Section II - Cytology

Chapter 1

The Chemistry of Life

Composition

Inorganic – substances that do not contain carbon.

Organic – substance containing carbon and its compound or derivation.

The Naturally Occurring Elements in the Body

ELEMENTS SYMBOL % Wt. In the BODYOxygen O 65

Carbon C 19

Hydrogen H 10

Nitrogen N 3

Calcium Ca 2

Phosphorus P 1

Potassium K 0.5

Sulfur S 0.3

Sodium Na 0.2

Chlorine Cl 0.2

Magnesium Mg 0.1

Manganese Mn 0.1

Iron Fe 0.1

Copper Cu 0.1

Iodine I 0.1

Minerals

Sodium (Na)

Potassium (K)

Chlorine (Cl)

Sulfur (S)

Phosphorus (P)

Calcium (ca)

Magnesium (mg)

Different Macrominerals

Maintains the proper osmotic balance in the body, and for nerve stimulation

Muscular relaxation and maintains irritability of the nerves

Maintains proper osmotic balance in the body and synthesis of Hydrochloric acid in the stomach

Bone formation, Important constituent of Nucleic Acid and plasma membrane and energy reservoir

Protein synthesis and detoxification reaction

Bone & teeth formation, blood clotting, and muscular contraction

Important in CHO and protein synthesis and a co-factor in some oxidation reaction

Functions in the Body

Zinc (Zn)

Iron (Fe)

Selenium (Se)

Iodine (I)

Manganese (Mn)

Cobalt (Co)

Copper (Cu)

Fluorine (F)

Different Trace Elements

Synthesis of Hemoglobin, associated with the cytochromes of the cell

Important in fat metabolism

Proper functioning of the Thyroid gland

Red blood cell production, Components of Vit. B12

Formation of Urea, important in Kreb’s cycle, activates many enzymes

Synthesis of melanin, component of many enzymes

Component of bone and teeth, prevents tooth decay

Functions in the BodyMinerals

Wound healing and fertilization.

2. WATER

Universal solvent hydrophilic

Medium for metabolic activities

Lubricant Sense stimulation Raw material for

photosynthesis Regulates body

temperature Shock absorber

Polar Molecule

H H

:O:

3. ORGANIC MOLECULES

A. Hydrocarbon B.

Carbohydrates C. Protein D. Lipids E. Nucleic Acid

Monomer – single unit Polymer – repeated unit

CH4

CH3CH3

CH3-CH2CH3

CH3CH2CH2CH3

Hydrocarbon

AlkaneSingle bond

CnH2n + 2

AlkeneDouble bond

CnH2n

AlkyneTriple Bond

CnH2n - 2

Alkadiene2 (=)

CnH2n – 2

Methane

Ethane Ethene Ethyne

Propane Propene Propyne Propadiene

Butane Butene Butyne Butadiene

Pentane Pentene Pentyne Pentadiene

Hexane Hexene Hexyne Hexadiene

Heptane Heptene Heptyne Heptadiene

Alkane

Methane - CH4 H / H – C – H / H

Ethane – C2H6 H H / / H - C – C – H / / H H

Propane – C3H8 H H H / / / H – C – C – C – H / / / H H H

Butane – C4H10 H H H H / / / / H – C – C – C – C – H / / / / H H H H

Alkene

Ethene - C2H4

H H

/ / H – C = C – H

Propene – C3H6

H H H / / / H – C – C = C - H / H

Butene – C4H8

H H H H / / / / H – C1 = C2 – C3 – C4 – H / / H H 1- Butene

H H H H / / / / H – C4 – C3 = C2 – C1 – H / / H H 2 - butene

IsoalkaneCnH2n + 2

Isobutane CH3

/ H3 C – CH – CH3

Isohexane CH3

/ CH3 – CH – CH2 - CH2 – CH3

Alkyne

Ethyne – C2H2

H – C C – H

Propyne = C3H4

H / H – C – C C – H / H

Butyne – C4H6 H H / / H – C1 – C2 – C3 C4 – H / / H H 1-butyne

H H / / H – C1 – C2 C3 - C4 –

H / / H H 2-butyne

Alkadiene Cyclic (-2H) Butadiene

H H H H / / / / H – C = C – C = C – H 1.3 butadiene

Hexadiene H H H H H H / / / / / / H – C = C – C = C –C – C –

H / / H H 1,3 Hexadiene

cyclohexene

cyclopropane

Exercises

1.) 1 Pentyne 2.) 2 Heptene 3.) Cyclopropene 4.) 1,2 pentadiene 5.) Cyclohexane 6.) 3 hexyne 7.) 2,4 octadiene 8.) Cyclobutene 9.) Isopentane 10.) Isobutyl alcohol

