Post on 30-Oct-2014
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Speaking
Definition
What is Speaking?
• Speech is the vocalized form of human communication
• Speech production takes places in real time and it is linear, i.e. utterance by utterance.
• Planning is severly limited, therefore, it is the hardest of all four skills.
Coceptualization and Formulation
Conceptualization
Discourse type
Topic
Purpose
Formulation
Making strategic choices: syntax,
vocabulary
Beginning, middle and end
! Note that:
• In English, utterances tend to have a two-part structure:
Topic + comment
Articulation
• It involves the use of the organs of speech to produce sounds.
• Sounds are produced in a continuous stream, some sounds merge with others. Handbag, baked beans
• Continual changes in loudness, pitch direction, tempo and pausing serve to organize the sounds into meaninful words and utterances.
• Proficients speakers produce 15 phonemes a second.
Self-monitoring & repair
• It is a process that happens concurrently with the stages of conceptualization, formulation and articulation.
• Self-monitoring may result in a slowing down, pausing and backtracking or rephrasing of an utterance.
Automaticity
Conc
eptu
aliz
ing
Form
ulati
ng
Artic
ulati
ng
Mon
itorin
g
Use of prefabricated
chunks
Add-on strategies (chaining together of short phrases)
Fluency
Mean that a speaker’s attentional resources are thinly streched
! Note that:
Being under pressure or tired will affect a speaker’s performance
! Note that:
• Speaking is like any other skill such as driving or playing a musical instrument: the more you practice, the more likely you are to be able to chunk small units into larger ones.
Fluency
• Is fluency the ability to speak fast?• It’s not only about speed, but pausing is
equally important.• However, frequent pausing is a sure sign of a
struggling speaker. • Natural sounding pauses| are those that occur
at the ontersection of clauses, | or after groups of words that form a meaningful unit.|
Fluency
Another factor in the perception of fluency is the
lenght of the run (number of syllables between pauses)
Race-callers and auctioners rather than constructing
from scratch,use prefabricated chunks
Pause fillers: uh, um, erRepeats
• Long runs
• Use of prefabricated chunks
• Production strategies
Interaction and turn-taking
• Sometimes, a face-to-face dialogue is involved in speaking.
• Turn-taking is negotiated because speakers are familiar with the rules and skills of turn-taking. Two rules are to be followed:
Long silences are to be avoided Listen when other speakers are speaking
Discourse markers
• That reminds me. (I’m continuing with the same topic)
• By the way… (I’m indicating a topic change)
• Well, anyway.. (I’m returning to the topic)
• Like I say… (I’m repeating what I said before)
• Yes, but.. (I’m indicating a difference of opinion)
• Yes, no I know.. (I’m indicating agreement with a negative idea)
• Uh-huh… (I’m listening)
Paralinguistics and sociocultural knowledge
Genre knowledge
By its purpose:• Transactional: for the purpose of conveying or exchanging
specific information• Interpersonal: For the purpose of maintaining social
relationships
By its interaction:• Non-inteactive or interactive
By its planning:• Planned or unplanned
Genre knowledgePURPOSE PARTICIPATION PLANNING
Airport anouncements
Transactional non-interactive planned
Sports commentary
Transactional non-interactive Unplanned
Job interview Transactional Interactive (partly) planned
Service encounter
Transactional Interactive Unplanned
Joke telling Interpersonal (partly) interactive
(partly) planned
Leaving a voice-mail message
Transactional or interpersonal
non-interactive Unplanned
Casual conversation
interpersonal interactive Unplanned
The difference between written and spoken discourse
Dell Hymes:
Speaking Proficiency
Grammatical competence
Sociolinguistic competence
Discourse competence
Strategic competence