Post on 03-Jun-2018
transcript
8/12/2019 SUSTAINABILITY AND COST OF HOME-BASED MANAGEMENT OF MALARIA IN CHILDREN UNDER FIVE YEARS IN EJISU-J
1/129
KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
SUSTAINABILITY ANDCOST OF HOME-BASED MANAGEMENT OF
MALARIA IN CHILDREN UNDER FIVE YEARS IN EJISU-JUABEN
MUNICIPALITY
GHANA
A SUMMARY OF THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF
COMMUNITY HEALTH,
KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF
MASTERS IN PUBLIC HEALTH (HEALTH SERVICES PLANNING AND
MANAGEMENT)
SCHOOL OF MEDICAL SCIENCES, COLLEGE OF HEALTH SCIENCES,
COMMUNITY HEALTH, KUMASI, GHANA
SUBMITTED BY
BENEDICTA OFOSUHEMAA ASANTE
2010
8/12/2019 SUSTAINABILITY AND COST OF HOME-BASED MANAGEMENT OF MALARIA IN CHILDREN UNDER FIVE YEARS IN EJISU-J
2/129
DECLARATION
I declare that I have personally undertaken this research under the supervision of
Dr. Agyei-Baffour Peter herein submitted.
I take full responsibility for errors, misinterpretation, misrepresentation and other
shortcomings.
Benedicta O. Asante ..
Certified by:
Supervisor:
Dr. Agyei-Baffour Peter ..
Certified by:
Head of Department
Dr. Easmon Otupiri ..
8/12/2019 SUSTAINABILITY AND COST OF HOME-BASED MANAGEMENT OF MALARIA IN CHILDREN UNDER FIVE YEARS IN EJISU-J
3/129
DEDICATION
This dissertation is dedicated to my mum Mrs. Emma Adjei-Baah and my siblings Asante Sasu
Sylvester, Asante Aboagyewaa Grace and Asante Kwame Andrew, as well as the inhabitants of
Ejisu- Juaben Municipality most especially the surrounding villages.
8/12/2019 SUSTAINABILITY AND COST OF HOME-BASED MANAGEMENT OF MALARIA IN CHILDREN UNDER FIVE YEARS IN EJISU-J
4/129
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
More than a few people have helped me in the writing of this dissertation. First and foremost, I
owe a debt of gratefulness to the Almighty God for giving me the vigor and familiarities.
I am particularly grateful to Dr. Agyei-Baffour Peter, my supervisor, for the hale and hearty
criticism, advice, instructions and useful suggestions I received from him.
My thanks also go to my parents, Mr. and Mrs. Asante, my Grandmother; Madam Felicia Adjei-
Baah, Mrs. Mary Nkrumah Asante, and to my uncle Nana Adjei Francis for their prayers and
financial support and inspiration for my education.
In addition, I wish to express my profound gratitude to Mr. Jacob Amoa, the District Director of
Ejura in the Ashanti-Region for his contribution to my research. To my lecturers, especially
Professor (Mrs.) E. A. Addey, Dr. E.A. Edusei, and Dr. Easmon Otupiri, my friends and my
course mates, I say thank you!
As for any errors, substantial or marginal which may be found in the dissertation, I am entirely
responsible for them.
8/12/2019 SUSTAINABILITY AND COST OF HOME-BASED MANAGEMENT OF MALARIA IN CHILDREN UNDER FIVE YEARS IN EJISU-J
5/129
ABSTRACT
Malaria, one of the world's most common and serious tropical diseases, causes at least one
million deaths every year. This proportion increases each year because of deteriorating health
systems, growing drug and insecticide resistance, climate change, natural disasters and armed
conflicts. In Ghana however, statistics shows that one in five childhood deaths is as a result of
malaria. The cost of treatment of malaria alone is crippling the health budget, in that in 2007
alone the cost of treating malaria amounted to about US $772 million. HBMM was introduced to
ensure prompt and effective treatment of malaria at the household level.
The potency of HBMM has been established but little was known about the cost and
sustainability of HBMM. A cross sectional study involving the use of quantitative and qualitative
surveys with caregivers, community medicine distributors (CMDs) was designed and
implemented from July-September 2010. The study involved a population sample of 500 people.
Questionnaires were administered for data collection. Data was entered and analyzed with SPSS.
Female CMDs dominated and affordability of HBMM was associated with the type of
occupation; traders could afford price range of GHp10 to GHp20 while majority of the farmers
could afford it at GHp5. Supplies and incentives to CMDs were the two key factors influencing
cost of HBMM. Cost incurred in accessing HBMM was less as compared to the one sought from
the health facilities. The study revealed that the sustainability of HBMM is bleak as the upkeep
of volunteers; their kits, incentives, communal support and ownership remained unknown.
Perceptions about who owns HBMM were mixed.
There is attrition among CMDs and could affect smooth implementation of HBMM. Delays in
supplies, unattractive CMDs incentives and cost were the barriers to the implementation and
sustainability of the HBMM. The monthly allowances giving to the CMDs compared to the
national salary wage was far less. The CMDs lose more money for being on HBMM programme
than they would have received if they were working elsewhere. Efforts should be made to
increase community ownership of HBMM, supervisory visit, improve CMDs incentives, and
early supplies of medicines and logistics in HBMM.
8/12/2019 SUSTAINABILITY AND COST OF HOME-BASED MANAGEMENT OF MALARIA IN CHILDREN UNDER FIVE YEARS IN EJISU-J
6/129
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Declaration.....ii
Dedication.....iii
Acknowledgement.............iv
Abstract..............v
Table of Contents......vi
List of Tables..............xi
Acronyms......xii
8/12/2019 SUSTAINABILITY AND COST OF HOME-BASED MANAGEMENT OF MALARIA IN CHILDREN UNDER FIVE YEARS IN EJISU-J
7/129
CHAPTER 1 Introduction...........1
1.1 Current state of knowledge..1
1.1.1 Malaria burden .........................................................................................................1
1.1.2 Home management of malaria strategy.2
1.1.4 Cost of illness.41.1.4 Cost of malaria..5
1.1.5. Cost drivers of illness and home management of malaria...6
1.1.6. Measurement of household cost of malaria.7
1.1.7. Measurement of opportunity costs of malaria..7
1.2. Problem Statement..8
1.3 Rationale of study9
1.4 Study Hypothesis10
1.5 Study Questions..10
1.6 General objective..10
1.6.1 Specific Objectives...10
1.7 Links to other studies......10
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW...12
2.0 Introduction.....12
2.1 Malaria..12
8/12/2019 SUSTAINABILITY AND COST OF HOME-BASED MANAGEMENT OF MALARIA IN CHILDREN UNDER FIVE YEARS IN EJISU-J
8/129
2.2 Malaria Control Strategies..14
2.2.1. Insecticide Treated Material.14
2.2.2. Vector Control..15
2.2.3. Home based Management of Malaria..16
2.2.4. Other Control Measure....17
2.3 Cost of Illness ......18
2.3.1. Cost of Malaria....19
2.3.2. Household Cost of Malaria.....21
2.3.3. Opportunity Cost of Malaria...22
2.3.4. Cost Drivers of Illness....23
2.3.5. Cost Drivers of HBMM......24
2.4Sustainability of Home- base management of malaria................................................25
2.5 Theoretical basis .....26
2.6 Knowledge gaps..28
CHAPTER 3 Methodology......29
3.0 Introduction.................29
3.1. Study Type 29
3.2. Study Site29
3.3. Study Population.31
3.4. Sampling ........31
3.4.1. Sampling Size..31
3.4.2. Selection of Respondents31
8/12/2019 SUSTAINABILITY AND COST OF HOME-BASED MANAGEMENT OF MALARIA IN CHILDREN UNDER FIVE YEARS IN EJISU-J
9/129
3.4.3. Study Variables...32
3.5. Data Collection ..34
3.6. Data Handling and Analysis......36
3.7. Sensitivity Analysis36
3.8 Ethical Consideration.36
3.9. Limitations 36
3.10. Outputs and application possibility..37
3.11. Dissemination of findings37
3.12. Conclusion.37
CHAPTER 4 Results.38
4.0 Introduction..38
4.1. Socio-demographics38
4.2 Household Cost of malaria..41
4.2.1. Cost incurred and time spent by caregivers at health providers facility and CMDs..45
4.2.2. Clients reaction to change in cost of treatment47
4.3 Cost Drivers..48
4.4. Sustainability of HBMM..51
4.5. Ability of CMDs...56
4.6. Sensitivity Analysis of Cost Estimates.58
4.7. Opportunity Cost of CMD...59
4.8 Inferential Statistics....60
8/12/2019 SUSTAINABILITY AND COST OF HOME-BASED MANAGEMENT OF MALARIA IN CHILDREN UNDER FIVE YEARS IN EJISU-J
10/129
CHAPTER 5 Discussions64
5.0 Introduction ..64
5.1 Socio-demographics..64
5.2 Household Cost65
5.3 Cost Drivers..67
5.4 Sustainability68
5.5 Ability of CMDs..69
5.6 Opportunity cost of CMDs..70
CHAPTER 6 Conclusions and Recommendations..........71
6.0Introduction.716.1. Conclusions....71
6.1.1. Socio-demographic..71
6.1.2. Cost Drivers.71
6.1.3. Household Cost...71
6.1.4. Sustainability72
6.1.5. Ability of the CMDs....73
6.1.6. Opportunity Cost of CMDs in HBMM73
6.2 Recommendations73
6.3. MOH/GHS and NMCP...73
6.4. MHMT and Municipal Assembly....74
6.5. Community Leaders....74
6.6. CMDs.74
6.7. Households.75
8/12/2019 SUSTAINABILITY AND COST OF HOME-BASED MANAGEMENT OF MALARIA IN CHILDREN UNDER FIVE YEARS IN EJISU-J
11/129
6.3 Concluding Remarks...75
LIST OF BIBLOGRAPHY...76
APPENDIX.. 84
8/12/2019 SUSTAINABILITY AND COST OF HOME-BASED MANAGEMENT OF MALARIA IN CHILDREN UNDER FIVE YEARS IN EJISU-J
12/129
LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES
