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THE STORY
OF
ANTARCTICA
NATIONAL CENTRE FORNATIONAL CENTRE FORNATIONAL CENTRE FORNATIONAL CENTRE FORNATIONAL CENTRE FOR
ANTARCTIC AND OCEAN RESEARCHANTARCTIC AND OCEAN RESEARCHANTARCTIC AND OCEAN RESEARCHANTARCTIC AND OCEAN RESEARCHANTARCTIC AND OCEAN RESEARCH
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GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF INDIAGEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF INDIAGEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF INDIAGEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF INDIAGEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF INDIA
The SThe SThe SThe SThe Story of Antarcticatory of Antarcticatory of Antarcticatory of Antarcticatory of Antarctica
Anju Tiwari, K.P.Krishnan and Rasik Ravindra
Pages : 64Year : 2008
ISBN : 978-81-906526-0-5
c National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean ResearchMinistry of Earth Sciences, Goa
Geological Society of IndiaBangalore
Designed and Printed by National Institute of Science Communication AndInformation Resources, C.S.I.R., Dr. K. S. Krishnan Marg, New Delhi-110 012.
Antarctica is the only place on the Earth that is not owned by anyone. It is a
continent of peace, tranquility and science. The Antarctic Treaty System cur-
rently in place, offers an opportunity to the scientific community world over, to search
for the answers to many unresolved questions pertaining to our mother earth. Com-
mon people, especially the young generation needs to know more about this continent
and its role in global perspective.
Bringing together historical and scientific aspects of Antarctica in a lucid and
interactive manner so that children find it interesting, has been a major objective of
this venture. The triennium 2007-2009 is being celebrated as the International Year of
Planet Earth as also the International Polar Year. It is therefore befitting that informa-
tion relating to a lesser-understood region of earth - Antarctica, is being brought in the
present form. This book is an outcome of determined effort made by many enthusias-
tic, young researchers and scientists of National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Re-
search who were encouraged by the Ministry of Earth Sciences and Geological Society
of India to take up this task. I sincerely hope that this book would enthuse and excite
the imagination of our school children and inspire them to know more about the icy
continent of Antarctica so that it’s pristine environment is preserved for the genera-
tions to come.
(P. S. Goel)
SecretaryMinistry of Earth Sciences
Government of India, Mahasagar Bhavan,Block-12, C.G.O. Complex, Lodhi Road,
New Delhi - 110 003Dr. P.S. Goel
FOREWORDFOREWORDFOREWORDFOREWORDFOREWORD
iii
Antarctica deserves special place in Earth’s geography not only because of its
location but also due to its importance in influencing Earth’s climate and sea level.
Unfortunately it continues to be the least studied continent because of its remote and
inhospitable location. Attempts to understand it commenced in earnest during the past
50 year with the launch of International Geophysical Year in 1957-58. India joined the
select group of nations active in Polar Science by launching its first Antarctic expedition
in 1981. Since 1981, scientific expeditions to Antarctica are launched every year. The
26th expedition in this series coincided with International Polar Year (2007-2008).
Geological Society of India has been actively involved in science popularization
via books under “Popularization of Science Series”. Under its aegis two books have
already been published by GSI, which are “Story of Oceans” & “Glaciers: The Rivers of
Ice”. In continuation to this, the society prompted National Centre for Antarctic and
Ocean Research (NCAOR) under Ministry of Earth Sciences, which is the premier
institute for Antarctic research, to bring out a book on Antarctica for school children so
that mysteries surrounding it can be uncovered. I would like to congratulate NCAOR
for producing an informative and beautifully illustrated book and I believe that it will
go a long way in creating awareness about this icy continent in general public and
especially school children’s minds.
(Harsh Gupta)
PROLPROLPROLPROLPROLOGUEOGUEOGUEOGUEOGUE
v
Dr. P.S.Goel, Secretary, Ministry of Earth Sciences is gratefully acknowledged for ap-
proving this popular write up. Dr. B.P. Radhakrishna and Dr. Harsh K. Gupta have
been the driving force in bringing out this series. Mr. S. Mukherjee, Mr. Arun Chaturvedi,
Mr. M.J.D’Souza and Mr. M.J.Beg from the Antarctica Division, Geological Survey of
India are earnestly thanked for reviewing the draft of the book and providing their
valuable comments. Many websites were scoured to get the right photographs to add
visuals to the text. These are all listed in the bibliography and are duly acknowledged.
Two postgraduate students of the Pune University (Mr. Ashok Sunwade and Ms.Preeti
Oswal) have contributed some of the pictures incorporated in the book.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSACKNOWLEDGEMENTSACKNOWLEDGEMENTSACKNOWLEDGEMENTSACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
vi
Foreword …………………………..………............................................iii
Prologue …………………………..………............................................. v
I. The mysterious continent.…………………………..………................1
II. It is ice and ice every where..………………………….……...............4
III. Life in Antarctica.............................................................................9
IV. Discovery of Antarctica...................................................................14
V. Is it really no man’s land …..……..…….………………................21
VI. India’s journey to Antarctica……………………………................24
VII. Antarctic science…………...…………………………….................36
VIII. The Indian Contribution to Antarctic Science.................................45
IX. Amazing facts about Antarctica………………………...................52
Epilogue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Bibliography . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
CONTENTSCONTENTSCONTENTSCONTENTSCONTENTS
vii
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The Story of ANTANTANTANTANTARARARARARCTICACTICACTICACTICACTICA
Antarctica, the white continent, of
ten called as the last wilderness of
our planet earth, stands isolated at the
earth’s southern most part today. This huge
landmass covered with a thick blanket of
ice throws relentless challenges to the
adventurous instinct of mankind. It is wild,
breathtakingly beautiful and still remains
unexplored fully by man. The pristine
environment makes the icy continent a
unique place to conduct scientific research.
Very wisely, the world has designated
Antarctica as the continent for Peace and
Science. Today, we have realized that
Antarctica is a virtual storehouse of
THE MYSTERIOUSTHE MYSTERIOUSTHE MYSTERIOUSTHE MYSTERIOUSTHE MYSTERIOUS CONTINENT CONTINENT CONTINENT CONTINENT CONTINENT
information about many mysteries of the
earth. This frozen continent holds the key
to the story of drifting continents and the
past climate of earth. It also controls the
key to global climate-pattern of today.
A place of extremesA place of extremesA place of extremesA place of extremesA place of extremes
Antarctica is the highest, coldest and
windiest continent. With very low amount
of snowfall and practically no rainfall, most
of the continent is technically a desert. The
Antarctic icecap stores almost 70% of the
world’s freshwater and 90% of ice. The
Southern Ocean surrounding this
continent freezes up to a distance of 1500
I
If you’re exploring the planet, Antarctica is the last stop on the train.... —Barry Lopez
An Iceberg
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The Story of ANTANTANTANTANTARARARARARCTICACTICACTICACTICACTICA
km in winter, more than doubling the
actual size (13.9 million sq km) of the
continent. This is also a place of midnight
sun and a continent where darkness prevails
for months together during the Polar
winters. The continent is as large as India
and China put together with no permanent
habitation. There are no forests, no
perennial rivers and no industrial or
military activity. There are also no markets
or super bazaars. Explorers from different
nations mingle with one-another and call
themselves Polar men.
Antarctica is not a merely scientific
curiosity but a key part of the fabric of the
Earth system. The processes taking place
in the Antarctic system affect the world’s
climate and its oceans, linking the
continent inextricably to what we
experience thousands of kilometers away.
In understanding global climate change,
Antarctica has a crucial role to play. Locked
up in its more than 4 km thick ice sheet, is
a record of past climate for the last 5,00,000
years or even more. Trapped bubbles held
in the ice act as an archive of atmospheric
gases. Evidence for levels of global pollution
by industry, agriculture and atomic
explosions are frozen in the ice. Equally
important is the evidence for ozone
depletion in the upper atmosphere. Studies
on the ice sheet and its contribution to
world sea level rise are vital to our
understanding of the global change.
Southern lights or Aurora Australis, seen
during the dark periods in Antarctic sky, is
another unique and fascinating
AAAAAurururururora Aora Aora Aora Aora Australisustralisustralisustralisustralis
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The Story of ANTANTANTANTANTARARARARARCTICACTICACTICACTICACTICA
phenomenon viewed in Antarctica by the
charged particles received from solar flares.
These lights are like dancing ballerina
wearing multicolored bright dresses.
Snowstorms, blizzards and magnetic storms
are rather a common sight. Infact, their
frequency is so great that one starts missing
these if a spell of good weather continues
for a long period. Some of the magnetic
storms can seriously damage satellites and
even power systems. Early detection of
these storms and prediction of their possible
damage can save electronic equipment.
The wild life on the peripheral regions of
the continent, comprising birds such as
petrels, skuas, penguins and larger animals
like seals and whales make the place really
lively and interesting as it brings to our
knowledge the art of surviving, breeding
and community living in the most hostile
environment.
Penguins moving into the sea
Snow covered mountains in Antarctica
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The Story of ANTANTANTANTANTARARARARARCTICACTICACTICACTICACTICA
4
northward and reaching very close to South
America. Ice is the typical, defining
property associated with Antarctica. The
various forms and shapes in which ice
exists in this continent are astounding and
constitute characteristic features of
Antarctica. So, let’s first acquaint ourselves
with the diverse forms of ice in this polar
mass of land and surrounding ocean.
