant amount of degradation and time variation
bull These include rain terrain effects such as absorption by trees and walls and some less-obvious impairment produced by unstable conditions of the air and ionosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull It is the job of the communication engineer to identify all of the significant contributions to performance and make sure that they are properly taken into account
bull The required factors include the performance of the satellite itself the configuration and performance of the uplink and downlink Earth stations and the impact of the propagation medium in the frequency band of interest
Global Positioning System
GPS Receiversndash The receiver performs a time multiplexing
operation on the four satellites within view of the receiver
ndash The data is extracted from each of the four satellites and stored in the receiverrsquos memory
ndash Data from three satellites is needed to fix the receiverrsquos position
ndash If data from a fourth satellite is available altitude can be calculated
Global Positioning System
GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
How triangulation works to locate a GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications ndash The primary application of the GPS is
military and related navigationndash GPS is used by all services for ships
aircraft and ground troopsndash Most civilian applications also involve
navigation which is usually marine or aviation-related
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications
ndash Commercial applications include surveying mapmaking and construction
ndash Vehicle location is a growing application for trucking and delivery companies taxi bus and train transportation
ndash Police fire ambulance and forest services also use GPS
ndash A new hobby called geocaching uses GPS receivers In this sport one team hides an item or ldquotreasurerdquo and then gives the other team coordinates to follow to find the treasure within a given time
Design of the Satellite Link
bull The satellite link is probably the most basic in microwave communications since a line-of-sight path typically exists between the Earth and space
bull This means that an imaginary line extending between the transmitting or receiving Earth station and the satellite antenna passes only through the atmosphere and not ground obstacles
bull Such a link is governed by free-space propagation with only limited variation with respect to time due to various constituents of the atmosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull Free-space attenuation is determined by the inverse square law which states that the power
received is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
bull The same law applies to the amount of light that reaches our eyes from a distant point source such as an automobile headlight or star
bull There are however a number of additional effects that produce a significant amount of degradation and time variation
bull These include rain terrain effects such as absorption by trees and walls and some less-obvious impairment produced by unstable conditions of the air and ionosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull It is the job of the communication engineer to identify all of the significant contributions to performance and make sure that they are properly taken into account
bull The required factors include the performance of the satellite itself the configuration and performance of the uplink and downlink Earth stations and the impact of the propagation medium in the frequency band of interest
Global Positioning System
GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
How triangulation works to locate a GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications ndash The primary application of the GPS is
military and related navigationndash GPS is used by all services for ships
aircraft and ground troopsndash Most civilian applications also involve
navigation which is usually marine or aviation-related
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications
ndash Commercial applications include surveying mapmaking and construction
ndash Vehicle location is a growing application for trucking and delivery companies taxi bus and train transportation
ndash Police fire ambulance and forest services also use GPS
ndash A new hobby called geocaching uses GPS receivers In this sport one team hides an item or ldquotreasurerdquo and then gives the other team coordinates to follow to find the treasure within a given time
Design of the Satellite Link
bull The satellite link is probably the most basic in microwave communications since a line-of-sight path typically exists between the Earth and space
bull This means that an imaginary line extending between the transmitting or receiving Earth station and the satellite antenna passes only through the atmosphere and not ground obstacles
bull Such a link is governed by free-space propagation with only limited variation with respect to time due to various constituents of the atmosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull Free-space attenuation is determined by the inverse square law which states that the power
received is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
bull The same law applies to the amount of light that reaches our eyes from a distant point source such as an automobile headlight or star
bull There are however a number of additional effects that produce a significant amount of degradation and time variation
bull These include rain terrain effects such as absorption by trees and walls and some less-obvious impairment produced by unstable conditions of the air and ionosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull It is the job of the communication engineer to identify all of the significant contributions to performance and make sure that they are properly taken into account
bull The required factors include the performance of the satellite itself the configuration and performance of the uplink and downlink Earth stations and the impact of the propagation medium in the frequency band of interest
Global Positioning System
How triangulation works to locate a GPS receiver
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications ndash The primary application of the GPS is
military and related navigationndash GPS is used by all services for ships
aircraft and ground troopsndash Most civilian applications also involve
navigation which is usually marine or aviation-related
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications
ndash Commercial applications include surveying mapmaking and construction
ndash Vehicle location is a growing application for trucking and delivery companies taxi bus and train transportation
ndash Police fire ambulance and forest services also use GPS
ndash A new hobby called geocaching uses GPS receivers In this sport one team hides an item or ldquotreasurerdquo and then gives the other team coordinates to follow to find the treasure within a given time
Design of the Satellite Link
bull The satellite link is probably the most basic in microwave communications since a line-of-sight path typically exists between the Earth and space
bull This means that an imaginary line extending between the transmitting or receiving Earth station and the satellite antenna passes only through the atmosphere and not ground obstacles
bull Such a link is governed by free-space propagation with only limited variation with respect to time due to various constituents of the atmosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull Free-space attenuation is determined by the inverse square law which states that the power
received is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
bull The same law applies to the amount of light that reaches our eyes from a distant point source such as an automobile headlight or star
bull There are however a number of additional effects that produce a significant amount of degradation and time variation