TABLE PAGE
3.4.3.1 Logical framework/indicators32
4.1 Background Characteristics.384.2 Household Cost ......424.3Sources of treatment ....444.4Satisfaction of HBMM.444.5Cost incurred and time spent by caregivers at health facility...454.6 Clients reactions to Change in Cost of Treatment....474.7 Factors influencing Cost of HBMM...........49
4.8 Sustaining HBMM..51
4.9 Ability of the CMDs in Treatment of Malaria................56
4.10 Effect of change of cost .......58
4.11 Estimate value of Opportunity cost time of involving the CMDs59
4.12 Relationship between Cost of treatment and Educational background61
4.13. Relationship between gender and Factors that Decrease/increase the Cost of
HBMM62
FIGURE
1.1 Map of Ejisu-Juaben Municipal.. 83
8/12/2019 SUSTAINABILITY AND COST OF HOME-BASED MANAGEMENT OF MALARIA IN CHILDREN UNDER FIVE YEARS IN EJISU-J
13/129
Acronyms
ACTs Artemisinin-based Combination Therapies
CMDs Community-based Medicine Distributors
CHRPE Committee for Human Research, Publications and Ethics
DDT Dichloro-Diphenyl-Trichlorethane
FCA Friction Cost Approach
GHS Ghana Health Service
GDP Gross Domestic Product
HBMM Home Base Management of Malaria
HMM Home Management of Malaria
HCA Human Capital Approach
ITM(s) Insecticide Treated Material(s)
ITNs Insecticide Treated Nets
IPTp Intermittent Preventive Treatment in Pregnancy
IVM Integrated Vector Management
MHMT Municipal Health Management Team
MPL Marginal Product Labour
MCL Marginal Cost Labour
NMCP National Malaria Control Programme
ORS Oral Rehydration Salt
PSI Population Service International
RDT Rapid Diagnostic Testing kit
RA Rectal Artesunate
RBM Roll Back Malaria
SPSS Statistical Package for Social Sciences software
SDHT Sub-District Health Team
TDR Tropical Disease Research
VHC Village Health Committee
WHO World Health Organisation
WTP Willingness to Pay
8/12/2019 SUSTAINABILITY AND COST OF HOME-BASED MANAGEMENT OF MALARIA IN CHILDREN UNDER FIVE YEARS IN EJISU-J
14/129
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Chapter one presents the overview of the study. It starts with the current state of knowledge of
malaria and home-based management strategy, costs of illness and their measurements, the
problem statement, study objectives, and links to other studies.
1.1 Current state of knowledge
1.1.1 Malaria burden
Malaria remains one of the major public health problems worldwide, and of the estimated 400 to
900 million episodes of fever occurring yearly in African children, probably about half are due to
malaria, resulting in over one million deaths. However, the proportion of deaths due to malaria
varies widely with malaria transmission (Heidi et al, 2007). According to Kiszewski et al (2007),
malaria remains the most vital in the global health morbidity and mortality debates, and the
number one public health problem in most endemic areas. However, access to effective
interventions that reduce death and illness from malaria is still problematic in most malaria
endemic countries.
The World Health Assembly in 2005 urged Member States to establish policies and operational
plans to ensure that at least 80% of those at risk of or suffering from malaria benefit by 2010
from major preventive and curative interventions. This would ensure a reduction in the burden of
malaria of at least 50% by 2010 and 75% by 2015. Kiszewski, et al (2007) estimated US$ 38 to
45 billion for the period 2006-2015 as the global resource requirement to achieve this goal. The
8/12/2019 SUSTAINABILITY AND COST OF HOME-BASED MANAGEMENT OF MALARIA IN CHILDREN UNDER FIVE YEARS IN EJISU-J
15/129
average annual costs for Africa as well as its exterior was about US$ 1.7-2.2 billion and cost was
US$ 2.1- 2.4 billion per year.
The extensive disparity seen in the burden of malaria between different regions of the world is driven
by several factors. First, there is great variation in parasitevectorhuman transmission dynamics that
favour or limit the transmission of malaria infection and the associated risk of disease and death. The
second factor is climatic variation. While the tropical humid climate favours the bleeding and survival
of mosquitoes, this does not happen in the temperate regions. For instance, the most competent and
efficient malaria vector, Anopheles gambiae,occurs exclusively in Africa and is also one of the most
difficult to control.
Climatic conditions determine the presence or absence of anopheles vectors. Tropical areas of the
world have the best combination of adequate rainfall, temperature and humidity allowing for breeding
and survival of anopheles. Malaria control strategies vary in both methods and content. The methods
range from vector control (spraying, larviciding, ITNs) through personal to case management at the
health facility and household level. The strength of HBMM lies in the control of malaria at latter level
(Kiszewski, et al., 2007).
1.1.2 Home-based management of malaria strategy
Home-based management of malaria (HBMM) is promoted as a major strategy to improve
prompt delivery of effective malaria treatment in Africa. HBMM involves presumptively treating
febrile children with pre-packaged antimalarial drugs distributed by members of the community.
Several African countries have implemented HBMM with artemisinin-based combination
therapies (ACTs) therefore ACT is likely to be introduced into these programmes on a wide scale
8/12/2019 SUSTAINABILITY AND COST OF HOME-BASED MANAGEMENT OF MALARIA IN CHILDREN UNDER FIVE YEARS IN EJISU-J
16/129
(Heidi et al, 2007). There are four main components of HBMM. One, ensuring that there is an
effective communication strategy for behaviour change to enable caretakers to recognize malaria
illness early and take an appropriate action. Secondly, ensuring that CMDs have the necessary
skills and knowledge to manage malaria fever cases and thirdly, ensuring availability and access
to effective good quality preferably pre-packed antimalarial medicines at the community level
close to the home as possible and lastly, ensuring a good mechanism for supervision and
monitoring of the community activities (RBM/ WHO, 2004).
The use of well-trained community health workers to provide prompt and adequate care to
patients closer to their homes is the main thrust of the strategy of home-based management of
malaria. The strategy was showed to reduce malaria mortality and severe morbidity and was
adopted by the World Health Organization as a cornerstone of malaria control in Africa
(RBM/WHO, 2004). In addition Samba (2001), indicated that, home based management of
malaria strategy was used in the communities of Nigeria, Uganda, Ghana, and Kenya to manage
malaria. In most African and other malaria endemic countries of which Ghana is part, most
malaria cases is managed at the household level lately and inappropriately. In Ghana and most
African countries, when children are sick, heads of households, friends as well as relatives are
consulted on the type and dosage of medicine to give; this is a common practise among
households. These activities not only lengthen the delay in seeking medication but they also are
recipes of mistreatment.
In most cases, after the initial therapy has failed, caregivers seek treatment from pharmacist or
licensed chemical seller (registered suppliers of specified over-the-counter-medicines) in the
8/12/2019 SUSTAINABILITY AND COST OF HOME-BASED MANAGEMENT OF MALARIA IN CHILDREN UNDER FIVE YEARS IN EJISU-J
17/129
community. As a result, uncomplicated cases turn out to be severe. Children with severe malaria
are then rushed to the hospital and based on the facilities and the technical know-how of the staff
available, the child fate would be determined (Samba, 2001). According to Browne et al. (2006),
home-based management of malaria is feasible and acceptable with the use of artemisinin-based
combination therapies (ACTs). On the other hand, according to DAlessandro et al. (2005), the
household management of malaria was often inadequate, inappropriate and ineffective, and may
lead to drug resistance. The caregivers readiness to use varying methods in seeking care could
be from proximity, previous experience, and cost of care.
1.1.3 Cost of illness
Microsoft Encarta (2007) explains cost as the total expenditure incurred in the normal course of a
business in bringing a product or service to its current location or condition. Cost in this context
explains the expenditure incurred in receiving and providing care. With reference to Hanson
(2002), the genuine cost of an illness was the personal cost ofacute orchronic diseases. The cost
of illness might be an economic, social,or psychological cost or loss to the patient, family,or
community. A comprehensive cost-of-illness includes both financial and economic costs,
although the specific focus of the study might make one or the other unnecessary. Financial costs
measures the monetary value of resources used for treating a particular illness, whereas
economic cost measures both financial and the value of resources forgone due to a particular
illness.