Antarctica surrounds the geographic
South Pole of the earth and is the fifth
largest among the seven continents of the
earth. Ninety eight percent of the Antarctic
continent is under ice cover. Antarctica
totals 13.9 million sq km with an average
elevation of about 2300 m (about 7500 ft)
and its shape is almost circular with an arm
- the Antarctic Peninsula - protruding
IIIT IS ICE AND ICE EVERYWHEREIT IS ICE AND ICE EVERYWHEREIT IS ICE AND ICE EVERYWHEREIT IS ICE AND ICE EVERYWHEREIT IS ICE AND ICE EVERYWHERE
Indian Antarctic Expedition Vesselenters the Polar Circle
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The Story of ANTANTANTANTANTARARARARARCTICACTICACTICACTICACTICA
Under The SUnder The SUnder The SUnder The SUnder The Sheet Of Iceheet Of Iceheet Of Iceheet Of Iceheet Of Ice
The ice that covers the land of Antarctica
is called ice sheet. This sheet is formed
because layers of snow continuously got
deposited over this continent for hundreds
of thousands of years. The ice sheet is
continuously in motion and its physical
parameters are changing. It forms as snow
crystals fall and pile on top of each other,
creating a huge weight that compresses the
earlier snow and converts it into ice. This
weight places pressure on the ice, which in
turn is forced to move down and across
the land, flowing from the high interior of
Antarctica to the coast. Near the edge of
the continent, ice is channeled, which form
great rivers of moving ice called glaciers.
Pushing through to the coast, glaciers can
also flow out over the ocean creating Ice
Shelf. The ice shelf is anchored to the land
but floats upon the ocean. With the push
of the ice sheet from behind and the
pounding ocean down below, parts of the
floating ice shelves eventually break off and
become icebergs. Some of these are
grounded near the coast becoming
spectacular guardians to the continent,
while others float with the currents to great
distances. They can vary in size and shape.
Some icebergs are as big as a small country.
Some could take a city on their back on a
cruise and can take years to melt as they float
in the ocean surrounding Antarctica – the
Southern Ocean.Glaciers
Icebergs
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The Story of ANTANTANTANTANTARARARARARCTICACTICACTICACTICACTICA
Continental IceContinental IceContinental IceContinental IceContinental Ice
The ice that envelops the continent of
Antarctica is called continental ice. This is
also known as ice cap, ice sheet or polar
ice. This ice sheet is not just a flat, solid
mass. It is dynamic and continuously
changing. Some of its varied characteristics
are described and illustrated below.
1. Hexagonal Ice Crystals appear in a varietyof places!2. Ice Cliffs The margins of the ice sheet areexposed at times as great cliffs.3. A Crevasse, as here, shows typical Antarc-tic blue ice. It can become covered by fallingsnow. This is dangerous as the gap beneathcannot be seen and accidents can take place.4. Blue ice- Antarctic lakes start freezing asthe temperature drops with the advent of theAntarctic winter. Blue Ice is the frozen sur-face of a lake or continental ice that is veryhard and shines like a glass surface.
1
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The Story of ANTANTANTANTANTARARARARARCTICACTICACTICACTICACTICA
IcebergsIcebergsIcebergsIcebergsIcebergs
Icebergs are not sea ice. They are actually
pieces of freshwater ice that break off the gla-
ciers or ice shelves. They are found in various
shapes and sizes and are one of the most en-
chanting features of Antarctica. The differ-
ent sizes and shapes of icebergs tell a story of
the kind of hostile and harsh weather they
have endured with success. Icebergs look strik-
ing during sunrise and sunset. 1 & 2 – Weath-
ered ice berg, 3 & 4 – Flat topped ice bergs,
5 – Pinnacle ice berg, 6 – Tilted ice berg.
5
6
4
3
2
1
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The Story of ANTANTANTANTANTARARARARARCTICACTICACTICACTICACTICA
The SThe SThe SThe SThe Sea Iceea Iceea Iceea Iceea Ice
The ice that forms on the sea is very
different from that which forms on the
continent. As the ocean surrounding
Antarctica lives through its annual cycle of
freezing and melting, it depicts different
forms of ice. Close to the continent there
are areas of Fast ice and Polynya. Fast ice
is sea ice attached to the shelf ice and melts
away during Antarctic summer.
The initiation of freezing gives rise to a
greasy surface on the sea, which on further
freezing forms like small Pancake ice floes.
These pancake floes join together to form
Pack ice. During winters, large tracks of
Southern Ocean are covered by this Pack
Ice. In between areas of fast/shelf Ice and
the Pack ice, there are areas of open water
called Polynya. These are formed due to
(i) cold winds from the continent or ocean
currents that instantly drive away the freshly
formed ice in continent’s close proximity,
(ii) warm water upwelling (influx of deep
seawater to the sea surface), which reduces
and altogether stops ice formation.
PPPPPancake iceancake iceancake iceancake iceancake ice
PPPPPack iceack iceack iceack iceack ice
PPPPPolynyaolynyaolynyaolynyaolynya
FFFFFast iceast iceast iceast iceast ice
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The Story of ANTANTANTANTANTARARARARARCTICACTICACTICACTICACTICA
9
Let's now meet the inhabitants of thiswonderful continent. The abnormally
harsh climatic conditions in Antarcticamake the survival of any form of life astruggle. When one thinks of life forms inAntarctica, the first one to cross our mindsis the penguin. The obvious question thatfollows is how do penguins survive in thecoldest and windiest continent? The an-swer is that penguins (and also other formsof life in Antarctica like seals and whales)are protected from the cold and wind by athick layer of insulating fat under theirskins. Small forms of lives such as algae,lichens and mosses can be found beneathinsulating layers of rocks or any other formof shelter from cold. As the winter passesby and spring leads to Antarctic summer,
IIILIFE IN ANTLIFE IN ANTLIFE IN ANTLIFE IN ANTLIFE IN ANTARCTICAARCTICAARCTICAARCTICAARCTICA
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The Story of ANTANTANTANTANTARARARARARCTICACTICACTICACTICACTICA
the ice starts melting and the Sun shinesover the continent. This breathes life in theicy continent and one can see the birds likeskua, snow petrels, albatross etc. makingtheir nests where they tend to rear theirchicks. Except for the Emperor, it is thebreeding season for all other types of pen-guins. Once the chicks arrive, penguins
know how to care for them! Penguins areknown for their responsible parental care.In a penguin rookery (please see inner coverpage for a view of Adelie penguin rook-ery), one parent waits with the baby to keepit warm, while the otherparent goes to the oceanand gets back with themeal of the day. Some-
Emperor penguins (Scientific name:Aptenodytes forsteri) have the upright, regalposture to express their dignity. They are thelargest of penguin species with an averageweight of around 30-40kg and a height ofmore than a meter (~3.8ft.)Macaroni penguins (Scientific name:Eudyptes chrysolophus) can be easily recog-nized with their bright yellow crest feathers.They nest on Antarctic islands like SouthGeorgia and Heard Island. They are about4.2 kg in weight and some 70 cm tall.Adelie penguins (Scientific name: Pygoscelisadeliae) outnumber any other penguin spe-cies in Antarctica. They weigh 5-8 kg andare about 70 cm in height. Their distribu-tion is circumpolar, all around the Antarcticcoastline.Gentoo penguins (Scientific name:Pygoscelis papua ) are the largest of thePygoscelis penguins, though not by much,they average about 5.5 kg and 71 cm tall forthe southern gentoo; while about 0.7 kgheavier and 10cm taller for the northerngentoo.Chinstrap penguins (Scientific name:Pygoscelis antarctica) are so called becauseof their characteristic band of dark feathersunder the chin that appears to be keepingtheir dark hats on.
Gentoo Penguin
Emperor Penguins
Macaroni Penguins
Adelie Penguins
Chinstrap Penguins
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The Story of ANTANTANTANTANTARARARARARCTICACTICACTICACTICACTICA
times it takes longer for him to get backbut the family waits for him. It is amazinghow they remember their way back to thefamily!Antarctica and the adjoining regions
abound in the seal population, especiallyafter the ban on its killing was imple-mented. Seals are mammals that had toadapt to sea life for survival. There werenineteen species of seals in the seas but twoof these have become extinct. Mainly fivespecies of seals are encountered in Antarc-tica which can be found basking on thepack ice that surrounds Antarctica.
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The Story of ANTANTANTANTANTARARARARARCTICACTICACTICACTICACTICA
SEALS
1. Crabeaters (Scientific name: Lobodoncarcinophagus) are large seals, weighingabout 220kg. They are frequently scarred,sometimes quite badly by predatory leop-ard seals or killer whales.
2. Antarctic fur Seals (Scientific name:Arctocephalus gazella) are more accuratelycalled “Southern fur seals”. The males canreach 200kg and can be up to 4 times largerthan the females. They are restricted mainlyto the sub-Antarctic islands, with 95% ofthe world’s population being found on theisland off South Georgia.
3. Leopard Seal (Scientific name: Hydrurgaleptonyx) is one of the largest predators inAntarctica, smaller only than the killerwhale. They are named for the spotting onits underside. Females are larger than malesand average about 10ft long and are around350kg in weight.
4. Weddell Seals (Scientific name:Leptonychotes weddellii) are animals of theice. The pups of these seals stop drinkingmilk and begin eating normal seal food, i.e.fish from around 7 weeks. When adult, theyweigh about 400kg and can be up to 10ftlong.
5. Elephant Seals’ Males can grow to15ftlong and weigh up to 4 tonnes. They arecalled elephant seals partly because of theirsize.