bull These include rain terrain effects such as absorption by trees and walls and some less-obvious impairment produced by unstable conditions of the air and ionosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull It is the job of the communication engineer to identify all of the significant contributions to performance and make sure that they are properly taken into account
bull The required factors include the performance of the satellite itself the configuration and performance of the uplink and downlink Earth stations and the impact of the propagation medium in the frequency band of interest
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications ndash The primary application of the GPS is
military and related navigationndash GPS is used by all services for ships
aircraft and ground troopsndash Most civilian applications also involve
navigation which is usually marine or aviation-related
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications
ndash Commercial applications include surveying mapmaking and construction
ndash Vehicle location is a growing application for trucking and delivery companies taxi bus and train transportation
ndash Police fire ambulance and forest services also use GPS
ndash A new hobby called geocaching uses GPS receivers In this sport one team hides an item or ldquotreasurerdquo and then gives the other team coordinates to follow to find the treasure within a given time
Design of the Satellite Link
bull The satellite link is probably the most basic in microwave communications since a line-of-sight path typically exists between the Earth and space
bull This means that an imaginary line extending between the transmitting or receiving Earth station and the satellite antenna passes only through the atmosphere and not ground obstacles
bull Such a link is governed by free-space propagation with only limited variation with respect to time due to various constituents of the atmosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull Free-space attenuation is determined by the inverse square law which states that the power
received is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
bull The same law applies to the amount of light that reaches our eyes from a distant point source such as an automobile headlight or star
bull There are however a number of additional effects that produce a significant amount of degradation and time variation
bull These include rain terrain effects such as absorption by trees and walls and some less-obvious impairment produced by unstable conditions of the air and ionosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull It is the job of the communication engineer to identify all of the significant contributions to performance and make sure that they are properly taken into account
bull The required factors include the performance of the satellite itself the configuration and performance of the uplink and downlink Earth stations and the impact of the propagation medium in the frequency band of interest
Global Positioning System
GPS Applications
ndash Commercial applications include surveying mapmaking and construction
ndash Vehicle location is a growing application for trucking and delivery companies taxi bus and train transportation
ndash Police fire ambulance and forest services also use GPS
ndash A new hobby called geocaching uses GPS receivers In this sport one team hides an item or ldquotreasurerdquo and then gives the other team coordinates to follow to find the treasure within a given time
Design of the Satellite Link
bull The satellite link is probably the most basic in microwave communications since a line-of-sight path typically exists between the Earth and space
bull This means that an imaginary line extending between the transmitting or receiving Earth station and the satellite antenna passes only through the atmosphere and not ground obstacles
bull Such a link is governed by free-space propagation with only limited variation with respect to time due to various constituents of the atmosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull Free-space attenuation is determined by the inverse square law which states that the power
received is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
bull The same law applies to the amount of light that reaches our eyes from a distant point source such as an automobile headlight or star
bull There are however a number of additional effects that produce a significant amount of degradation and time variation
bull These include rain terrain effects such as absorption by trees and walls and some less-obvious impairment produced by unstable conditions of the air and ionosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull It is the job of the communication engineer to identify all of the significant contributions to performance and make sure that they are properly taken into account
bull The required factors include the performance of the satellite itself the configuration and performance of the uplink and downlink Earth stations and the impact of the propagation medium in the frequency band of interest
Design of the Satellite Link
bull The satellite link is probably the most basic in microwave communications since a line-of-sight path typically exists between the Earth and space
bull This means that an imaginary line extending between the transmitting or receiving Earth station and the satellite antenna passes only through the atmosphere and not ground obstacles
bull Such a link is governed by free-space propagation with only limited variation with respect to time due to various constituents of the atmosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull Free-space attenuation is determined by the inverse square law which states that the power
received is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
bull The same law applies to the amount of light that reaches our eyes from a distant point source such as an automobile headlight or star
bull There are however a number of additional effects that produce a significant amount of degradation and time variation
bull These include rain terrain effects such as absorption by trees and walls and some less-obvious impairment produced by unstable conditions of the air and ionosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull It is the job of the communication engineer to identify all of the significant contributions to performance and make sure that they are properly taken into account
bull The required factors include the performance of the satellite itself the configuration and performance of the uplink and downlink Earth stations and the impact of the propagation medium in the frequency band of interest
Design of the Satellite Link
bull Free-space attenuation is determined by the inverse square law which states that the power
received is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
bull The same law applies to the amount of light that reaches our eyes from a distant point source such as an automobile headlight or star
bull There are however a number of additional effects that produce a significant amount of degradation and time variation
bull These include rain terrain effects such as absorption by trees and walls and some less-obvious impairment produced by unstable conditions of the air and ionosphere
Design of the Satellite Link
bull It is the job of the communication engineer to identify all of the significant contributions to performance and make sure that they are properly taken into account
bull The required factors include the performance of the satellite itself the configuration and performance of the uplink and downlink Earth stations and the impact of the propagation medium in the frequency band of interest
Design of the Satellite Link
bull It is the job of the communication engineer to identify all of the significant contributions to performance and make sure that they are properly taken into account
bull The required factors include the performance of the satellite itself the configuration and performance of the uplink and downlink Earth stations and the impact of the propagation medium in the frequency band of interest