According to Hanson (2002), the financial cost is the cost of resources used rather than net a
direct cost which subtracts the future medical costs avoided because of the death of a patient
from total costs. Such costs include hospital in-patient, and outpatient, emergency department
http://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/cgi-bin/omd?acutehttp://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/cgi-bin/omd?chronic+diseasehttp://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/cgi-bin/omd?socialhttp://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/cgi-bin/omd?psychologicalhttp://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/cgi-bin/omd?familyhttp://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/cgi-bin/omd?communityhttp://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/cgi-bin/omd?communityhttp://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/cgi-bin/omd?familyhttp://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/cgi-bin/omd?psychologicalhttp://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/cgi-bin/omd?socialhttp://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/cgi-bin/omd?chronic+diseasehttp://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/cgi-bin/omd?acute8/12/2019 SUSTAINABILITY AND COST OF HOME-BASED MANAGEMENT OF MALARIA IN CHILDREN UNDER FIVE YEARS IN EJISU-J
18/129
outpatient, and nursing home care. Others include rehabilitation care, health professionals care,
diagnostic tests, prescription drugs, drug sundries, and medical supplies. In addition, the cost of
illness may include intangible costs of pain and suffering, usually in the form of quality of life
measures. This category of costs was omitted because of the difficulty in accurately quantifying
it in monetary terms.
Also Joel (2006), emphasises that economic cost includes, mortality costs; morbidity costs due
to absenteeism, informal care costs; in terms of the cost of hiring outside care and, for the few
relevant cases such as substance use or violence. The cost of illness may be reflected in
absenteeism,productivity,response totreatment,peace ofmind,quality of life among others. In
considering the ideas of both Joel (2006) and Hanson (2002), cost of illness differs fromhealth
care costs.Thus, cost in health care is restricted to providingservices related to thedelivery of
health care rather than animpact on the personallife of the patient.
1.1.4 Cost of malaria
Malaria constitutes for 10% of Africas disease burden generally and estimates to cost the
continent over $12 billion every twelve months (WHO/RBM, 2001). Over one-third of clinical
malaria cases occur in Asia as well as 3% occurs in the America. WHO/RBM (2001) revealed
the estimated cost to effective control of malaria in the 82 countries with the highest burden to be
about $3.2 billion every twelve months. In Ghana however, statistics show that one in five
childhood deaths result from malaria. With this, it could be confirmed that the health budget was
affected by the cost of treatment. For example, in 2007, the cost of treating malaria was about US
$772 million in Ghana (Quashigah, 2007).
http://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/cgi-bin/omd?illnesshttp://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/cgi-bin/omd?absenteeismhttp://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/cgi-bin/omd?productivityhttp://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/cgi-bin/omd?responsehttp://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/cgi-bin/omd?treatmenthttp://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/cgi-bin/omd?peacehttp://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/cgi-bin/omd?mindhttp://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/cgi-bin/omd?quality+of+lifehttp://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/cgi-bin/omd?differshttp://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/cgi-bin/omd?health+care+costshttp://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/cgi-bin/omd?health+care+costshttp://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/cgi-bin/omd?serviceshttp://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/cgi-bin/omd?relatedhttp://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/cgi-bin/omd?delivery+of+health+carehttp://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/cgi-bin/omd?delivery+of+health+carehttp://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/cgi-bin/omd?impacthttp://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/cgi-bin/omd?lifehttp://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/cgi-bin/omd?lifehttp://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/cgi-bin/omd?impacthttp://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/cgi-bin/omd?delivery+of+health+carehttp://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/cgi-bin/omd?delivery+of+health+carehttp://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/cgi-bin/omd?relatedhttp://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/cgi-bin/omd?serviceshttp://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/cgi-bin/omd?health+care+costshttp://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/cgi-bin/omd?health+care+costshttp://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/cgi-bin/omd?differshttp://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/cgi-bin/omd?quality+of+lifehttp://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/cgi-bin/omd?mindhttp://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/cgi-bin/omd?peacehttp://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/cgi-bin/omd?treatmenthttp://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/cgi-bin/omd?responsehttp://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/cgi-bin/omd?productivityhttp://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/cgi-bin/omd?absenteeismhttp://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/cgi-bin/omd?illness8/12/2019 SUSTAINABILITY AND COST OF HOME-BASED MANAGEMENT OF MALARIA IN CHILDREN UNDER FIVE YEARS IN EJISU-J
19/129
In support, the WHO/RBM (2001) and WHO/RBM/UNICEF, (2005) revealed that, economists
estimated malaria to be responsible for a growth penalty of up to 1.3% per year in most African
countries in lots of Gross Domestic Product. Malaria also accounts for 40% of public health
expenditure. The financial and economic costs at household level range from US$2 to $25 for
treatment and $0.2 and $15 for prevention per every four weeks. The WHO (2007) and Akazili
(2002) described this as unaffordable for the rural and poor population communities.
Malaria was considered a cause of poverty in most African communities (WHO/RBM, 2003).
Thus, resources needed for development was drained out by the cost related with malaria. This
cost burden of malaria was not only high at the global level but also at the household level, hence
barriers to access of good health care. Goodman et al. (2000), Akazili (2002) and Hanson et al
(2004), revealed this. Again, they revealed that, malaria has been recently shown to be a key
constraint to economic development and has an important measurable financial and economic
cost. The financial cost of malaria includes a combination of personal and public expenditures on
both prevention and treatment of the disease. Personal expenditures include individual or family
spending on insecticide treated mosquito nets (ITNs), doctors fees, anti-malarial drugs, transport
to health facilities, and support for the patient and sometimes an accompanying family member
during hospital stays. Public expenditures according to Scholte (2005) include spending by
government on maintaining health facilities, health care infrastructure, publicly managed vector
control, education and research. It is important to note that the magnitude of cost depends
largely on the type and content of malaria control strategy. Thus, the cost associated with
8/12/2019 SUSTAINABILITY AND COST OF HOME-BASED MANAGEMENT OF MALARIA IN CHILDREN UNDER FIVE YEARS IN EJISU-J
20/129
insecticide treated nets (ITNs) might be different from that associated with home-based
management.
1.1.5 Cost drivers of illness and home-based management of malaria
All inclusively, various factors pressurise the cost of illness as well as cost in home-based
management of malaria. Such factors may include, lack of insight by clinicians into test prices,
lack of transparency into test costing and cross subsidization, unnecessary testing, active and
passive providers. Others include, supplies, distance, type of health facility, type of treatment,
and severity of condition, Also, the waiting time, food, diagnostic tests, prescription drugs and
drug sundries, rate of mortality and morbidity (Joel, 2006).
Hundreds of health economists, researchers, policy analysts, and others have spent tremendous
amount of energy on the issue of the rising cost of health care and equally challenging issue of
how to pay for it. Guest (1997) emphasizes that, it is impossible to consider individual cost
drivers in isolation. Many factors impact each component of the health care delivery system and
a shift in one area necessitates variation in another. According to her, researches have uncovered
a range of possible influences on rising costs.
1.1.6 Measurement of household cost of malaria
Time and cost are the terms which may be used in measuring household costs in association to
malaria. There was an effect on families if the household cost of malaria was negative. The idea
of Bloom et al., (2000) as well as Sauerborn et al (1996) showed that, the interactions between
household and healthcare providers and ensuing costs associated were not only the central
8/12/2019 SUSTAINABILITY AND COST OF HOME-BASED MANAGEMENT OF MALARIA IN CHILDREN UNDER FIVE YEARS IN EJISU-J
21/129
determinant of demand for health. In addition, they were essential in the performance of
healthcare interventions, mainly coverage; prompt access, and equity dimensions in demand and
supply of healthcare analysis. A well known issue was the implication of costs of illness on
demand for healthcare among the poor.
Again research debaters like Bloom et al (2000) and Sauerborn et al (1996) recognized that
household costs limit access to quality healthcare and at the same time encourage exploitation of
inappropriate healthcare. Averagely, family unit incurred a total cost of 318 (US$) per patient
who fully recovered from `malaria, 24% of this was direct cost and 44% economic costs for the
patient as well as 32% economic cost.
1.1.7 Measurement of opportunity costs of malaria
Opportunity cost or economic cost, the most frequent words economists use in describing
the forgone alternative. The use of opportunity cost approach could usually be seen as preferable
to other approaches. This gives a true sense of the economic costs of the disease hypothetically.
From the books of Hodgson et al (1982, 2003), opportunity cost defines the value of the forgone
opportunity to use in a different way those resources that are used or forgone due to illness.
However, measuring opportunity cost of an illness was not an easy assignment but estimation of
the lost productivity attributable to the illness was the most difficult issues. Thus, the human
capital methodology, Gross National Product per capita or wage rates were used to estimate
productivity loss resulting from morbidity and mortality.