Antarctic PAntarctic PAntarctic PAntarctic PAntarctic Plant Lifelant Lifelant Lifelant Lifelant LifeThere are no trees or shrubs, and only twospecies of flowering plants, Antarctic hairgrass (Deschampsia antarctica) and Antarc-tic pearlwort (Colobanthus quitensis) arefound, occurring on the South Orkney Is-lands, the South Shetland Islands and alongthe western Antarctic Peninsula. There are,in total, around 100 species of mosses, 25species of liverworts, 300 to 400 species oflichens and 20-odd species of macro-fungi.The greatest diversity of species is foundalong the western side of the Antarctic Pen-insula where the climate is generallywarmer and wetter than elsewhere in theAntarctic continent.
Antarctic hair grass
Antarctic pearlwort
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The Story of ANTANTANTANTANTARARARARARCTICACTICACTICACTICACTICA
Antarctic Marine LifeAntarctic Marine LifeAntarctic Marine LifeAntarctic Marine LifeAntarctic Marine LifeIt is a strange paradox that marine life re-markably outnumbers the terrestrial life inAntarctica! Most life in the Antarctic be-gins in the ocean. Plankton is the founda-tion of the marine food chain. In the nu-trient-rich waters south of the AntarcticConvergence, phytoplankton and zoop-lankton (microscopic plants and animals)like Krill occur in profusion in the sum-mer season. During the remainder of theyear because of the lack of light and heavycloud cover, as well as the extensive pack-ice, the productivity of the oceans gets lim-ited. The krill swarms are also seasonal andmuch of the food chain is dependent onthem. So much so, that if they fail to ap-pear other species such as penguins andwhales experience drastic breeding failures.The ocean bottom flora is rich in diversitywith several species of sea anemones, starfish etc.
Krill
Star fish
Minke WhaleSea Anemone
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The Story of ANTANTANTANTANTARARARARARCTICACTICACTICACTICACTICA
14
Now that we know Antarctica is an
icy continental mass situated at the
southern most part of the globe, don’t you
wonder how this land was discovered? Who
was the first person to stand on this pris-
tine, beautiful white continent
located in the middle of the
ocean? Let us take a journey
back in time and find out the
fascinating story behind the
discovery of this ‘last wilder-
ness’
Ancient Greeks had postulated
that a large, southern continent
must exist to balance the Arc-
tic in the northern hemisphere.
It is relevant to remember; here that Arctic
(around the North Pole) was discovered
much before the discovery of the South
Pole or Antarctica. The imaginary south-
ern mass of land was referred to as Anti-
Arctic or opposite to Arctic and hence the
name Antarctic. However, Antarctica re-
mained an imaginary, mysterious land be-
cause no one could cross the ice barrier,
surrounding the continent. In one of the
earliest maps of the world, this southern
landmass is shown as Terra Australis In-
cognita i.e. the Unknown Southern Land.
Early VoyagesEarly VoyagesEarly VoyagesEarly VoyagesEarly Voyages
Imagine the condition of those initial ex-
plorers who ventured into the task of dis-
covering the Antarctic continent in wooden
ships! But man is known for his invincible
nature, and the fire to find Antarctica had
been ignited.
DISCOVERY OF ANTDISCOVERY OF ANTDISCOVERY OF ANTDISCOVERY OF ANTDISCOVERY OF ANTARCTICAARCTICAARCTICAARCTICAARCTICAIV
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The Story of ANTANTANTANTANTARARARARARCTICACTICACTICACTICACTICA
Captain James Cook , the famous naviga-
tor and explorer of the Pacific and Antarc-
tic, became the first human being to cross
the Antarctic Circle reaching 67°15’S,
when the pack ice forced him to turn back
his ship ‘Resolution’, a mere 80 miles from
his destination! Cook had not taken hu-
man greed into consideration. Ironically,
it was Cook’s own penchant for thorough-
ness that fueled the burst of activity because
he had noted in his log (records) that large
numbers of seals and whales were present
in the high latitudes.
The motivation for reaching Antarctica
now was search for new locations where
seals and whales could be found.
The Early ExplorersThe Early ExplorersThe Early ExplorersThe Early ExplorersThe Early Explorers
The seal hunters were actually the early ex-
plorers who located areas of abundance of
seals and raised the hopes that new and un-
discovered lands might be lying further
south. Ships of many countries started en-
circling the Southern Ocean. The Russian
government sent Captain Thaddeus von
Bellingshausen, with a team of two hun-
dred sailors to get the accurate information
about Antarctica. On 27th
January 1820 for the first
time human eyes saw some
distant mountains towards
the southern end of earth.
Bellingshausen had actually
become the first person in
the human history to see
Antarctic continent!Captain BellingshausenCaptain James Cook
Antarctic Circle
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The Story of ANTANTANTANTANTARARARARARCTICACTICACTICACTICACTICA
Another remarkable “sealer-scientist,” was
James Weddell, captain of a British ship.
Weddell had taken part in exploration dur-
ing 1820-21 and 1821-22 and had gained
a lot of experience. On February 20, 1823
at longitude 34°16’45"W, and latitude
74°15’S,Weddell became the first man to
go farthest south that anyone had ever gone
before! It would be over 80 years before
anyone could get that far south again in
the Weddell Sea.
Inspired by Weddell’s deep foray into the
Weddell Sea and by the tantalizing glimpses
of land reported
by the sealers, the
French, British,
and United
States govern-
ments launched
exploratory mis-
sions in 1840s.
France sent Jules
Sebastian Dumont
d’Urville as the
Captain of its ship,
USA’s Leader of the
expedition was
Captain Charles
Wilkes and the
Leader of the Great
Britain’s expedition was Captain James
Clark Ross. These three explorers not only
discovered different parts of the Antarctic
landmass but also deciphered that each
piece of newly discovered land in Antarc-
tica was connected with other parts and
hence it was not an archipelago of islands,
but actually a huge continent!
SSSSSearcearcearcearcearch for the Sh for the Sh for the Sh for the Sh for the South Magneticouth Magneticouth Magneticouth Magneticouth Magnetic
PPPPPoleoleoleoleole
James Clark Ross was specifically assigned
the job of finding the elusive South Mag-
netic Pole as he had already found the north
magnetic pole in 1831. Ross’s advent to the
South Magnetic Pole was, however, stopped
by an Ice Shelf (which Ross called the
Victoria Barrier but was renamed after him).
He, did establish that the South Magnetic
Pole lay inland, inaccessible by the sea.
Captain Weddell
James Ross
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The Story of ANTANTANTANTANTARARARARARCTICACTICACTICACTICACTICA
Race To The SRace To The SRace To The SRace To The SRace To The South Pouth Pouth Pouth Pouth PoleoleoleoleoleDiscovery of the South Pole posed a greater
challenge to the Antarctic Explorers. Each
one of them wanted to set his feet first at
the Pole and become immortal in the hu-
man history. The first person to accept this
challenge was a British, Captain Robert
Falcon Scott, who started his expedition
in 1902 in a ship named “Terra Nova”. Un-
fortunately his expedition had to be
abruptly ended when he was still about 800
km away from the South Pole because all
his dogs and
many of the
team mem-
bers started
s u f f e r i n g
from Scurvy
(Vitamin-C
deficiency).
Three main
members of
this team,
Shackleton, Wilson and Scott himself were
on the verge of death. Shackleton, who
was an exceptionally bright member of the
Scott’s team in Terra Nova, started prepar-
ing for his own expedition immediately
after returning back home. After four years
of preparation, in 1908 he was again in the
Ross Sea with NIMROD, a more mecha-
nized ship than Terra Nova. In January
1909, when Shackleton and his four col-
leagues were only 180 km away from the
South Pole, they found that they were suf-
fering from immense frostbites and their
bodies were not supporting them. They had
to return back completely shattered, both
physically and mentally.
SSSSScott vs Amundsencott vs Amundsencott vs Amundsencott vs Amundsencott vs Amundsen
Robert Scott planned his expedition to
Antarctica immediately after the unsuccess-
ful return of Shackleton. Scott started his
expedition in November 1910, unaware
that Norwegian explorer Roald
Amundsen was already on his way to the
South Pole!
Amundsen and his team worked remark-
ably well and as a result they reached the
South Pole on
14th Decem-
ber 1911. Be-
fore returning
home to a he-
roic welcome,
they raised
the Norwe-
Captain R.F. Scott
Roald Amundsen
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The Story of ANTANTANTANTANTARARARARARCTICACTICACTICACTICACTICA
gian flag and kept the records of reaching
the South Pole in a safe box. On the other
hand, Scott and his team faced lot of diffi-
culties in reaching the Pole. On 17th Janu-
ary 1912, they fond the Norwegian flag
hoisted there on the South Pole!
“This told us the whole story. The Norwe-
gians have forestalled us and are first at the
Pole. It is a terrible disappointment and I
am very sorry for my loyal companions. Many
thoughts come and much discussion we have
had. To-morrow we must march on the Pole,
and then hasten home with all the speed we
can compass. All the day-dreams must go; it
will be a wearisome return”. -January
17th1912, quotes from Scott’s Diary.
They were already facing shortage of food
and by 21st March they were not left with
anything to eat. Suddenly a formidable
blizzard started which continued for five
days. The last lines of Scott’s diary on 29th
March, state:
“There has been nothing to eat for the past
three days. Now, I am not even able to write.
End is not far. For God’s sake, take care of
our families”.
