The Americas in the Making: 18 ‐19 C. · ‘New World’ : Viceroyalties of Spain, New Granada...

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The Americas in the Making: 18th‐19th C.

The Americas: colonial conflicts, domestic divisions

Americas in the MakingIndependence in the Western Hemisphere: 1770‐1830

‐ Western Hemisphere colonized from 15th – 16th centuries: ‘Thirteen Colonies’, Caribbean Islands, Central‐South America [we are not looking at the Canadas]

‐ all European powers involved: initially Spain, Portugal; then Britain, France, Netherlands [Germany, Italy 19th c. creations]

‐ Between approximately 1770‐1830: all struggled against colonial ‘masters’ to acquire Independence, all suffered pains of ‘nation building’

‐ included civil wars, often wars of secession based on regional interests (economic, religious, ethnic)

‐ Emergence new socio‐economic classes: conflict with traditional elites, power structures

‐ attempts at democracy undermined: led to different forms of government none truly ‘democratic’

‐ reflected many of the same struggles we have seen in Europe throughout 19th century: part of same ‘globalizing’economy driven by industrialization [see Maps]

‐But these regions were also part of ‘colonized’ world: exacerbated nature of tensions, complicated structure of classes

‐ European conflicts played out in Colonies: allowed for rise of new ‘regional power’ – United States

As part of ‘globalizing’ economy driven by industrialization and as ‘older colonies’ in the era of New Imperialism:they were all to varying degrees dependent on slavery to support their economies

‐ abolition had become a politically contentious issue everywhere by the 19th century!

The Americas: Atlantic Trade

Dominated byAtlantic Slave Trade

The Americas: Atlantic Trade

Global Trade: ‘Sugar & Slaves’

Highlighting Saint Domingue (French Colony) : ‘Sugar Capital of the Caribbean’

The Americas: Colonial WorldMost Significant Conflict: 7‐years War Between Britain and France (1756‐63)

‐ France defeated: withdrew from North America, including Lower Canada [and India ‐ video ‘Story of India’]

‐ Britain expanded control west to Mississippi River, into former ‘Louisiana’

‐drew Amerindians into conflicts : they had reason to consider themselves part of ‘New Atlantic World’

[see Resources, “The role of the Indians. . . 1761”]

Territorial Impact 7‐Yrs War

The Americas: Post War Two Critical Problems: 1. Fiscal

‐ Cost of wars: paid for by increased Colonial taxes

‐ attempted to control profits from trade with Spanish, French Caribbean: ‘ sugar colonies’, end ‘smuggling

‐policies hit at core of New England shipping economy [refer to maps, above]

The Americas: Post War‘Western Expansion’:

‐ colonists (from original 13 colonies) pushed West into new territories occupied by Amerindians

‐ raised new problems of conflict . . . and therefore, cost

‐‘Indian War’ 1763‐6: Britain unable to defend thousands of farmers, ranchers or negotiate successfully with Amerindians

‐more ‘repressive’ legislation: aggravated situation

The Americas: Post War“Stamp Act 1765”:

‐ tax on legal documents, newspapers, most printed material

‐most affected: literate, propertied ‘middle classes’

‐ forms of resistance: public protest to royal officers, organized meetings but. . .

‐ . . . most effective were consumer boycotts

The Americas: Post WarUnderscored global role of trade, commerce :

‐ in functioning of colonies

‐ and of colonies’ role in Britain

Important Example: TEA – ‘everyone consumed it’ in American Colonies [unlike Britain where initially, it was consumed by upper‐middle class and elites]

‐ British East India Co. given import monopoly, right to charge taxes : at expense of local import‐export interests

The Americas: Post War‘Boston Tea Party’ 1763:

‐ almost 2 million $ worth (contemporary value)

‐ led to looting, destruction throughout colonies

‐ British military control imposed: Boston Harbour closed

Led to decision by colonies’ representatives meeting in Philadelphia 1775 to launch ‘American Revolution’

1846 iconic painting. Note men dumping tea, dressed as Amerindians. Not at all likely – so why?

United States of America‘Declaration of Independence’ (July 1776):

“We hold these truths to be self‐evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.