Nevertheless, Kamrul (2000) and Agyei-Baffour (2008) indicated in their study that, in the case
of wage rates it was frequently revealed that imperfections occur in the labour market so that a
8/12/2019 SUSTAINABILITY AND COST OF HOME-BASED MANAGEMENT OF MALARIA IN CHILDREN UNDER FIVE YEARS IN EJISU-J
22/129
persons earnings differ from the actual value of ones output or productivity. Consequently,
wages might not be a good measure to be used in estimating productivity losses, in a developing
country where their labour market was not all that developed. Estimating the foregone income
which might be due to mortality may have serious technical problems. To Kamrul (2000), the
capitalized value of lost wages, associated with the inward shift of the labour supply curve was
appraised by using the human capital method. To add to this, the costs of grief and distress were
evaluated by using this method. Once more, opportunity cost associated itself with forgone
opportunities. For instance, the opportunity cost of a hospital stay would be the value of the
productive and or leisure time lost during the hospital stay.
1.2 Problem Statement
Lately, several reports have appeared in the Ghanaian media on the prevalence of malaria in Africa
(WHO/RBM, 2003). The high cost associated with malaria in Africa was a drain on its resources
needed for development. There was significant negative association between malaria morbidity and the
growth rate of GDP per capita which was a robust to a number of modifications, including controlling
for reverse causation (WHO/RBM, 2003). Majority of symptomatic infections were treated at home.
Given that most cases of malaria were treated at home, the home-based management of malaria
(HBMM) strategy is effective for early treatment. About 50-70%, childhood deaths occurred without
contact with the public health services. Majority of children who die from malaria do so within 48
hours of illness; referral to the health care facility could take several hours (MOH, 2004). HBMM was
a relief, since it led to 53% reduction in severe malaria lately.
8/12/2019 SUSTAINABILITY AND COST OF HOME-BASED MANAGEMENT OF MALARIA IN CHILDREN UNDER FIVE YEARS IN EJISU-J
23/129
Furthermore, the National Malaria Control Programme (NMCP) of the Ghana Health Service (GHS)
has identified the disease as a drain on productivity (MOH, 2004). There is enough evidence to suggest
that, malaria is a cause of poverty (MOH, 2004). Consequently, costs associated with malaria treatment
and diagnosing limits access to and widen inequalities among rural communities. Majority of
caregivers living in the rural areas lived in poverty. In that, costs of healthcare including malaria
interventions are prohibitive. They resort to informal source of care, the quality of which is not been
guaranteed (MOH, 2004).
This leads to inappropriate and late treatment of malaria, hence increase in deaths. The effect of costs
related to malaria do not only fall on the sick, but it also falls on the other members of the household
(on accompanying, and members who care for the sick and or accompany them to get treatment), an
well as other members who depend on the resources for survival. Therefore large scale implementation
of home-based management of malaria interventions to reach many people is timely but there is the
need to critically assess costs and its sustainability of the package to inform the programme.
1.3. Rationale of Study
It has been established that, most deaths associated with malaria occur at home and that if
caregivers have prompt access to appropriate medications, these deaths could be averted.
Therefore, proven efficacious malaria control strategy such as home-based management of
malaria needs to be scaled up to improve access. The Ghana Health Service has started a nation-
wide home-based management of malaria implementation. Therefore, the need to investigate into
sustainability and cost issues of HBMM to inform policy becomes paramount. The study was
8/12/2019 SUSTAINABILITY AND COST OF HOME-BASED MANAGEMENT OF MALARIA IN CHILDREN UNDER FIVE YEARS IN EJISU-J
24/129
designed to measure the cost and sustainability of home-based management of malaria in the
Ejisu-Juaben of Ghana.
1.4 Study Hypothesis
The following working hypotheses guided the study:
1. Cost drivers of the treatment package for HBMM increase or decrease the cost of treatment of
malaria.
2. The affordability of HBMM is related to caregivers occupation.
1.5 Study Questions
1. What are the cost drivers of home management of malaria?
2. What is the household cost under home management of malaria?
3. What are the problems associated with the sustainability of HBMM?
1.6 General objective
To measure the cost and assess the sustainability of home based management of malaria in the
Ejisu-Juaben of Ghana (HBMM+).
1.6.1 Specific Objectives
O1. To identify cost drivers in integrated package for home management of malaria at household
level.
O2. To measure the household cost in seeking care in home management of malaria.
O3. To assess whether or not HBMM is sustainable.
O4. To assess the ability of CMDs to prescribe medicines in HBMM.
5. To estimate the opportunity costs of CMDs and health providers in HBMM.
8/12/2019 SUSTAINABILITY AND COST OF HOME-BASED MANAGEMENT OF MALARIA IN CHILDREN UNDER FIVE YEARS IN EJISU-J
25/129
1.7 Links to other studies
In substance, the study was a sub-study and an improvement of already completed and ongoing
home management studies; Feasibility and acceptability of a package for home diagnosis and
management of uncomplicated and severe malaria in rural Ghana, Feasibility, acceptability, costs
and policy contextual issues in home management of malaria in children aged 6 59 months in
the city of Kumasi, Ghana(TDR Project No. A50450) and Access, use and cost implications
for equity of home management of malaria in rural Ghana (PhD Research) all completed.
8/12/2019 SUSTAINABILITY AND COST OF HOME-BASED MANAGEMENT OF MALARIA IN CHILDREN UNDER FIVE YEARS IN EJISU-J
26/129
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0. Introduction
This chapter highlights the various ideas and experiences of other works done by researchers in
the subject matter. It also assesses the linkages between studies across settings and domains.
Finally, the chapter evaluates past research and shows knowledge gaps.
2.1. Malaria
The Microsoft Encarta (2007) defined malaria as a tropical disease characterized by fever,
anaemia, spleenomegaly and excessive sweating. Again, malaria explains
the debilitating infectious disease characterized by chills, shaking and periodic bouts of intense
fever (Glover, 1993). Worldwide, there are about 300500 million episodes of clinical malarial
each year, resulting in over a million deaths. Over 90% of these deaths occur in Africa south of
the Sahara, and almost all of them were in children. Effectual interventions against malaria were
in existence, hitherto the burdens continue due to the fact that most people at risk of malaria were
poor and ignorant of interventions. In addition, lack of education, information, and access to
effective interventions had affected the success of Roll Back Malaria (RBM) programmes,
especially among the poor, and in poorer countries (RBM/WHO, 2004).
As of 2004, 107 countries and territories had reported areas at risk of malaria transmission.
Although this number was considerably less than in the 1950s with 140 endemic countries or
8/12/2019 SUSTAINABILITY AND COST OF HOME-BASED MANAGEMENT OF MALARIA IN CHILDREN UNDER FIVE YEARS IN EJISU-J
27/129
territories, 3.2 billion people were still at risk. Presently, around 350500 million clinical
malarial episodes occur annually. Around 60% of these cases are clinical malaria and over 80%
of the deaths occur in Africa. More than one million Africans die from malaria each year most
are children under 5 years of age. In addition to acute disease episodes and deaths in Africa,
malaria also contributes significantly to anaemia in children and pregnant women, adverse birth
outcomes such as spontaneous abortion, stillbirth, premature delivery and low birth weight, and
overall child mortality. The disease estimated to be responsible for an estimated average annual
reduction of 1.3% in economic growth for those countries with the highest burden (RBM/WHO,
2004).
There was great variation in parasitevectorhuman transmission dynamics that favour or limit
the transmission of malaria infection and the associated risk of disease and death. Of the four
species of Plasmodium that infect humansP. falciparum,P. vivax,P. malariaeandP. ovale
P. falciparumcauses most of the severe disease and deaths attributable to malaria and was most
prevalent in Africa south of the Sahara and in certain areas of South- East Asia and the Western
Pacific (WMR, 2005). There was significant negative association between malaria morbidity and
the growth rate of GDP per capita which was a robust to a number of modifications, including
controlling for reverse causation. The estimated negative impact of malaria 0.55% in Sub-
Saharan Africa was the average annual growth (RBM, 2001; UN, 2005).
The economic growth in GDP in malaria endemic countries was slow and was accounting for the
widening prosperity gap between countries with malaria and without malaria (WHO/RBM,
2003). Malaney, et al (2004) and Hanson, et al (2004) indicated that, the consequential might
8/12/2019 SUSTAINABILITY AND COST OF HOME-BASED MANAGEMENT OF MALARIA IN CHILDREN UNDER FIVE YEARS IN EJISU-J
28/129
comprise of high morbidity and mortality, low productivity, low foreign investment (this was
because investors may be scared to work in countries in endemic with malaria). For instance, the
effects on the socio-economic expansion in a malaria endemic country like Ghana were
shattering. Malaria management should be at the head of their development agenda if fewer
developing countries want to virtually accomplish their developmental objectives.
2.2 Malaria Control Strategies
The Ministerial Conference on Malaria in Amsterdam adopted the global Malaria Control Strategy in
1992. Plans of action for its implementation were updated in 1995. In 1994, the United Nations
General Assembly invited WHO, as the lead agency in this field, to promote international mobilization
of technical, medical and financial assistance to intensify the struggle against malaria. Some of the
control priorities were development of global and regional goals and strategies, provision of guidelines
and standards, technical assistance to countries, and development of training programmes (WHO,
2004).