The last major expedition of the heroic era
was marked by Ernest Shackleton’s voyage
in Endurance on August 8, 1914, planned
to cross Antarctica by approaching it
through the Weddell Sea. However,
Shackleton was trapped in the pack ice of
the Weddell Sea and drifted through the
winter. Ultimately, Endurance was crushed
by the ice and sank on November 21, 1915.
Shackleton and his men dragged and rowed
their lifeboats over the pack ice and open
waters until they made it to Elephant Island.
19
The Story of ANTANTANTANTANTARARARARARCTICACTICACTICACTICACTICA
The MecThe MecThe MecThe MecThe Mechanized Age of Explorationhanized Age of Explorationhanized Age of Explorationhanized Age of Explorationhanized Age of ExplorationThe advent of more powerful engines, steel
hulled ships, airplanes, and radios consid-
erably enhanced man’s ability to reach dif-
ficult and inaccessible area of Antarctica,
aiding to success of several exploration
programmes. The radio was particularly
important as for the first time; Antarctic
explorers were not completely isolated from
the rest of the world. One of the first to
use the new aeronautical technology was
Sir Hubert Wilkins (Standing on right side
of the cockpit in the picture ; page 20). In
an expedition supported by Randolph
Hearst (a well known publisher) and the
American Geographical Society, Wilkins
The Story of “Endurance” in pictures
20
The Story of ANTANTANTANTANTARARARARARCTICACTICACTICACTICACTICA
made the first Antarctic flight on 16th No-
vember 1928. On December 20, he flew
over Graham Land and became the first
Antarctic explorer to discover new land by
air. After that, Antarctic explorers have
never looked back.
Sir Hubert Wilkins (right side)
----
21
The Story of ANTANTANTANTANTARARARARARCTICACTICACTICACTICACTICA
21
Prior to 19th Century when new lands
were being discovered, the explorers
would raise the flag of their countries and
claim the territory in the name of their
kings or rulers. The first such formal claim
over Antarctic territory was made by Brit-
ain in 1908. In 1923 Britain handed over
part of their claim on the Ross Dependen-
cies to New Zealand. In 1924, France laid
claim to Terre Adelie. Australia claimed a
large chunk of territory in 1933. In Janu-
ary 1939, Norway formalized its claim to
Dronning Maud Land. While most of the
claims took different slices of
the continent, there were many
areas where different parties
made overlapping claims. For
example, in 1940, Chile be-
came the third country to
claim overlapping-sovereignty
over the Antarctic Peninsula
(after Britain and Argentina).
Although the United States
pursued no claims of its own,
the flurry of claims encouraged
the U.S. Congress to establish the U.S. Ant-
arctic Service in 1939 to take control of
American Antarctic exploration. Other
countries soon followed suit.
The world, however, soon realized that one
could get more from this pristine, un-
touched reserve of snow and ice, in terms
of science rather than the worldly riches.
This realization gave birth to a drive to gain
scientific knowledge and enrich humanity
by the unique opportunity provided by this
natural laboratory.
IS IT REALLIS IT REALLIS IT REALLIS IT REALLIS IT REALLY NO MAN’S LY NO MAN’S LY NO MAN’S LY NO MAN’S LY NO MAN’S LAND?AND?AND?AND?AND?V
United Kingdom
NorwayArgentina
Chile
Unclaimed
AustraliaNew Zealand
France
Australia
22
The Story of ANTANTANTANTANTARARARARARCTICACTICACTICACTICACTICA
The International GeophysicalThe International GeophysicalThe International GeophysicalThe International GeophysicalThe International Geophysical
Year: PYear: PYear: PYear: PYear: Paving the Raving the Raving the Raving the Raving the Road to theoad to theoad to theoad to theoad to the
Antarctic TAntarctic TAntarctic TAntarctic TAntarctic Treatyreatyreatyreatyreaty
By December of 1955, preparations for the
International Geophysical Year (IGY) were
well underway. The year saw thirteen ships
proceeding to Antarctica with personnel
for seven separate expeditions. As winter
of 1956 closed in, there were twenty-nine
separate parties in Antarctica from seven
countries: British, Chilean, and Argentine
outposts on the Peninsula, and French,
American, Australian, Soviet, and British
stations on the continent proper. In all, 508
people stationed in Antarctica, were ready
to stay there through out the long winter.
Preparations continued during the 1956-
57 austral summer season. Thirteen more
stations were established, bringing the to-
tal on the continent to 42, representing 12
countries (Belgium, Norway, New
Zealand, Japan, and South Africa had
joined the effort). An additional 21 sta-
tions were established on Antarctic and
sub-Antarctic islands. By this time the
IGY was well underway. During the
summer of 1956-57, 42 bases and sup-
porting ships accommodated 6,167
people in Antarctica, more than at any
other time in history. In 1957-58 there
were 44 continental bases, 21 island bases,
and 5,362 people involved in the largest
multinational scientific research effort in
the history. The IGY was originally sched-
uled to last from June 1957 through De-
cember 1958. However, it was so success-
ful, that all participating nations soon
formed permanent research programs to
continue their presence and activities in
Antarctica. The International Council of
Scientific Unions (ICSU), which had pro-
posed the IGY, formed the Scientific Com-
mittee on Antarctic Research (SCAR) to
coordinate the continued scientific coop-
eration among nations. The success of the
effort, and the need to defuse competing
territorial claims also led to the signing of
the Antarctic Treaty in 1959. In essence,
this treaty (ratified by all parties in 1961) set
the continent of Antarctica aside for peace-
23
The Story of ANTANTANTANTANTARARARARARCTICACTICACTICACTICACTICA
ful and scientific purposes; and placed all ter-
ritorial claims in abeyance till the Treaty lasts.
Antarctica After the TAntarctica After the TAntarctica After the TAntarctica After the TAntarctica After the Treatyreatyreatyreatyreaty
The original signatories i.e. Argentina, Aus-
tralia, Belgium, Chile, the French Repub-
lic, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, the
Union of South Africa, The Union of So-
viet Socialist Republics, The United King-
dom of Great Britain and Northern Ire-
land, and the United States of America,
signed the Antarctic Treaty on 1st Decem-
ber 1959 at Washington, D.C. These 12
signatories became the original consulta-
tive nations. As of today, 16 additional na-
tions (Brazil, Bulgaria, China, Ecuador,
Finland, Ger-
many, India, Italy,
Netherlands, Po-
land, Peru, Re-
public of Korea,
Sweden, Spain,
and Uruguay)
have achieved
consultative status
by acceding to the
Treaty and by
conducting sub-
stantial scientific
research in Antarctica. Another 16 nations
have acceded to the Antarctic Treaty: Aus-
tria, Canada, Colombia, Cuba, Czech Re-
public, Democratic Peoples Republic of
Korea, Denmark, Greece, Guatemala,
Hungary, Papua New Guinea, Romania,
Slovak Republic, Switzerland, Turkey, and
Venezuela. These nations agree to abide by
the Treaty and may attend consultative
meetings as observers. At present scientists
and other professionals live and work more
or less effortlessly at Antarctic stations es-
tablished by these nations. These stations
help each other in the hour of need and
evolve together as one community.
Neumayer (Germany) Maitri (India)ANTARCTICPENNINSULA
Palmer (U.S.) RONNEICE SHELF
King sejong (Korea)
Rothera(U.K.)
ROSSICE SHELF
----
24
The Story of ANTANTANTANTANTARARARARARCTICACTICACTICACTICACTICA
In December 1981, the first Indian Ant
arctic Expedition was launched from
Goa under the leadership of the eminent
scientist Dr. S.Z. Qasim. This pioneer
team, that included renowned glaciologist,
Dr C.P.Vohra and Oceanographer like Dr
H.N.Siddiqui, created history by reaching
the Antarctic continent on 9th of January
1982 and laid the foundation of India’s
Antarctic Programme. The First expedi-
tion was immediately followed by the Sec-
ond (under the leadership of Shri
V.K.Raina). The success of these endeav-
ors and the recognition by international
community encouraged India to establish
her permanent research base at the Ant-
arctic continent for pursuit of scientific re-
search. In 1983,
under the leader-
ship of Dr.
Harsh Gupta, a
well known
earth scientist,
the third expedi-
tion team estab-
lished India’s first
permanent station in Antarctica and appro-
priately named it “Dakshin Gangotri” in a
record time of one Antarctic summer. This
station was home to the Indian team mem-
bers for five long years, sheltering them
from harsh and ruthless conditions of Ant-
arctica as also providing them all the facili-
ties to conduct scientific research work.
INDIAINDIAINDIAINDIAINDIA’S JOURNEY TO ANT’S JOURNEY TO ANT’S JOURNEY TO ANT’S JOURNEY TO ANT’S JOURNEY TO ANTARCTICAARCTICAARCTICAARCTICAARCTICAVI
Dr. Harsh Gupta
Dr. S.Z. Qasim
Dakshin Gangotri under construction
24
25
The Story of ANTANTANTANTANTARARARARARCTICACTICACTICACTICACTICA
Since Dakshin Gangotri (it is affectionately
called DG by the Antarcticans from India)
was situated on an ice shelf, it gradually
sank into snow. By 1988, India had to pre-
pare its second station in Antarctica because
Dakshin Gangotri was no longer safe for
living.
An ice-free area
on a small hill
range called
‘Schirmacher Oa-
sis’ was selected in
1987-88 and the
station was built
in two summer
seasons (there be-
ing no sun during
the winter period,
DG in the summer of 1989
out side activity is highly restricted between
the months of April to October). By 1988-
89, the station construction was nearly over,
paving the way for decommissioning of the
old station during 1989-90 and shifting the
major scientific laboratories to the new sta-
tion named “Maitri”.