1. CH=C-CH2-CH2-CH3 2. CH3-CH=CH-CH2-CH CH2-CH3 3.

4. CH2=C=CH-CH2-CH3 5.

6. CH3-CH2-C=C-CH2-CH3 7. CH3-CH=CH-CH=CH-CH2-CH2-CH3 8. 9. CH3-CH2-CH-CH3 / CH3

Carbohydrate

No. of C atoms

Gen. Formula

Triose 3 C3H6O3Glycerol

Tetrose 4 C4H8O4threoseErythrose

Pentose 5 C5H10O5RiboseDeoxyribose

Hexose 6 C6H12O6Glucose, fructose,Galactose,mannose

A. Monosaccharide – simplest sugar Cn(H2O)n

Triose Tetrose

Pentose

Hexose

GLUCOSE GALACTOSE FRUCTOSE

Hexose

Glucose – Blood sugar Galactose – Brain

sugar Mannose – Bitter sugar Fructose – Fruit sugar,

grape sugar, sweetest sugar, 20x sweeter than table

sugar

GLUCOSE FRUCTOSE

MANNOSE

GALACTOSE

H – C = O

H - C – OH

HO - C – H

H - C – OH

H - C – OH

H – C - OH

H

H

H – C – OH

C = O

HO - C – H

H - C – OH

H - C – OH

H – C - OH

H

H – C = O

HO - C – H

HO - C – H

H - C – OH

H - C – OH

H – C - OH

H

H – C = O

H - C – OH

HO - C – H

HO - C – H

H - C – OH

H – C - OH

H

Haworth Structure

Disaccharides

Lactose – milk sugar -galactose &

glucose

Maltose – malt sugar - 2 glucose

units

Sucrose – cane sugar – table sugar – glucose and

fructose

Polysaccharides – storage molecule

Cellulose – plants Starch - plants Glycogen – animal

starch Chitin – the hard

covering of insects, spiders and shrimps and cell walls of mushroom

PROTEINTYPE FUNCTION EXAMPLES

Structural Support Collagen, elastin and keratin

Storage Stores a.a. Albumin in egg white, casein in milk

Transport Transport of subs Hemoglobin

Hormonal Coordinates activities Insulin, adrenalin, glucagons

Receptor Response to stimuli Receptors w/in the nerve cell

Contractile Movement Actin and myosin for muscular contraction

Defensive Protection & immunity Different antibodies

Enzymatic Hasten chem’l rxn Digestive enzymes

Protein

Consist of several amino acids

Amino acid – is the building blocks of protein.

Gen Formula H / R – C – COOH / NH2

Two Types of Protein 1. Complete protein

– it contains all the essential amino acids Egg. Milk, Brain

2. Incomplete protein – it lacks an essential amino acid Gelatine

Types of Amino Acid

Essential AA – acids that the body cannot synthesize, so it must be incorporated in the diet

PVT. MAT HILL

Non-essential AA – acids that the body can synthesize.

10 ESSENTIAL AA

Protein synthesis

Dehydration is the process by which proteins are synthesized.

Dipeptide – 2 amino acids bonded together

Tripeptide – 3 amino acids

Peptide bond – bond present in protein.

LIPIDS

These are nonpolar molecules.

Insoluble in water but soluble in ether, benzene and chloroform.

Functions Energy source Build cell parts Protective covering

that cushions organs Prevent heat loss Important component

of hormones

Types of Fatty Acid

Saturated fatty acid = contais single bond General Formula

CnH2n+1COOH

Unsaturated fatty acid = contains double bond

SATURATED UNSATURATED

Butyric – C3H7COOH

Caprylic – C5H11COOH

Caproic – C7H15COOH

Capric – C9H19COOH

Lauric – C11H23COOH

Myristic – C13H27COOH Palmitic –

C15H31COOH

Stearic - C17H35COOH

Oleic – C17H33COOH Contains a double

bond Linoleic- C17H31COOH

Contains 2 double bonds

Linolenic – C17H29COOH Contains 3 double

bonds

Difference of

Fat Glycerol and Long chain saturated f.a. (C7-C17)

Solid at room temperature

Oil Glycerol and Long chain unsaturated f.a. or short chain saturated f.a. (C3-C5)

Liquid at rm temperature

Wax Monohydric alcohol and long chain f.a.Solid a room temperature

Structure of Fat/Oil

Phospholipids Consist of two

parts: Hydrophilic head –

which composed of choline, phosphate, and glycerol

Hydrophobic tail – which is composed of two fatty acid chains.

Phospholipids

Steroids

Composed of four fused rings.

Examples are the Cholesterol, testosteron

NUCLEIC ACID Composed of

nucleotides. Nucleotides - are

the building blocks of nucleic acids, or the monomer

Nucleodtides – consist pf sugar, base and phosphate

The two types 1. Ribonucleic acid

(RNA) 2.Deoxyribonuclei

c Acid (DNA)

Nitrogen Base

1. Purine Guanine Adenine

2. Pyrimidine Cytosine Uracil Thymine

Complementary base pair

1. Adenine-Thymine

2. Adenine-Uracil 3. Cytosine-

Guanine

Complementary base pair

RNA vs DNA

Sugar

Base

Structure

Function

Phosphate

Ribose Deoxyribose

A, U, C, G A, T, C, G

Single Stranded Double Stranded

Synthesis of Protein

Carrier of genetic material

PO4 -3 PO4

-3

End of Presentation

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