2.2.1. Insecticide Treated Materials
Insecticide treated nets are the treated household materials use in protecting against mosquitoes
and invariably malaria. "Provision of insecticide-treated materials (ITMs) was universally
accepted as an efficacious and essential public health services (Scholte, 2005). Ghana had seen a
significant increase in ITMs use over the past five years (Scholte, 2005). ITMs used in children
under five years increased from 3.5% in 2003 (DHS) to 22% in 2006 (MICS). ITMs used in
pregnant women increased from 3.3% in 2003 (DHS) to 46.5% in August 2006 (GFATM survey
in focus Municipal assemblies). The MOH applies different models for ITM distribution
8/12/2019 SUSTAINABILITY AND COST OF HOME-BASED MANAGEMENT OF MALARIA IN CHILDREN UNDER FIVE YEARS IN EJISU-J
29/129
including free net distribution, net subsidization, and commercial market access as well as
promotion. Seven different ITM brands in a variety of shapes, colours and styles were registered
in Ghana. The NMCP formulated an ITM policy in May 2002, which was updated in April 2007.
The updated policy states that Distribution of insecticide-treated materials (ITMs) in Ghana
takes into consideration the need to improve access to vulnerable groups while at the same time
creates an incentive for the private sector involvement to ensure sustainability. A dual approach
was therefore
using to distribute ITMs in Ghana and sale of ITMs at full commercial cost. These were
distributed through multiple retail outlets to ensure increased availability to these products and
sale at subsidized prices to persons in the target population (children under five and pregnant
women) who cannot afford the full cost of ITMs (WHO, 2004).
2.2.2. Vector Control
The Health and Safety code defined a vector as "any animal capable of transmitting the causative
agent of human disease or capable of producing human discomfort or injury, including, but not
limited to, mosquitoes, flies, other insects, ticks, mites, and rats, but not including any domestic
animal"(MacDonald, 1957). WHO recommended a systematic approach to vector control based
on evidence and knowledge of the local situation. This approach was called the integrated vector
management (IVM). Vector control aimed to decrease contacts between humans and vectors of
human disease. Vector control remained the most generally effective measure to prevent malaria
transmission and therefore is one of the four basic technical elements of the Global Malaria
Control Strategy.
8/12/2019 SUSTAINABILITY AND COST OF HOME-BASED MANAGEMENT OF MALARIA IN CHILDREN UNDER FIVE YEARS IN EJISU-J
30/129
The principal objective of vector control was the reduction of malaria morbidity and mortality by
reducing the levels of transmission. The choice of vector control would depend on the magnitude
of the malaria burden, the feasibility of timely and correct application of the required
interventions and the possibility of sustaining the resulting modified epidemiological situation.
Control of mosquitoes might prevent malaria as well as several other mosquito-borne diseases.
There were four basic technical elements to the strategy. The first element was to provide drugs
and treatment to those infected. Second was to implement sustainable and effective preventive
measures which included vector control. Knowing that, these measures are difficult and costly.
Hence, it is important to be quite selective. The third one was to prevent or detect and contain
epidemics in high-risk areas. The fourth was to strengthen local capacities in research and
development.
To do this we need effective vector control, which defines as the application of targeted site-
specific activities that are cost-effective. There were some concerns about the environment,
which needed some consideration. We therefore need an environmentally sustainable method for
vector control aimed at reducing reliance on chemical insecticides and involving intersectional
collaboration. According to MacDonald (1957), environmental control could used to prevent
breeding, nesting, and feeding of vectors by source reduction and even through better housing,
windows, doors, screening. Environmental changes from road, dam, or pipeline construction,
deforestation, agriculture, and irrigation could generate larval breeding sites. Environmental
control was mostly be used in urban and peri-urban areas, and mostly required community
participation and intersectoral collaboration (Caldas, 2004).
8/12/2019 SUSTAINABILITY AND COST OF HOME-BASED MANAGEMENT OF MALARIA IN CHILDREN UNDER FIVE YEARS IN EJISU-J
31/129
2.2.3. Home-Based Management of Malaria
Home-Based Management of Malaria (HBMM) is one of the key strategies to reduce the burden of
malaria for vulnerable population in endemic countries. The role of home-based management of
malaria can help in reducing the deaths of over one million children annually (WHO, 2003). In April
2000, the African heads of state committed their governments that by the year 2005, 60% of malaria
episodes should be treating within 24 hours of onset of symptom. A strong healthcare delivery system
would ideally provide early reliable diagnosis and appropriate prompt effective treatment. However, in
most malaria-endemic countries access to curative and diagnostic services is limited.
Early effective appropriate treatment was a key RBM strategy and based on the widespread recognition
that untreated Plasmodium. falciparum malaria contributed to both directly and indirectly to death,
particularly in the non-immune. According to Marsh (1999), other benefits of early treatment include
reduction of malaria associated with anaemia, reduction in debilitation and the days off work or school
leading to increased school attendance, productivity and hence economic growth (RBM, 2004).
Furthermore, as treatment removes the infected person from the reservoir of infection, it postulated that
early and effective treatment with Artemesinin-based combination therapy (ACTs) might also have an
impact on malaria transmission as has been shown in areas of unstable malaria.
The implementation of HBMM programme requires detailed preparation including a situation analysis,
setting objectives, in-depth planning, strategy development, effective advocacy and building
partnerships at all levels. Critical decisions was needed on such aspects as what and how to scale up,
which community cadres to be trained as providers, engaging communities, policy issues on medicines
and pre-packaging and financial access, cost and pricing, drug procurement and distribution, and
programme monitoring. These issues place heavy demands on resources, planning and management,
8/12/2019 SUSTAINABILITY AND COST OF HOME-BASED MANAGEMENT OF MALARIA IN CHILDREN UNDER FIVE YEARS IN EJISU-J
32/129
and require intensive support from the public health services, particularly from the peripheral health
facilities (Ansah, 2001).
2.2.4. Other Control Measures
The strategy broadly suggests de-emphasis on vector control and renewed emphasis on case
treatment, early diagnosis and treatment; prevention of deaths; promotion of personal protection
measures like the use of ITMs; epidemic forecasting, early detection and control; monitoring,
evaluation and operative research and integration of activity in Primary Health Centres were the
salient aspects of this strategy (WHO, 2004). In fact, early detection and treatment of the disease
itself was enough to control this epidemic in its early stages. By this, the parasite load in the
community would reduce, thereby reducing the transmission of the disease. Presumptive
treatment of all cases of fever is very important. Tests for malaria parasite were done in all cases
of fever, and presumptive treatment with first full dose of chloroquine should be administered
(Parsad, 2003).
According to Russell (1934), personal protection was another way to control malaria. Man
should be encouraged to protect himself against malaria. Personal protection measures include
protection against mosquito bites and chemoprophylaxis against malaria. People living in
endemic areas as well as travellers to such areas should be educated and encouraged to use
protective measures against mosquito bites. These included closing the doors and windows in the
evenings to prevent entry of mosquitoes into human dwellings, using mosquito repellent lotions,
creams, mats or coils and regular use of bed nets. Using bed nets was one of the safest methods
of preventing and controlling malaria. Now Insecticide Treated Bed nets were available and were
8/12/2019 SUSTAINABILITY AND COST OF HOME-BASED MANAGEMENT OF MALARIA IN CHILDREN UNDER FIVE YEARS IN EJISU-J
33/129
8/12/2019 SUSTAINABILITY AND COST OF HOME-BASED MANAGEMENT OF MALARIA IN CHILDREN UNDER FIVE YEARS IN EJISU-J
34/129
informal care costs (in terms of the violence, losses due to crime, example incarceration,
policing, legal, and costs to victims of crime). The economic cost again looked at lost
productivity or income associated with illness or death. This might expressed as the cost of lost
workdays or absenteeism from formal employment and the value of unpaid work done in the
home by both men and women.
In the case of death, the economic cost included the discounted future lifetime earnings of those
who die (Collette, 1994). Malaria had a greater impact on Africa's human resources than simple
lost earnings. Although difficult to express in dollar terms, another cost of malaria was the
human pain and suffering caused by the disease. Malaria also hampers children's schooling and
social development through both absenteeism and permanent neurological and other damage
associated with severe episodes of the disease.
2.3.1. Cost of Malaria
Malaria mortality and morbidity had been experimental to slow up economic enlargement by
dropping the aptitude and competence of a countrys labour force. This have revealed through
macroeconomic perspective. In Gallup and Sachs (2001) cross-country econometric assessment
of the effects of malaria on national income specified that countries with considerable level of
malaria grew 1.3% less per person per year for the period 1965 - 1990. Their studies too
established that, 10% decrease in malaria was linked with 0.3% higher growth in the economy.