DG in 1985
Maitri
26
The Story of ANTANTANTANTANTARARARARARCTICACTICACTICACTICACTICA
Maitri became operational same year (IX
Expedition) with commencement of the full-
fledged wintering under the leadership of Rasik
Ravindra, a Geologist from Geological Survey
of India. The inmates of Maitri bring out a House
Bulletin - Himvat - that contains interesting
account of personal experiences of members in
hand written or typed pages. To cite some
interesting articles, in Himvat of 1989-91 a
member recounts his trauma when a heavy snow
vehicle ran over him and he still survived with
only minor bruises on his body but strong
impressions on his mind turning him towards
Photograph of some of the leaders of the past expeditions [Standing from L to R, numbers in the parenthe-
ses indicate expedition number: AK Hanjura (x), M Sudhakar (LS Hill Expd.), Rasik Ravindra (IX), Robin Sengupta
(VII), VK Raina (II & Weddell Sea Expd.), CP Vohra (Dy. Leader, I), SZ Qasim (I), V.K. Dhargalkar (XII),
R. Asthana (XXIV), S. Jayaram (XIII) Sudhakar Rao (XIII), AK Hanchinal (XXII), S Mukerji (XI), Arun Chaturvedi
(XV, XIX and XXVII); Sitting : A Dhar (XVIII), N Khare (NCAOR), SM Bhandari (Solar Eclipse Expd),
RPLal (XXI).
spirituality. In yet
another incident a
team lost all its
cooking oil in a fire
accident and had to
survive on boiled
food through out
the winter period.
You can write mails
to the wintering
members or to the Leader of the Maitri Station
at <maitri@ncaor.amosconnect.com > for any
information on the Station or Antarctica.
Shri Rasik Ravindra
27
The Story of ANTANTANTANTANTARARARARARCTICACTICACTICACTICACTICA
Introduction of special flights to Antarc-
tica and facilities of an ice runway very close
to Maitri station has paved the way for
short visits of policy makers and senior sci-
entists to Maitri. Honorable Minister of
Science and Technology, Shri Kapil Sibal
visited Maitri in 2005 along with Dr. Harsh
Gupta (then secretary to Department of
Ocean Development), while Dr.P.S.Goel
(Secretary) and Shri Prakash Kumar (Joint Sec-
retary) in the Ministry of Earth Sciences visited
the facilities at the Indian station in 2007.
India is all set to establish a new Antarctic
base at Larsemann Hills, in the eastern
Antarctica- a part of the continent that,
about 120 million years ago, was contigu-
ous with India’s east coast. The proposed
station that is to be built on an unnamed,
ice free, coastal area (promontory) fring-
ing the Prydz Bay will be located close to
Russian and Chinese stations- Progress and
Zhongshan respectively. The proposal was
recently cleared by the international body
Shri Kapil Sibal (Honorable Minister of Science and
Technology) along with Dr. Harsh Gupta (then secre-
tary to Department of Ocean Development) and Shri
Rajesh Asthana (Leader, 24th Expedition) at Maitri
Dr. P.S. Goel (Secretary, MoES), Shri Prakash Kumar (Joint Secretary, MoES) with other Antarctic
expeditioners at the ice runway very close to Maitri station
28
The Story of ANTANTANTANTANTARARARARARCTICACTICACTICACTICACTICA
overseeing the environmental aspects of
Antarctica (Committee on Environment
Protection). India is committed to come
up with an environmental friendly, struc-
ture that will preserve the pristine nature
of the place.
The new station will be about 2000 km
away from Maitri. It will have an easy ac-
cess from the sea, as the
area is free of shelf ice.
This region, including
the islands and prom-
ontories will offer ex-
cellent opportunity for
extensive studies on ge-
ology, tectonics,
paleoclimatic, geophys-
ics, meteorology, oceanography, marine
and fresh water biology.
The induction of women expeditioners to
the icy continent of Antarctica began way
back in 1983 when Drs. Sudipta Sengupta
and Aditi Pant spent their summer in 1983-
84 (III). Since then, women participation
in Antarctic expeditions has been over-
Artist’s impression of station at Larsemann Hills
proposed site
29
The Story of ANTANTANTANTANTARARARARARCTICACTICACTICACTICACTICA
whelming. The other lady members who
took part of earlier expeditions are Ms.
Gouri Indresan (IIT Mumbai, V), Ms. Rita
Kohli (Delhi University, IX), Smt.
Meenakshi Chatterjee (Calcutta Univer-
sity) and Dr. Usha Sachdeva (AIIMS,X),
Dr. P.A. Loka Bharathi (NIO) and Ms. M.
Naidu (AIIMS, XIII), Dr. Manju Mehta,
Dr. Kapila Kusum (AIIMS) and Dr. Girija
Rajaram (IIG, XXVIII), Ms. Stella (IMD,
XX), Dr. Medha Dixit (VJTI, XXII), Prof.
Laxmi Bishnoi (NPL, XXIV), Dr. Binita
Phartiyal (BSIP) and Ms. Preeti Oswal
(NBRI, XXV).
Another milestone was achieved by Dr.
Kanwal Vilku of the Central Government
Health Services in the year 2000 (XIX) and
by Dr. Devyani Borole (XXV) who spent a
wintering each (16 months) in Antarctica.
How did it feel to stay alone in a men only
company? “all the expedition members
treated us respectfully and it was a memo-
rable stay’’ has been the answer.
LADY EXPEDITIONERS IN INDIAN ANTARCTIC EXPEDITIONS(Within brackets: Institution and Expedition number)
Dr. Sudipta Sengupta (JadavpurUniversity, III and IX)
Dr. Aditi Pant (NIO, III)
30
The Story of ANTANTANTANTANTARARARARARCTICACTICACTICACTICACTICA
Ms. Gouri Indreasan (IIT, V) Dr. Rita Kohli (Delhi University, IX)
Dr. Meenakshi Chatterji (Univ.of Calcutta, X) Dr. P. A. Loka Bharathi (NIO, XIII)
Dr. Kapila Kusum (AIIMS, XVIII)Dr. Girija Rajaram (IIG, XVIII)
31
The Story of ANTANTANTANTANTARARARARARCTICACTICACTICACTICACTICA
Dr. Manju Mehta (AIIMS, XVIII) Dr. Kanwal Vilku (CGHS, XIX)
Ms. Stella (IMD, XX) Dr. Medha Dixit (VJTI, XXII)
Prof. Laxmi Bishnoi (NPL, XXIV) Dr. Binita Phartiyal (NBRI, XXV)
Smt. Devyani Borole (NCAOR, XXV)Ms. Preeti Oswal (NBRI, XXV)
32
The Story of ANTANTANTANTANTARARARARARCTICACTICACTICACTICACTICA
LauncLauncLauncLauncLaunching of the Expeditionshing of the Expeditionshing of the Expeditionshing of the Expeditionshing of the Expeditions
How are the Indian expeditions to Ant-
arctica launched? How are the members se-
lected? Who arranges the voyage and who
pays for the expenses? The aspirants, who
wish to explore Antarctica, often ask these
questions. Initially the expeditions were
managed and launched by the Department
of Ocean Development (DoD), a scientific
Department under the Prime Minister of
our country (DoD has now been upgraded
to a full-fledged ministry named as Minis-
try of Earth Sciences). Subsequently, the
Government established an autonomous
institution with headquarters at Goa and
gave it the mandate to launch and manage
the logistic and scientific aspects of the ex-
peditions. Since the Southern Ocean is an
integral part of Antarctic eco system, its
study was also entrusted to this newly con-
stituted Centre. The institute, named as
National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean
Research (NCAOR) moved into its own
campus on 5th April 2000 with Dr. P.C.
Pandey as its first Director. Today, the Cen-
tre has modern laboratories for conduct-
ing research in the fields of microbiology,
oceanography, sedimentology, paleo-
climatic and glaciology etc. The sophisti-
cated clean ice core laboratory established
here is the only such facility of its type
existing in India.
National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean ResearchDr. P.C. Pandey
33
The Story of ANTANTANTANTANTARARARARARCTICACTICACTICACTICACTICA
The selection of Indian Antarctic Expedition
Team is done through a rigorous process. This
process starts in the month of March, when
NCAOR places advertisement in the lead-
ing national newspapers inviting proposals
from interested scientists to conduct research
in Antarctica. After scrutiny, projects are se-
lected and team members are short-listed.
The team, which is generally a reflection of
the wide spectrum of the Indian Society with
the members drawn from different regions
and with different work experience, repre-
sents universities, research
organizations, defense
laboratories etc. Defense
personnel too join the
team for maintenance and
operation of the Research
Station at Maitri. The
members undergo a detailed medical ex-
amination at All India Institute of Medi-
cal Sciences, New Delhi. The selected
members are then sent to a Himalayan gla-
cier for training and acclimatization under
the guidance of expert mountaineers.
The team is now ready for the expedition. It
assembles at the NCAOR Campus, where
last minute instructions are passed on, for-
eign exchange is arranged, official documents
are handed over and Expedition is wished
‘Bon Voyage’. Initially, the members used to
board the expedition vessel at Goa and it took
almost 20 days to reach Antarctica. Later, ar-
rangements were made to fly the members
to Cape Town, South Af-
rica, from where the char-
tered ship takes them to
Antarctica in approximately
eight days. This saves a lot
of voyage time. From the
coast of Antarctica, where
the ship is
berthed, mem-
bers are flown
to Maitri by the
helicopters that
are chartered
and brought to
Antarctica on
the expedition
vessel itself.