‐‐That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed. . .”

[see Resources: “Declaration of Independence”]

United States of AmericaSamuel Adams articulated meaning of ‘inalienable rights’in 1772: [“Rights of Colonists”, Add’l Rdgs]

“Among the natural rights of the Colonists are these:

‐ First, a right to life ‐ Secondly, to liberty; ‐Thirdly, to property; together with the right to support and defend them in the best manner they can

‘Pursuit of Happiness’ had very specific meaning!

United States of AmericaFrom list of grievances in Declaration: (the King has approved laws…)

‐For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the world

‐ For imposing Taxes on us without our Consent

United States of AmericaAnd the last point:

“He [the King] has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeavoured to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian Savages, whose known rule of warfare, is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes and conditions.”

This makes clear where ‘all men are created equal’ stops: presumably ‘their’ Creator does not endow them with the rights to ‘life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness (property)’.

United States of AmericaImplications of the ‘Declaration of Independence and its Underlying Ideologies:

‐Middle Class document shaped by Industrialization: bankers, investors, insurance companies, ship‐builders, shipping out‐fits, merchants

‐ they had clear class reasons for ‘War of Independence’

‐ growing in power and wealth by early 19th Century: needed workers ‐‐ created ‘working class’

United States of AmericaImplications:

‐property, literacy requirements even among adult male population: only small minority had full political/voting rights

‐Most were urban, educated: not unlike most European counterparts

United States of AmericaImplications:

‐ Commodity boycotts of imported European goods – most especially tea that were so effective: orgnanized by women – they were the consumers

‐Women had run relief organizations, charities for the poor, nursing units in war, assist units for combat

‐ yet: Women were totally excluded from the ‘inalienable rights’ endowed only to ‘men’ (literally)

United States of AmericaImplications: Slaves

‐ denied all political participation

BUT…

‐‘slave states’ (those permitting slavery, most in the south and some new in the West – see Map above) could count 3/5 of their slave population in the allocation of congressional representatives actually “multiplying the political power of the slave‐owning class”

Guaranteed ‘slavery‐abolition’ debate would play critical political role in 19th C.

United States of AmericaImplications: Amerindians

‐‘Declaration’ made clear that they were seen as ‘Savages with no Creator’ and no ‘inalienable rights’

‐ yet several Amerindians groups had fought with ‘revolutionaries’

‐‐ 19th century: ruthless movement of Western Frontier increasingly alienated Amerindians

Regionalism and Resistance‐ Treaties between ‘indigenous nations’ and British: largely ignored by new ‘United States’

‐1830 ‘Indian Removal Act’: forced resettlement of Eastern nations to west of Mississippi River

‐ remembered as ‘Trail of Tears’: almost half died before reaching new lands

[see ‘Cherokee Nation vs. State of Georgia’, Resources]

Regionalism and ResistancePost Civil War (1865 – next lecture)

‐ settlers followed railroads even further west into plains: ‘Manifest Destiny’ (below)

‐ land alienated from Amerindians for laying rail and establishing ranches (plains economy needed large‐scale enterprises – cattle in particular): “development”

‐ pushed Amerindians onto reserves: in process destroyed environment and hunting domains (e.g. buffalo)

forced many into wage labour – and poverty

Regionalism and ResistanceOther Regions Similarly ‘Colonies’: of the French, Spanish and Portuguese

‐ Independence movements differed according to nature of ‘Mother Country’ and how policies intersected with interests of those in colonies

‐Four examples: Saint Domingue (‘Haiti’) , Venezuela , Mexico, Brazil

Saint DomingueThe Sugar Revolution:

‐ 18th Century: sugar cane introduced to the Caribbean Islands

‐ French profited: developed intense slave labour system on its island colonies of Martinique, Guadaloupe but most importantly – Saint Domingue

‐ between 1713 ‐1791: at least 1million African slaves imported

“Slave Islands…”: St Domingue

Saint Dominguec.1790‐1800:

‐ Total population: 540,000

‐ (approx) 450,000 ‘blacks’ (slaves)

‐ 50,000 ‘whites’ (free)