In the books of Gallup and Sachs (2001) there was an indication that, a similar study exploited
the impact of macro policy variables on malaria morbidity across countries and the importance of
indirect effects of malaria on total factor productivity, McGuire (2000), found a negative
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V8K-447N1RD-1&_user=6447644&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000034378&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=6447644&md5=9d14f0810c0db517101aad56512f3c9f#bbib35#bbib35http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V8K-447N1RD-1&_user=6447644&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000034378&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=6447644&md5=9d14f0810c0db517101aad56512f3c9f#bbib35#bbib358/12/2019 SUSTAINABILITY AND COST OF HOME-BASED MANAGEMENT OF MALARIA IN CHILDREN UNDER FIVE YEARS IN EJISU-J
35/129
association between higher malaria morbidity and GDP per capita growth rate. Most of the Sub-
Saharan African countries used in the study incurred an average annual growth reduction of
0.55%. Again, Sachs and Malaney (2002) have also experimented that areas where malaria
flourishes, the inhabitants are not able to accomplish their ultimate wants of life. The financial
cost of illness to the household was an exercise which was obtained through recalls hence this
doesnt create any debate or argument. However, this was not simple in terms of the direct costs
of a specific disease with reference to the health system. Some costs were combined by some
activities which make the assessment of the institutional cost of a specific disease difficult with
regards to the nature of the health system. The health system provides general treatment and
therefore malaria-related expenditures were often not separated from other health service costs in
budgeting and accounting systems.
Documenting the exact inputs required to treatment or prevention of a disease can be the best
approach to the estimation of the institutional cost but this could be complicated and also be
difficult. The above could contribute to the ideas of Drummond et al (1987). With reference to
Drummond et al (1987), the joint costs were calculated among the various services by
monitoring the total costs and allocating them using morbidity facts. According to Creese et al
(1994), for personnel costs was the fraction of time spent by staff dedicated to a disease of
interest was observed and measured for the proportional calculation of the cost to the disease.
The resources that were been spent straight or not directly by a variety of institutions like local
governments, Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) and communities might be included in
the financial cost.
8/12/2019 SUSTAINABILITY AND COST OF HOME-BASED MANAGEMENT OF MALARIA IN CHILDREN UNDER FIVE YEARS IN EJISU-J
36/129
An individual may stop work or work incompletely as a result of the weakness associated with
the disease on temporary bases during the period of the sickness. When it happens this way,
household production would be greatly be influence negatively. Sometimes, a member of the
household has to leave his or her duties to make available for the sick. Indirectly, cost was
incurred in terms of a turn down in output hence this showed a loss of productivity. This was not
an outof - pocket payment but the opportunity cost of both market and non-market productive
time lost to the household. Through the human capital approach, the indirect cost of illness was
approximated. The worth of lost productivity as a result of illness and premature mortality was
considered by the human capital approach. This was footed on the claim of "neo-classical"
market oriented economic ideologies. Within the opportunity cost framework, the human capital
approach is applied. This is the essential concept in market economics (McGuire,2000).
To McGuire (2000), there was an equation between the worth of time lost and the earnings
people could have earned if they were not ill. The human capital approach applied the forgone
wages to estimate lost productivity. The opportunity cost of time was evaluated as the marginal
cost of labour. In support of the above, Bradely (2004) gave a scenario that in subsistence
agriculture with easily availability of land, labour was by far the most important input variable to
production. Because of this, the marginal product of labour (MPL) approximated the marginal
cost of labour (MCL).
In a perfect market economy, the marginal product of labour was equal to the worker's earnings
per day on the particular job at which he/she was working. This was however not likely to be so
due to the imperfections in the market especially in the economies of developing countries. For
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V8K-447N1RD-1&_user=6447644&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000034378&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=6447644&md5=9d14f0810c0db517101aad56512f3c9f#bbib35#bbib35http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V8K-447N1RD-1&_user=6447644&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000034378&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=6447644&md5=9d14f0810c0db517101aad56512f3c9f#bbib35#bbib35http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V8K-447N1RD-1&_user=6447644&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000034378&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=6447644&md5=9d14f0810c0db517101aad56512f3c9f#bbib35#bbib35http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V8K-447N1RD-1&_user=6447644&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000034378&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=6447644&md5=9d14f0810c0db517101aad56512f3c9f#bbib35#bbib358/12/2019 SUSTAINABILITY AND COST OF HOME-BASED MANAGEMENT OF MALARIA IN CHILDREN UNDER FIVE YEARS IN EJISU-J
37/129
this reason, various proxies were used to value the marginal product of labour. According to
Mills (2004) the methods that was used to appraise the lost productive time was varied and
include average agricultural wage, salaries, marginal productivity calculated from a Cobb-
Douglas production function, income per capita, legislated minimum wage among others.
2.3.2. Household Cost of Malaria
According to these researchers (Goodman et al, (2000), Akazili, (2002) and Hanson et al, (2004))
the economic burden of malaria was not high at the worldwide, but it was seen greatly in the
various household and this was the barrier to accessing health care as stated earlier. Lots of
studies on malaria management are throwing more light on the importance of wealth position on
malaria burden as well as access to treatment and prevention actions. In other studies, they value
and measured economic cost basis on output or income losses incurred in the household rather
than using a general indicator such as average wage rate. Loss of output and wages accounted for
the highest proportion of the economic cost of the patients as well as the households.
Relative to children, more young adults and middle-aged people had `malaria' which also caused
greater economic loss in these age groups. Women tended to care for patients rather than
substitute their labour to cover productive work lost due to illness. Comparing the methods used
by other researchers for valuing economic cost, demonstrating the significant impact that
methods of measurement and valuation could have on the estimation of economic cost, and
justify the recommendation for methodological research in this area (Lipsey, 1994).
8/12/2019 SUSTAINABILITY AND COST OF HOME-BASED MANAGEMENT OF MALARIA IN CHILDREN UNDER FIVE YEARS IN EJISU-J
38/129
2.3.3. Opportunity Cost of Malaria
The forgone alternative of lost fruitful labour time as result of illness compels costs burden on
household. During that time of illness, the ability to make enough income declines, hence
households find it difficult meeting the needs and expenses of medical resources. Time spent
seeking treatment by the children as well as their caregiver, the morbidity time during which the
children or caregiver stops or minimise their daily activities, and the cost of mortality in terms of
the number of year they would have spent forms of opportunity cost. As the opportunity costs
moves run the households it affect them economically too. Thus, there is economic implication
in the households as well as the nation as a whole (Chima et al., 2003). In Chima books, an
example was made in a study on schistosomiasis, the implications of the serious sequelae of
urinary schistosomiasis such as renal failures, bladder cancer, and infertility, can trigger
borrowing asset, sales or withdrawal of children from school, responses which have long term
income earning implications. This was to support the above statements.
Coping strategies was defined as a set of actions that aim to manage the costs of an event or
process that threatens the welfare of a number of the household members, this was revealed in
the books of Sauerborn et al (1996). The following were all forms of strategies to cope with the
costs of illness, making to do with savings, selling jewellery, borrowing monies from friends as
well as banks, selling unproductive assets, reducing investments, selling productive property
such as cattle, sheep, goat, farm crops such as cocoa, palm nuts, land and machinery (Sauerborn
et al., 1996). In Burkina Faso, Sauerborn et al (1995) indicated that, the opportunity costs of
seeking care was by far the largest proportion (73%) of total costs, and time lost by healthy
caregivers was equal to the time lost by the sick.
8/12/2019 SUSTAINABILITY AND COST OF HOME-BASED MANAGEMENT OF MALARIA IN CHILDREN UNDER FIVE YEARS IN EJISU-J
39/129
In measuring opportunity cost, countless studies focus their estimates on the amount of time lost
by the caregiver in the case of a child multiplied by number of days of work lost or spend in
treatment. Thinking through the ideas of Sauerborn et al (1995), and Asenso-Okyere and Dzator,
1997, there was a detailed specification of the wage rate method thus based on marginal rate of
labour productivity of measuring the time costs of illness. To them, cost was the sum of the
opportunity costs of wages forgone by individual as a result of illness, as well as the opportunity
cost of non-sick members of the household time spent on treating or attending to the sick
person. The researchers equated the opportunity cost of time with the marginal cost of labour.
2.3.4. Cost Drivers of Illness
According to Hadi (2003), there were various variables that affected cost of illness. Such of
these variables were employment opportunities, allocation of education, income, the current state
of medical technology and the features of the institutions through which medical services were
bought and sold. Cost evaluation was performed from the three major fundamentals. This
includes the consumer, provider as well as the societal perspective. Fees charge for visits to
doctors, drug and non-drug treatments,surgery, imaging techniques and inpatient stays in acute
carehospitals and rehabilitation clinics was considered as factors which influence cost of illness.
Once more, direct cost components might consist of the patients additional payments for
prescribedtreatments, as well as expenses that patientspay fully out of pocket (Hadi, 2003).
8/12/2019 SUSTAINABILITY AND COST OF HOME-BASED MANAGEMENT OF MALARIA IN CHILDREN UNDER FIVE YEARS IN EJISU-J
40/129
8/12/2019 SUSTAINABILITY AND COST OF HOME-BASED MANAGEMENT OF MALARIA IN CHILDREN UNDER FIVE YEARS IN EJISU-J
41/129
In addition, buying of bicycles, motor bikes, repairs incurred on vehicles, motor bikes, and
bicycles, boots. Others included raincoats, torch lights and tool kits (made up of a box, cups and
spoons, a torch light, napkins, stop watches, registers, treatment charts and blister packs of
artesunate-amodiaquine, referral and tally cards) for distributors were also factors which
pressurises the cost of the programme. Again, at home, factors of late reporting of cases, adult
wanting to take medicines when ill, mothers not completing medicines, and mothers refusing
referral for lack of money as well as food and period of recovery, influence cost of home- based
management. In budgetary, policy and theory formulation as well as service-planning decisions,
the above could serve as the basis.