34
The Story of ANTANTANTANTANTARARARARARCTICACTICACTICACTICACTICA
Once the ship reaches Antarctic coast, the
cargo is off loaded on the shelf. This is then
loaded on to the trailers and toed to sta-
tion by a number of snow vehicles that
move together in the form of a convoy. As
the journey of over a hundred kilometer
covering a treacherous icy terrain, full of
hidden crevasses, the Leader of the convoy
has a great responsibility to guide the driv-
ers safely to destination. The convoys of-
ten get trapped in snow storms. One can
also get stranded because of vehicles get-
ting trapped in melt water channels.
With improvements in logistics, now it is
even possible to transport key scientists and
some members directly to Maitri by flight
that takes about eight hours from Cape
Town!
The expedition members not only attend
to their scientific tasks, carry out the ex-
periments or collect data by taking traverses
to interior areas, they are also required to
attend to the house keeping, perform du-
ties by turn in the kitchen, assist in watch
over the power generating systems and at-
tend to waste disposal. Antarctica being
governed by a strict protocol on environ-
mental protection, the waste has to be dis-
posed as per a pre defined scientific pro-
cess or removed from the Antarctica – and
mind you this also includes the night soil!
In retrospect, the members who have spent
35
The Story of ANTANTANTANTANTARARARARARCTICACTICACTICACTICACTICA
about sixteen months in the station at a
stretch have little complaints. If you have
been once to Antarctica, you can’t help fall-
ing in love with the pristine beauty, great wil-
derness and awesome ruggedness of this lone-
some, unspoilt, white desert. So strong is the
urge and fascination of this charm, that one
gets swayed. There are members who have
repeatedly opted for wintering more than
once (wintering in Antarctica means staying
back there till the next expedition comes to
relieve the old one, which is only after more
than a year).
The Indian station is located very close to
the Russian Station (Novolazervaskaya) and
members of the two stations often visit each
other during the long winters. During the
peak of winters, in June, when we in India
have the longest day (21st June), our scien-
tists at Maitri face the peak of the winters. All
over Antarctica, this day is celebrated as “Mid
Winter Day” when members of adjoining
stations come together to share their experi-
ence and forget the isolation. The severe win-
ter months also mark the dark period, as there
is no sunlight, forcing most of the members
indoors. Many members utilize this period
to sharpen their hidden talents (see above for
the portrait of an Indian Expedition Leader
been drawn by a Russian member).
36
The Story of ANTANTANTANTANTARARARARARCTICACTICACTICACTICACTICA
36
So far we have learned that Antarctica
is a remote, isolated and a frozen con-
tinent which is arguably the most un-
touched region on the planet. That makes
it one of the most important laboratories
of the world. Humans didn’t even catch a
glimpse of Antarctica until ~185 years ago
and only in the last 50 years have people
begun to explore this vast
polar desert in earnest. To-
day, scientists come to the
South Pole and the conti-
nent enclosing it, from
around the world to study
geology, climate, astro-
physics, marine biology,
ecology, and more!
What is the physicalWhat is the physicalWhat is the physicalWhat is the physicalWhat is the physicalgeography of Antarc-geography of Antarc-geography of Antarc-geography of Antarc-geography of Antarc-tica?tica?tica?tica?tica?
Geographically, Antarctic
continent comprises two
distinct constituents:
ANTANTANTANTANTARCTIC SCIENCEARCTIC SCIENCEARCTIC SCIENCEARCTIC SCIENCEARCTIC SCIENCEVII
· East Antarctica (mostly east of
Greenwich), consisting of a single
great continental plateau
· West Antarctica (west of Green-
wich), consisting of a group of
small plateaux, which constitute a
sort of archipelago covered by ice.
EASTANTARCTICA
WEDDELSEA
ROSSICE SHELF
RONNEICE SHELF
WESTANTARCTICA
ROSS SEA
POLE OF RELATIVENECESSIBILITY
SOUTH POLE
ROSS ICE SHELF
WEST ICECAP
EAST ICE CAPTRANS ANTARCTICMOUNTAINS
Elevation(Metres)
4000350030002500200015001000
0
37
The Story of ANTANTANTANTANTARARARARARCTICACTICACTICACTICACTICA
East Antarctica is formed by magmatic and
metamorphic rocks of Proterozoic (2500
to 542.0 ± 1.0 million years ago), and partly
Archaean age (4000 to 2500 million years
ago). Conversely, Western Antarctica con-
sists of more recent rocks, of Mesozoic age
(251 to 65.5 million years ago) and Ceno-
zoic age (65.5 million years ago to present),
alternating with volcanic ashes and lava
rocks. The east Antarctic ice cap is much
thicker than the west Antarctic ice cap. The
topography in east Antarctica is also higher
than that in the west Antarctica. The high-
est peak, Vinson Massif (4892m) is situ-
ated in the Ellsworth Mountains of western
Antarctica, overlooking Ronne Ice Shelf.
GeologyGeologyGeologyGeologyGeology
Antarctica was at one time a part of an an-
cient, considerably larger landmass, referred
to by geologists as “Gondwanaland”. The
supercontinent began breaking up ~150
million years ago and its several segments
gradually drifted apart to form the present
land masses of South America, Africa, In-
dia, Australia (with New Zealand), and
Antarctica ( for a simulation of Gondwana
breakup with time scale, refer the link in
www.ncaor.gov.in).
100 Million Years Ago 50 Million Years Ago
150 Million Years Ago Present Day
38
The Story of ANTANTANTANTANTARARARARARCTICACTICACTICACTICACTICA
always a cold and inhospitable place. Coal
deposits found today in sandstone beds less
than 500 kilometers from the South Pole
show that these materials were laid down
during late Paleozoic time (240-300 mil-
lion years ago) under marshy conditions
in a cool, moist climate.
How do geologists find out the pastHow do geologists find out the pastHow do geologists find out the pastHow do geologists find out the pastHow do geologists find out the past
disposition of continents?disposition of continents?disposition of continents?disposition of continents?disposition of continents?
The present outlines of these continents—
along with the similarity of their geology
and fossil finds—indicate that they had fit-
ted together and that Antarctica was not
GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE
39
The Story of ANTANTANTANTANTARARARARARCTICACTICACTICACTICACTICA
Are there volcanoes in Antarctica?Are there volcanoes in Antarctica?Are there volcanoes in Antarctica?Are there volcanoes in Antarctica?Are there volcanoes in Antarctica?
Volcanic activity in Antarctica is limited
to only a few places, the most notable be-
ing Mount Erebus on Ross Island. The is-
land is entirely of volcanic origin, as are
White and Black Islands, Brown Peninsula
and Mina Bluff, and the massifs of Mounts
Discovery and Morning. These are prod-
ucts of eruptions—from the Pliocene
through the present—of basaltic lavas from
central cones and fissures at various loca-
tions. Mount Erebus is the largest and by
far the most active of the few volcanoes on
the continent, almost continuously spew-
ing out steam and gases from its summit
crater.
Smoke emanatingfrom an active volcano
40
The Story of ANTANTANTANTANTARARARARARCTICACTICACTICACTICACTICA
Are there rocAre there rocAre there rocAre there rocAre there rocks lying beneath ice?ks lying beneath ice?ks lying beneath ice?ks lying beneath ice?ks lying beneath ice?
Geologists have dug deep into the Antarc-
tic ice to see what lies beneath! A small part
of Antarctica (~ 2 %) remains ice-free and
is extensively studied by the Earth Scien-
tists to discover the geological history and
evolution of Antarctica in the past many
millions of years. You would be surprised
to know that Antarctica is made up of one
of the world’s oldest rocks which could be
around 3 billion years old! One promi-
nent topographic feature of the Antarctic
continent is the Transantarctic Mountains.
These ranges form a divide between East
(greater) and West (lesser) Antarctica and
cover more than 2,200 kilometers.
Ocean floor around Antarctica
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The Story of ANTANTANTANTANTARARARARARCTICACTICACTICACTICACTICA
ClimateClimateClimateClimateClimate
We have read that Antarctica is the cold-
est, windiest, driest continent on the Planet
Earth. The weather, strong winds and bru-
tal storms have been synonymous with
Antarctica since its discovery and continue
to be a major challenge for modern explor-
ers.
Why is Antarctica’s weather soWhy is Antarctica’s weather soWhy is Antarctica’s weather soWhy is Antarctica’s weather soWhy is Antarctica’s weather so
brutal?brutal?brutal?brutal?brutal?
Antarctica’s climate is so inhospitable due
to several factors. The main cause is that
Antarctica has a perpetual ice sheet cover-
ing the major part of the continent. Ice is
highly reflective and doesn’t absorb
warmth. Attenuation of solar radiation
energy is greatest at high latitudes where
the path through the atmosphere is long-
est. Also, solar energy reaching the surface
at high latitude is spread over a larger area
because the surface is at a greater angle to
the incoming radiation. Therefore, the
earth’s surface at the poles is a heat sink
when compared with that at the tropics.
The poles simply lose more energy than
they receive – they have a negative radia-
tion balance. Another important factor is
that it is surrounded by a vast ocean, South-
ern Ocean, in which flows one of the
world’s largest and strongest current that is
known as Antarctic Circumpolar Current
(ACC). It is a cold oceanic current driven
by strong winds generated due to the Ant-
arctic Circumpolar Trough, which is a zone
(between 60°S and 65°S) of low pressure
that exhibits variable winds moving from
west to east. ACC is the only current en-
circling the whole globe as it is unhindered
by landmasses. It isolates the Antarctic con-
tinent from the effect of warm surface
ocean currents and thus helps in the gradual
build-up of ice.
Antarctic ocean current system
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The Story of ANTANTANTANTANTARARARARARCTICACTICACTICACTICACTICA
The Ozone HoleThe Ozone HoleThe Ozone HoleThe Ozone HoleThe Ozone Hole
What is ozone?
Ozone is a form of oxygen in which each
molecule contains three atoms of oxygen
as compared to the normal two. It is a blu-
ish gas and is chemically very active. When
inhaled it is toxic and particularly harmful
to asthmatics and others with respiratory
problems. Ozone also absorbs ultraviolet
radiation (UV), a property of considerable
significance to life on Earth. Ozone occurs
naturally in our atmosphere, which is
dominated by nitrogen (78% of the total)
and oxygen (21%).
Global relevance of Antarctic Science
Ozone hole in Antarctica?
In 1974 the American scientists Mario
Molina and Sherwood Rowland proved
that Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) possibly
played an active role in the depletion of
the ozone layer. CFC are stable industry
gases containing mainly chlorine, fluorine
and bromine, used in refrigeration systems,
air conditioners, aerosols, solvents and in
Zone of ozone depletion
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The Story of ANTANTANTANTANTARARARARARCTICACTICACTICACTICACTICA
the production of some types of packag-
ing. The hole in the ozone layer over Ant-
arctica was discovered in 1985. When Brit-
ish scientists at the Halley Bay station in
Antarctica saw the results of their measure-
ments, they thought that there was some-
thing wrong with their instruments. At
once they were replaced, but the results
stayed as alarming as before. When their
conclusions were published in the scien-
tific magazine Nature, the world recog-
nized that something had to be done and
quickly. A question that is often asked is
“Why the hole in the ozone layer occurs
only over Antarctica?” During the polar
night the temperature in the stratosphere
drops to sometimes -100o Celsius. At lower
temperatures the demolition process of the
ozone molecules is strengthened. At the be-
ginning of spring (September - October)
it goes from bad to worse. Each year a cold
wedge of ice clouds moves in over Antarc-
tica. At about the same time of year the
Sun returns to the continent after the win-
ter dark months, and the combination of
sunlight, ice clouds and CFCs form a mix-
ture that destroys the ozone.
What effects does ozone depletion have?
The ozone layer plays an important role in
the atmosphere. It protects us from the
harmful effects of certain wavelengths of
UV radiation, particularly UV-B radiation
(radiation between the wavelengths 280-
320 nanometers). Overall, ozone destruc-
tion process over Antarctica reduces the
total amount of stratospheric ozone on a
global scale.
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The Story of ANTANTANTANTANTARARARARARCTICACTICACTICACTICACTICA
Why Arctic doesn’t have an “Ozone Hole”?
Unlike Antarctica, which is a continent sur-
rounded by oceans, the Arctic is an ocean
surrounded by mountainous continents.
This means that the stratospheric circula-
tion is much more irregular, and the tem-
perature does not fall as low as it does in
the Antarctic. Stratospheric clouds are
therefore, less common, which prevents the
formation of a deep ozone hole over the
Arctic.
Arctic ViewArctic Circle660 300 North
GreenwichMeridian
North Pole
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45
Indian Antarctic Research Programme is
one of the finest examples of a coordinated
long-term research effort of key national re-
search institutions. It is also an important
component of international scientific
community’s effort to understand this remote
icy continent. Antarctica plays a key role in
the global climate. India has been pursuing
research in the fields of earth atmospheric,
biological, human physiology, communica-
tion, space and weather sciences etc. Antarc-
tica provides a unique envi-
ronment to study the inter-
actions of glaciation and cli-
mate without human inter-
ferences.
Atmospheric SAtmospheric SAtmospheric SAtmospheric SAtmospheric SciencesciencesciencesciencesciencesAntarctica has attracted the
attention of scientific com-
munity all over the world since it is one of
the most important climate regions with a
potential to influence long-term global cli-
mate change. India Meteorological Depart-
ment (IMD) is participating in Antarctic ex-
THE INDIAN CONTRIBUTION TOTHE INDIAN CONTRIBUTION TOTHE INDIAN CONTRIBUTION TOTHE INDIAN CONTRIBUTION TOTHE INDIAN CONTRIBUTION TOANTANTANTANTANTARCTIC SCIENCESARCTIC SCIENCESARCTIC SCIENCESARCTIC SCIENCESARCTIC SCIENCES
VIII
peditions since beginning for conducting at-
mospheric studies. Other Institutions include
National Physical Laboratory, National In-
stitute of Tropical Meteorology, National In-
stitute of Oceanography, National Geophysi-
cal Research Institute, Indian Institute of
Technology (Delhi) etc. Continuous record-
ing of surface weather parameters at Maitri
has provided necessary input for understand-
ing the variations in the Antarctic atmospheric
circulation patterns. Surface characteristics
and insulation features over
Antarctica also influence the
energy budget of the globe,
which in turn control the cli-
mate. The scientific com-
munity has recognized that
ozone depletion could in-
crease the levels of UV rays
on the earth. Indian Scien-
tists are monitoring the ozone hole above the
Maitri station and have found that the hole
depth is fluctuating from year-to-year. The
observations at Maitri also showed an event
of major stratospheric warming during 2002.
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The Story of ANTANTANTANTANTARARARARARCTICACTICACTICACTICACTICA
Biological SBiological SBiological SBiological SBiological Sciencesciencesciencesciencesciences
Biological studies on the ice shelf and fresh
water lakes have been carried out since the
first expedition. Researchers have studied
the composition, spatial distribution and
influence of different physical and chemi-
cal factors on eco-biology of fresh water
environment. The invertebrate fauna, birds
like Penguin and South Polar Skua of
Schirmacher Oasis have also been studied.
Genetic information of Antarctic Algae,
Mosses & Lichens is an exciting field of
study proposed to be mounted by NCAOR
in Antarctica. The microbiologists work-
ing at NCAOR in collaboration with Cen-
tre for Cellular and Molecular Biology
(CCMB), Hyderabad aims at unraveling
the molecular basis of the survival of mi-
crobes under extreme climatic conditions.
Findings of this research can help to de-
velop better technologies for the easy sur-
vival and living habits of mankind in the
Antarctic. Indian scientists are making an
attempt to highlight the bacterial diversity
of Antarctica, the biotechnological poten-
tial of the cold-loving bacteria and also to
understand their survival strategies. Stud-
ies on the bacterial diversity of Antarctica
have led to the identification of a number
of new species of bacteria from Antarctica
such as Sphingobacterium antarcticum,
Pseudomonas antarctica, Planococcus
antarcticus, Pseudonocardia antarctica,
Planococcus maitriensis, Arthrobacter
gangotriensis etc. As of now, only about 120
new species of bacteria have been identi-
fied from the frozen continent. India has
added 20 new species to this list.
Sampling for Biological Studies
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The Story of ANTANTANTANTANTARARARARARCTICACTICACTICACTICACTICA
Studies on the human biology and behav-
ior of expedition members are being done
for regular monitoring and to examine
their responses in extreme conditions. For
example a research program has been
initiated to study the disturbances in sleep,
salivary melatonin hormone concentration
and their daily rhythm. Initial results show
that there was no phase shift in the
acrophase in the melatonin level was ob-
served during the period of observation at
Antarctica except in April and August.
Earth SEarth SEarth SEarth SEarth Sciencesciencesciencesciencesciences
Indian efforts in earth science studies over
Antarctica were initiated by Geological Sur-
vey of India (GSI) and National Geophysi-
cal Research Institute (NGRI). In the light
of continental drift theory (see section on
Geology of Antarctica), Antarctica formed
a major part of the super continent
Gondwanaland, from which India, Austra-
lia, Africa, South America, Madagascar have
drifted apart. From the point of view of
earth sciences, therefore, Antarctica pro-
vides a vital link in the reconstruction of
Gondwanaland. The proximity of Eastern
Ghats Mobile Belt (EGMB) of India to a
large part of East Antarctica in recon-
structed models of the supercontinent and
the fact that mineral enriched zones of
Gondwanaland reconstruction c.400million years ago
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The Story of ANTANTANTANTANTARARARARARCTICACTICACTICACTICACTICA
Gondwanaland continents were in contact
with Antarctica in the geological past; un-
derline the importance of studying Ant-
arctica geologically. India has been carry-
ing out integrated geophysical, geological
and geochemical inves-
tigations in Antarctica.
The objective of these
studies is a reconstruc-
tion of Greater
Gondwanaland by
finding out the past
geological events, their
field configuration, the
pressure and tempera-
ture conditions of the
melt that gave rise to
the rocks and the nature
of metamorphism, deformation, and time
of formation of the rocks. To work out an
evolutionary model and finally compare
these results with the Indian counterparts,
the above studies have been carried out in
the Schirmacher Oasis,
and parts of Wohlthat
ranges.
India has also been suc-
cessful in retrieving ice
cores to decipher
palaeoclimatic history
of polar continental ice.