2.4 Sustainability of Home-based management of malaria
Sustainability explained the ability to maintain, this was according to the Encarta Dictionary (2007).
The sustainability or otherwise of a programme such as home-based management of malaria depends
on its fundamentals or its apparatus. The HBMM uses community resources, volunteers and communal
support. Thus, it would be sustainable depending on its resources. However, McCombie (1996)
indicated that this might not be necessarily. It was important to note that, in Africa, where more than
70% of malaria episodes occur in rural areas and more than 50% in urban areas were self-treated, home
based management of malaria was likely to succeed and sustained.
The HBMM strategy could be sustained if it uses the existing community and health structures rather
than been implemented as a parallel programme. A brief review of the strategy shows that some
activities or items under the strategy might have sustainability problem. For instance, the upkeep of
volunteers; their kits, incentives, communal support and ownership remained unknown.
8/12/2019 SUSTAINABILITY AND COST OF HOME-BASED MANAGEMENT OF MALARIA IN CHILDREN UNDER FIVE YEARS IN EJISU-J
42/129
2.5. Theoretical basis for identification and measurement of cost of health care
Since the United Nations Millennium Summit in 2000, there had been little improvement though
much effort had been put into decreasing the mortality of children under five years. For instance
in 2007, WHO revealed that there was increase, claiming more than a million deaths annually as
a result of malaria related issues. Wide-scale implementation demonstrates that cost-effective
measures of health interventions were needed. This have supported by Ungar, (2007) when he
grieved that even though approximately 99% of neonatal deaths take place in developing
countries, mostly in homes and communities, not much large scale implementation of evidence
based intervention for neonatal health and survival had been reported.
In the economic world, resources were scarce as compared to individuals, firms and nations
needs. As a result of this, there was a need for prioritization and best possible use of resources as
well as to ensure efficiency in the provision of goods and services. This would make policy vital.
To these researchers, (Drummond et al., 2006; Kamrul and Gerdtha, 2006; Hansen, 2005),
economic evaluations have established of efficacious interventions in which costs and
consequences of alternatives are compared was one of the best ways of achieving this. Thus, an
economic evaluation offers a systematic way of comparing the costs and consequences of
interventions to improve the allocation of resources, and enhances the understanding of the
factors which influence consumers and suppliers behaviour, as well as the coverage of effective
interventions. This was explained by Hanson et al (2004). It was established by Mcguire (2000),
Garber and Phelps (1997), Garber (2000) that the welfare economic theory provides the
background for costing. In this theory, most favourable use of resources was measured by
ranking goods and services, given states of economies, and guided by defined criteria.
8/12/2019 SUSTAINABILITY AND COST OF HOME-BASED MANAGEMENT OF MALARIA IN CHILDREN UNDER FIVE YEARS IN EJISU-J
43/129
Sick leave and early retirement were all involve in economic costs of which there was a
productivity loss.
The human capital approach (HCA) and the friction cost approach (FCA) could be used in the
assessment of productivity losses. The FCA was used in addition to the internationally more
common HCA to generate transparent. This was easily compared to economic cost data in
accordance with the German guidelines for socioeconomic evaluation as stated in Collettes
article in 1994. The use of a friction period takes into account that no economy achieves full
employment. Therefore, productivity losses were counted in the period only until the
productivity of the patient is replaced by that of an initial person without a job. The friction
period of 58 days is the mean time before a vacancy reported to the employment office was
filled.
The frictionperiod was applied only to patients on permanent retirementfor health reasons, not
to those on sick leave. The sick leave days were the cumulated numbers of absence days due to
the respective disease. These productivitylosses were then appraised by assuming that a day of
lost productivity costs society as much as the average daily German wage estimated by
population data. In calculating the average daily wage in Germany, the gross income from
dependent work was divided by the number of people employed in dependent jobs for 2002
divided by365 days, resulting in 95 a day. Periods of income loss were calculated for 7 days per
week. The above scenario was made in Collettes article in 1994.
8/12/2019 SUSTAINABILITY AND COST OF HOME-BASED MANAGEMENT OF MALARIA IN CHILDREN UNDER FIVE YEARS IN EJISU-J
44/129
In addition,McGuire (2000), indicated that, the human capital approach had been used for many
years, predominantly in the estimation of the total cost of illness associated with a particular
disease. The HCA is an approach to the value of a health programme based on a model of health
investment. For instance, an individual was seen as investing in future health by using health
care resources and at least part of the return on that investment in future healthy time was the
increased productive ability of the individual. This measured by the value of future earnings. The
HCA has three critical issues. The first was if the worth of time is a right measure of the outcome
of a health programme. The second was if the universal worth of time was the same as the worth
of healthy time. Lastly, if the market wage was a good substitute for money worth of time for
those in and out of the paid works forces. Again, there is a question as to whether there was such
a thing as the value of time as well as the appropriate value of healthy time if the practical
problems in estimating the shadow price of time were left (McGuire , 2000).
Furthermore, healthcare costs were measured at macro and micro levels. In most costs
measurement, identification of the various resources employed by the intervention thus the
identification stage and this might be the activity-based thus tracing costs to the various activities
in producing health care or through the traditional approach thus based on production level. In
this case, the volume of health care was measured and assessed to reflect the actual resource used
(Asenso-Okyere, 1997; Hanson et al., 2004; Hansen 2005).
2.5. Knowledge gaps
From the discussions, it was evident that not much had been done in the area of sustainability of
HBMM particularly, cost drivers, household cost, opportunity cost, and CMDs ability to
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V8K-447N1RD-1&_user=6447644&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000034378&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=6447644&md5=9d14f0810c0db517101aad56512f3c9f#bbib35#bbib35http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V8K-447N1RD-1&_user=6447644&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000034378&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=6447644&md5=9d14f0810c0db517101aad56512f3c9f#bbib35#bbib35http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V8K-447N1RD-1&_user=6447644&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000034378&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=6447644&md5=9d14f0810c0db517101aad56512f3c9f#bbib35#bbib35http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V8K-447N1RD-1&_user=6447644&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000034378&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=6447644&md5=9d14f0810c0db517101aad56512f3c9f#bbib35#bbib358/12/2019 SUSTAINABILITY AND COST OF HOME-BASED MANAGEMENT OF MALARIA IN CHILDREN UNDER FIVE YEARS IN EJISU-J
45/129
prescribe medicine. However, these are critical for the implementation of home-based
management of malaria. Hence, these knowledge gaps informed the study.
8/12/2019 SUSTAINABILITY AND COST OF HOME-BASED MANAGEMENT OF MALARIA IN CHILDREN UNDER FIVE YEARS IN EJISU-J
46/129
CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
3.0. Introduction
This chapter provides a description of the methods which were employed in the study. It
described the study type and design, study population, sampling data collection and analysis
among others.
3.1. Study Type
The study was part of on-going HBMM intervention in the Ejisu-Juaben Municipality. It was a
cross-sectional in design, which involved the use of quantitative and qualitative surveys to study
the cost and sustainability of home based management of malaria in the municipality. The study
involved caregivers, health staff and community-based medicine distributors (CMDs).
3.2. Study Site
Ejisu-Juaben Municipality considered being one of the 26 political Municipalities of Ashanti
Region. Its 2007 population was estimated at 162,256, with a growth rate of 3.4%. The
population aged below one year was 4% and pre-school children for 20% of the population.
Malaria was the leading cause of outpatient visits and accounts for 44.3% of OPD visits. Malaria
was hyper endemic (Browne et al., 2000), thus malaria is widely spread in the municipality. It
has 26 health facilities including 3 hospitals. It has 90 communities with 39 of them having
functional village health committees.
8/12/2019 SUSTAINABILITY AND COST OF HOME-BASED MANAGEMENT OF MALARIA IN CHILDREN UNDER FIVE YEARS IN EJISU-J
47/129
There were about 100 community-based medicine distributors (CMDs) who had been trained in
home based management of malaria (HBMM) using pre-packed artesunate-amodiaquine (in the
recent HBMM study), acute respiratory infections (ARI) and diarrhoea case management using
ORS. The Municipality has patient-doctor ratio of 31344:1 and patient- nurse ratio of 4124:1.
The current malaria interventions were case management, home management of malaria,
distribution of insecticides treated nets (ITNs), and intermittent preventive treatment in
pregnancy (IPTp). The Municipality capital, Ejisu is 20 km from Kumasi, the regional capital. It
was a predominantly rural Municipality, with the main of occupation of the people being
subsistence farming. A few farmers engaged in commercial farming, mainly cocoa and oil palm.
The climate is tropical; temperature variation is 20oC - 36oC with monthly rainfall varying from
2.0 mm in February to 400 mm in July. It has 2 rainy seasons; a major one extending from April
to August and a minor one from October to November. The local economy was based on cash
crops like cocoa, coffee and oil palm, although subsistence farming is the main occupation.
Small-scale mining, logging and saw-milling were also important commercial activities.