An ice core is a sample
of the ice that might
have been burried over
hundreds or even thou-
sands of years. This iceIce Core Drilling
Ice Core Archival Facility Ice Core Processing
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The Story of ANTANTANTANTANTARARARARARCTICACTICACTICACTICACTICA
preserves the trapped air bubbles represent-
ing gases from geological past. The com-
position of these ice cores, especially the
presence of hydrogen and oxygen isotopes,
provides a picture of the climate as well as
the time of the deposition of snow. Because
water molecules containing heavier isotopes
exhibit a lower vapor pressure, when the tem-
perature falls, the heavier water molecules will
condense faster than the normal water mol-
ecules. The relative concentrations of the
heavier isotopes in the condensate indicate
the temperature of condensation at the time,
allowing for ice cores to be used in global
temperature reconstruction. In addition to
the isotope concentration, the air bubbles
trapped in the ice cores provide an opportu-
nity to measure the atmospheric concentra-
tions of trace gases, including greenhouse
gases like carbon dioxide, methane, and ni-
trous oxide. The air bubbles may also con-
tain traces of aerosols, which are produced in
great concentrations during volcanic erup-
tions. Shallow cores, or the upper parts of
cores in high-accumulation areas, can be
dated exactly by counting individual layers,
each representing a year.
The Indian contributions towards glaciologi-
cal studies in Antarctica were initiated in
1982-83. The initial observations recorded
fluctuations of polar continental ice margin,
ablation and accumulation pattern of the ice
shelf, details of stratigraphic zonation within
the shelf ice, melting rates on shelf ice during
the polar day etc. The net average accumula-
tion of snow over the ice shelf near the In-
dian research base is estimated to be more
than 50 cm. Studies also indicate that the
growth patterns have a strong temporal bias,
encompassing different segment of the year.
Surface drift is the major source of both ac-
cumulation and ablation.
Scientists are conducting different geomag-
netic measurements in Antarctica to compre-
hend the response of the experimental setup
to various atmospheric, electrical and meteo-
rological conditions and assess the role of so-
lar wind-magnetosphere-ionosphere interac-
tions in modulating the Global Electric Cir-
cuit etc.
The studies on seismo tectonics and
geodynamical processes between Antarctica
and Southern Indian Peninsula by GPS-Ge-
odesy and seismology were initiated in 1997
by the National Geophysical Research Insti-
tute (NGRI). The primary objective of ob-
taining the signatures of geodynamical and
crustal deformation processes have already
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The Story of ANTANTANTANTANTARARARARARCTICACTICACTICACTICACTICA
been achieved and more detailed studies are
being currently done.
India’s research activities in the polar remote
sensing field concentrates on cryosphere re-
mote sensing which aims at the extraction
of sea ice surface characteristics from the
observed electromagnetic signatures sensed
by the space borne sensors. The threshold
technique of quasi co polarized ratio and
quasi co polarized difference during win-
ter and summer have been used to distin-
guish water and ice pixels for delineating
the sea ice in the background of open sea.
Some of these studies have been fine tuned
and some long-term investigations have
been initiated.
Environmental SEnvironmental SEnvironmental SEnvironmental SEnvironmental Sciencesciencesciencesciencesciences
A comprehensive study of the different en-
vironmental components viz., air water,
land, noise is being carried out at the
Indian Polar research station Maitri, in
compliance with the statutory require-
ments of the Antarctic Treaty. India has
established an Environmental Monitoring
Laboratory at Maitri. The objectives are
to assess the impacts of various scientific
programmes and their logistic support
The 2003 Antarctic Total Solar Eclipse at Antarctica
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The Story of ANTANTANTANTANTARARARARARCTICACTICACTICACTICACTICA
facilities on the fragile system of Antarc-
tica, identify the major sources of pollu-
tion and quantification of pollution load.
Previous studies reported that the level of
pollution at Maitri are not alarming but
there is a scope for concern looking into
the critical aspects of Antarctic environ-
ment and the carrying capacity of the
environment surrounding the Maitri
station.
Shri Arun ChaturvediParticipant of X, XII (Wintering), XV
(Wintering & Leader), XIX (Wintering& Leader), XXII, XXV, XXVII (Winter-
ing & Leader) Expedition.
Shri Ajay DharParticipant of V, VI (Wintering), XV,XVIII (Wintering & Leader), XXII,
XXIII, XXVI (Leader Larsemann Team),XXVII (Leader Larsemann Team)
Expedition.
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52
AreaAreaAreaAreaArea Ice-free areaIce-free areaIce-free areaIce-free areaIce-free area1.39 times bigger than the USA (2% of total)13,829,430 km2 280,000 km2
Largest Ice SLargest Ice SLargest Ice SLargest Ice SLargest Ice Shelfhelfhelfhelfhelf MountainsMountainsMountainsMountainsMountainsRoss ice shelf: Transantarctic Mountain chain:(about the size of France) 3,300 km510,680 km2 Highest mountain: Mt. Vinson - 4,892 m
TemperatureTemperatureTemperatureTemperatureTemperature WindWindWindWindWindLowest recorded - 89.2°C Maximum recorded gust:248.4 km/h
IceIceIceIceIce PPPPPopulationopulationopulationopulationopulationAntarctica has 70% of all the worlds freshwater About 4,000 on scientific bases in theFrozen as ice and 90% of all worlds ice short summer 1,000 total in winterMean thickness is 1,829 m around 25,000 summer tourists -
are no permanent residents and no nativepopulation.
GovernanceGovernanceGovernanceGovernanceGovernance Discovery and ExplorationDiscovery and ExplorationDiscovery and ExplorationDiscovery and ExplorationDiscovery and ExplorationGoverned by the Antarctic Treaty System 1st time anyone set foot was in 1821
1st overwintering in 1898South Pole was first reached in 1911
“If Antarctica’s ice sheets melted, the worlds oceans would rise by 60 to 65 metres (200 - 210ft) - everywhere.”
“The largest land animal in Antarctica is an insect, a wingless midge, Belgica antarctica, less than 1.3cm(0.5in) long. There are no flying insects (they’d get blown away), just shiny black springtails that hop likefleas and tend to live among penguin colonies”.
“When the Antarctic sea-ice begins to expand at the beginning of winter, it advances by around 40,000square miles (100,000 square kilometres) per day, and eventually doubles the size of Antarctica, addingup to an extra 20 million square kilometres of ice around the land mass”.
“One of the biggest icebergs ever (possibly the biggest iceberg ever) broke free from the Ross ice shelf in Antarctica in2000”.
IXAMAZING FAMAZING FAMAZING FAMAZING FAMAZING FACTS ABOUT ANTACTS ABOUT ANTACTS ABOUT ANTACTS ABOUT ANTACTS ABOUT ANTARCTICAARCTICAARCTICAARCTICAARCTICA
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53
Dear Reader,
Antarctica has remained as an area of immense curiosity and awe due to
its inaccessibility and inhospitable climate. Though the scene is changing fast with the
opening of ice runways and ships carrying tourists, yet this continent continues to be
the last wilderness because of no permanent habitation.
We have attempted to bring together information scattered at various locations
for students interested in knowing different aspects pertaining to Antarctica. The ac-
count varies from the discovery of the continent to stories of heroism, gradual shifting
of scene from the days of huskies to automobile/ motorized ships/ aircrafts, the unique
flora and fauna capable of surviving in the extreme cold and finally the Indian initiative
in this land.
We sincerely hope that the book will stimulate our young minds, which is the
main objective of this ‘popular series’.
(Rasik Ravindra)
DirectorNCAOR
EPILEPILEPILEPILEPILOGUEOGUEOGUEOGUEOGUE
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54
BIBLIOGRBIBLIOGRBIBLIOGRBIBLIOGRBIBLIOGRAPHYAPHYAPHYAPHYAPHY
Many articles, books and websites were consulted in search of material for this book.
While all known and unknown sources are thanked, the main ones are listed below.
Arun (2005): Rochak aur Romanchak Antarctica, Prabhat Prakashan, New Delhi.
Australian Antarctic Division: www.aad.gov.au
British Antarctic Survey: www.antarctica.ac.uk
Global Warming: http://www.climatehotmap.org/index.html
Gateway to Antarctica: http://www.anta.canterbury.ac.nz
Indian Scientific Expedition to Antarctica: Third and Ninth Scientific Reports.
International Polar Year: www.ipy.org
Kids Design Antarctic Experiments: http://web-japan.org/kidsweb/news/05-02/
antarctica.html
New Zealand Antarctic Survey: www.antarcticanz.govt.nz
National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research: www.ncaor.gov.in
National Science Foundation: http://www.nsf.gov/
Nova warnings from the ice: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/warnings/)
Polar meteorology web module: http://www.weather.nps.navy.mil/~psguest/polarmet
Polar regions: http://www4.ncsu.edu/~leung/intl/pola/webpage.html
Portals of the world: http://www.loc.gov/rr/international/frd/antarctica/antarctica.html
Scott Polar Research Institute: http://www.spri.cam.ac.uk
The Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research: www.scar.org
The Commission for the conservation of the Antarctic marine life: www.ccamlr.org
The secretariat of the Antarctic and southern ocean coalition (ASOC): www.asoc.org
The South Pole: www.south-pole.com
The explorer web: (http://www.thepoles.com/)
Teachers experiencing Antarctica and Arctic: http://tea.armadaproject.org
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ResearcResearcResearcResearcResearch Teamh Teamh Teamh Teamh Team
Manish Tiwari National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean ResearchC.M. Laluraj National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean ResearchLalit Kumar Ahirwar National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research
AdvisorsAdvisorsAdvisorsAdvisorsAdvisors
S. Mukherjee Geological Survey of IndiaArun Chaturvedi Geological Survey of IndiaK. R. Gupta Geological Society of IndiaN. Khare National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean ResearchAjai Saxena Ministry of Earth Sciences
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