Weaving was also an important occupation in one of the communities Bonwire, the historic
centre for Kente weaving in the country.
Generally, incomes turn to be unstable, employment was often seasonal and majority of the
people lack sufficient money to provide for non basic items such as bed nets, sprays. The
Municipality health system was based on a 3-tier Primary Health Care. These were the
Municipality, the sub-Municipality, and the community. The activities at the Municipality level
were headed by the MHMT while the Sub-Municipality Health Team (SDHT) oversees health
8/12/2019 SUSTAINABILITY AND COST OF HOME-BASED MANAGEMENT OF MALARIA IN CHILDREN UNDER FIVE YEARS IN EJISU-J
48/129
activities in the sub-Municipality. The Village Health Committee (VHC) managed the
community level. There were also community volunteers, who assisted in outreach clinics,
national immunization days, community surveillance and community health education (Source:
Population Reference Bureau/ Data Finder - Ghana, 2004).
3.3. Study Population
The study was done within a total population of about 162,256. The study population consisted
of caregivers of children less than five years, health providers and CMDs. They were consented
to be part after reading the informed consent and or the study protocols was interpreted to them
in a language best understood by them and in the presence of a witness (es).
3.4. Sampling
3.4.1. Sampl ing Size
The main outcome of the study was the proportion of the caregivers whose children presented
with fever and were taken to the community health workers otherwise known as community
medicine distributors (CMDs) for uncomplicated malaria treatment. Based on an unknown
parameter, a prevalence figure of 60% was used to calculate the sample size. With a power of
95% confidence level, 5% significance level, the required error of 0.002025, design effect of 1,
non respondents of 10%, the sample size was 455 rounded up to 500. This was estimated for the
survey using the, n=Z2p (1-p) d/e2, where Z= (1.96), p=proportion of event of interest, and e=
required error, d=design effect.
8/12/2019 SUSTAINABILITY AND COST OF HOME-BASED MANAGEMENT OF MALARIA IN CHILDREN UNDER FIVE YEARS IN EJISU-J
49/129
3.4.2. Selecti on of Respondents
Respondents from the households were randomly sampled; eligible households were sampled in
5 clusters (based on the sub-Municipalitys definition of a sub-municipality) of 100 households
each. For the purpose of this study, a household was defined as a group of people who eat from a
common bowl (GSS, 2004). The four sub-municipalities thus; Ejisu, Juaben,Besease and
Bonwire, 100 health consumers were interviewed in each sub-municipality. The essence of this
strategy was to avoid redundancy, improve distribution of sample and minimize design effect. In
addition, the CMDs and the health providers were selected through purposive sampling.
3.4.3. Study Variables
The variables in the study included cost drivers, household cost, sustainable, ability of CMDs to
prescribe, and opportunity costs of CMDs and health providers in HBMM. The variables are
shown in the Table 3.1, below.
Table 3.1 Logical framework/ indicators
Objective Dependent
variable
Independent
variables
Data collection
tools and
sources
of data
Outcome
measures/
indicators
Statistical
analysis
i. To identify cost drivers
in integrated package and
suggest the least cost in
accessing the
whole level of diagnosing
Cost
drivers
Disease
condition
(uncomplicat
ed
d
Questionnaire,
interview guide;
parents, s
service
providers,
% of the cost
drivers in
integrated
package and
least cost in
Descriptive;
tables,
, cros
tabulations,
means,
8/12/2019 SUSTAINABILITY AND COST OF HOME-BASED MANAGEMENT OF MALARIA IN CHILDREN UNDER FIVE YEARS IN EJISU-J
50/129
and treatment of malaria & severity),
drugs, RDTs,
incentives for
CMDs,
prompt/
delayed
action, etc
health
documents and
literature
accessing the
whole level of
diagnosing
and
treatment of
malaria.
Adolescents;
mean cost;
total cost etc
standard
deviations, etc
Objective Dependent
variable
Independent
variables
Data collection
tools and
sources
of data
Outcome
measures/
indicators
Statistical
analysis
ii To measure the
household
cost per febrile episode
in home management
of malaria
Household
cost
Transport,
care, drugs,
accompanied
relative,
distance, etc
Questionnaire,
parents, service
providers,
health
documents and
literature
% household
cost per
febrile
episode
in
HBMM,
mean cost;
total cost etc
Descriptive;
tables
cross
tabulations,
means,
standard
deviation, etc
8/12/2019 SUSTAINABILITY AND COST OF HOME-BASED MANAGEMENT OF MALARIA IN CHILDREN UNDER FIVE YEARS IN EJISU-J
51/129
iii. To assess whether
HBMM is sustainable.
sustainable Payment of
drugs,
ownership,
communal
support,
supply
of drugs,
training,
supervision.
Questionnaires
Parents,
CDDs
Providers
% of
community
and
leaders who
showed;
%of
supervisors
to a group of
CMDs, and
%of drug
supply and
training for
CMDs.
Descriptive;
Tables,
cross
tabulations,
means, standard
deviation, etc
Objective Dependent
variable
Independent
variables
Data collection
tools and
sources
of data
Outcome
measures/
indicators
Statistical
analysis
8/12/2019 SUSTAINABILITY AND COST OF HOME-BASED MANAGEMENT OF MALARIA IN CHILDREN UNDER FIVE YEARS IN EJISU-J
52/129
iv. O4. To assess the
ability
of CDDs to prescribe
medicines in HBMM
Ability to
CMDs
to prescribe
Types of
medicines,
level of
knowledge
and skills,
competency
Questionnaires,
records of
CMDs
% of CMDs
competence,
knowledge
and
skills to
prescribe
medicines in
HBM
Descriptive;
tables
cross
tabulations,
means,
standard
deviation, etc
v. To estimate the
opportunity costs of
CMDs and
health providers
in HBMM
Opportunit
y
costs of
CMDs and
health
providers
in
HBMM
Time of
transport,
care,
lost days
Questionnaires,
CMDs
Caregivers
%Opportunity
costs of
CMDs and
health
providers in
HBMM
Descriptive;
tables
cross
tabulations,
means,
standard
deviation, etc
3.5. Data Collection
Data on the cost and sustainability of HBMM were collected as per objectives (1-5) as follows:
Information on objective one (O1), identification of cost drivers, information were collected
from caregivers and health providers including CMDs. These were done using structured
8/12/2019 SUSTAINABILITY AND COST OF HOME-BASED MANAGEMENT OF MALARIA IN CHILDREN UNDER FIVE YEARS IN EJISU-J
53/129
questionnaires. For household cost, (O2), the cost of febrile episode receiving prompt treatment
from CMDs, household cost of transport to and from source of care, household time costs of
seeking care were collected. Structured questionnaires were employed to collect these data.
Costing of HBMM was done in three main stages:
Identification stage:
This stage involved grouping household costs into cost of care; drugs, food, transport and time.
However, cost of food and transport were valued at zero cost since caregivers never incurred
such costs.
Quantification stage:
At this stage, monetary values were assigned to the various items using 2008 prevailing market
prices to value.
Valuation stage:
The opportunity costs were estimated by multiplying the time spent in hours by wage rate per
hour. This was done as follows: first all caregivers and CMDs were assumed to be labourers
receiving a minimum wage rate of 1.92 for eight working hours as per the national minimum
wage rate of Ghana. It means that the wage per hour was estimated as GHC 1.92/8 hours which
amounted to GHC 0.24. This is consistent with similar method employed by Asenso-Okyere and
Dzator (1997).
Data pertaining to objective three (O3), assessing whether HBMM was sustainable; information
was collected from caregivers and the project office. These were collected using questionnaires.
To assess the ability of CMDs to prescribe medicines in HBMM was collected on participants.
These were done using questionnaires, forms and interview guides. Information on objective five
8/12/2019 SUSTAINABILITY AND COST OF HOME-BASED MANAGEMENT OF MALARIA IN CHILDREN UNDER FIVE YEARS IN EJISU-J
54/129
(5), estimating the opportunity costs of CMDs and health providers in HBMM was collected
using questionnaires, forms and interview guides.
3.6. Data Handling and Analysis
The data were analysed using descriptive statistics, summarised and displayed in tables.
Frequencies were further analysed using chi-square test to test for associations between some
selected variables. For continuous variables, the estimates were for difference in means with
95% confidence levels. Data entry and analysis was done in SPSS.
3.7. Sensitivity Analysis
Sensitivity analysis was an important feature of economic evaluations in which study results
were sensitive to the values taken by key parameters. (Drummond et al, 2004) Sensitivity shows
how the variation in the output of a mathematical model was apportioned, qualitatively or
quantitatively, to different sources of variation in the input of a mode (Saltell et al, 2008).
Sensitivity analysis was done using discount rates of 3% as a minimum and 5% for the upper
ceiling with an inflation rate of +/-20.06% as in July, 2009. This analysis indicated the possible
change in cost as a result of change in discount rate. It thus measures the effects of economic
conditions on cost of treatment for malaria.
3.8. Ethical Consideration
Community entry protocols were vigorously adhered to. Verbal informed consent for the study
was obtained from community leader, caregivers, CMDs and health staff. All information
collected remained confidentia