‐ 40,000 ‘coloureds’ (free)

Total sugar production : 86,000 tonnes/yr

Saint Domingue‐ supplied 2/3 France’s ‘tropical’ imports

‐ generated nearly 1/3 all French foreign trade

‐ by late 18th c. sugar main product

‐ as sugar industry provided increasing profit: exploitation of slaves more severe

‐most oppressive slave regime in region

Sugar Production

“The Slave Islands…”

Saint DomingueRevolution in 1789:

‐ Island example of complex colonial relations, class divisions and regional power struggles

‐White (slave owning) Planters: divided between ‘royalists and radicals’: Radicals sought improvements to trade/taxation

Coloureds, (slave‐owning) urban merchants: mostly ‘radicals’: wanted more rights (vis‐à‐vis whites), less racial discrimination

‐ saw all planters as royalists, aristocrats

Saint DomingueRebellion 1790:

‐ failed effort Coloureds, free Blacks: led to discussion in Paris

‐ 1792 French law provided ‘equal’ voting rights for Coloureds:

‐White planters angry, unified

‐ slaves joined in general instability

Saint DomingueSlave uprisings: escalated

‐agitating for freeing of ‘leaders’ imprisoned , more ‘rights’(another day off, ameliorated punishments etc).

‐only scattered groups talking about ‘emancipation’

‐ Toussaint L’Ouverture seen as leader of ‘rebel army’: slaves fighting against ‘Whites’ for power

Saint DomingueWar in Europe ‘spread’ to St. Domingue:

‐ Spanish (controlled other part of Island) fighting French, British

‐ Gave slaves ‘choice’ and power: some joined British, some Spanish – could ‘negotiate’

‐ L’Ouverture offered to bring slaves on side with France:

Saint DomingueTies back into French Revolution:

‐ among revolutionary changes: abolition of slavery in French territories/colonies 1794 [was revived in 19th c. ‘liberal’reforms, see earlier Revolutions of 1848 lecture]

‐ driven by fear of losing colony: European competition (Spanish, British) to attract slaves

‐ L’Ouverture continued to recognize colony as ‘French’: Important in context of ‘Atlantic politics’ and challenges iconic view of Haiti being first ‘Black Republic’

Saint DomingueFrance 1799:

‐ Napoleon’s seizure of power ended anti‐slavery supporters in French government

‐ “problems” in St. Domingue: allowed him to attempt military conquest of Island and re‐establishment of slavery

Saint Domingue1802:

‐ Napoleon restored slavery to Guadaloupe and Martinique

‐ promised St. Domingue would be exempted but still sent military force to re‐establish French control

‐ constant reports of new slave regimes in neighbouringislands convinced St. Domingue’s slaves that ‘they were next’

Saint DomingueApril 1803:

‐ French troops sick and starving: forced to trade munitions with local women for food

‐ new insurrection in last French stronghold ended war:

‐L’Ouverture’s successor created new flag for ‘Hayti’(original name): Independence declared Jan. 1, 1804

Saint DomingueUnited States Position on Saint Domingue

‐ belief in ‘ideals’ of Revolution

‐ But US had large slave

population [more next lecture]

‐ feared support of new HaitiRepublic would lead to rebellion at home: notrecognized for another60 years! Slave Population c. 1780

Spanish‐Portuguese Colonies

Role of Europe:

‐ as in Thirteen Colonies and Saint Domingue : events in Europe precipitated events in Spanish and Portuguese ‘New World’ : Viceroyalties of Spain, New Granada (SP)* and Brazil (Port)

‐ not about ‘revolutionary ideals’ in first instance: Napoleon invaded Portugal (1807), Spain (1808): created ‘crisis of legitimacy’ with respect to Colonies

*also of Peru and Rio de la Plata – not dealt with here

Spanish, Portuguese Territories

New Granada: Venezuela

Spain:

‐ King forced to abdicate

‐ loyalists rallied, created Junta Central [junta: term used thereafter, ironically, to refer to ‘revolutionary’ authority in Latin America]

‐ claimed authority over colonies, invited election colonial deputies

New Grenada: Venezuela

Split Colony:

‐ those supporting Junta, more autonomy (their own deputies)

‐ elite minority ‘serving the King’

‐ led to local uprisings, harsh reaction by Spanish authorities

‐ only ‘grew’ political group in favour of more autonomy

Simon Bolivar (Venezuela 1783‐1830):

‐ Spanish colonies had generations of ‘locally born’ whites: creoles

‐as a class (like coloured in Haiti): goal to expand privileges vis‐à‐vis ‘European Spaniards’ including clergy

‐ Slaves were important force to be ‘wooed’: recruited by loyalists in Venezuela ‐‐ Created situation similar to Saint Domingue, 1790s

Sociedad de

Castas

• White Europeanon top

• Blacks, Indigenous

on bottom

• Various MixesIn between

Race‐Based ‘Classes’

Peninsulares: lived in Coloniesbut were born in Spain

Creoles: whites born inColonies

Irony: ‘Revolutionary Movement’ was one supporting slavery and elite classes

Bolivar:

‐ son of wealthy planters

‐ travelled Europe

‐ familiar with ideas of ‘Enlightenment’

Charismatic, expedient: saw need to draw slaves and freed slaves to his cause

‐ to weaken resistance

‐ to gain military support, supplies from nearby Haiti

‐ Took risk of supporting emancipation, in spite of (his) class interests

“We are not Europeans; we are not Indians; we are but a mixed species of aborigines and Spaniards. Americans by birth and Europeans by law, we find ourselves engaged in a dual conflict: we are disputing with the natives for titles of ownership, and at the same time we are struggling to maintain ourselves in the country that gave us birth against the opposition of the invaders. Thus our position is most extraordinary and complicated. “ .. .

“. . . we find that our quest for liberty is now even more difficult of accomplishment; for we, having been placed in a state lower than slavery, had been robbed not only of our freedom but also of the right to exercise an active domestic tyranny. . .We have been ruled more by deceit than by force, and we have been degraded more by vice than by superstition.”

… Slavery is the daughter of darkness: an ignorant people is a blind instrument of its own destruction. “

[Add’l Rdg ‘Simon Bolivar’ 1819]

Impact of Europe’s Interests Decisive:

‐ 1820 military revolt in Spain forced King (who had been restored to throne 1814) and Clergy to accept reduction of power [similar to what occurred in France some years later]

‐ ‘loyalists’ deserted: reforms in Spain as unwelcome as those proposed locally

‐ Bolivar’s armies successful: defeated last of the Spanish armies in 1824

Created ‘Gran Colombia’: confederation Ecuador, New Granada, Venezuela

New Spain: MexicoMexico: Capital City of Viceroyalty – name given to region

‐Mexico was to Spain like St. Domingue was to France: wealthiest Spanish Colony – silver mines (not sugar)

‐most populous colony, large Spanish population

‐ concern: colonial authorities could no longer deal with local problems ‐‐ especially economic problems

‐ led to revolt generated by fear/anger

New Spain: Mexico c.1800

Section in Orange ‘claimed’ but not controlled

New Spain: MexicoEuropean crisis caused colonial social/political rupture:

‐ local priest Miguel Hidalgio y Castilla generated uprising of rural, urban poor against ‘Spanish’

New Spain: MexicoLocal elite (ranches, mines) united over economic interests:

‐ forced to ally with

‐ Hidalgo captured,

executed in 1811

New Spain: MexicoJose Maria Morelos:

‐ also Catholic priest, poor background

‐more politically astute

‐ created army, congress, declared independence 1813

‐ destroyed by loyalists 1815

‐ also executed by Spanish

New Spain: Mexico1820: events in Spain (forced liberalization) alienated local loyalists

‐ allied, declared their own independence

‐conservative nature reflected in form government: monarchy

‐ Col. Augustin de Iturbide declared ‘Emperor’

Emperor Augustin de Iturbide

New Spain: Mexico1823: army took control, declared Mexican Republic

Brazil

1807: Portuguese royal family fled to Brazil

‐ colonial elite rallied to Royalty (in face of French political expansion)

‐ remained loyal through decade of revolution, civil wars in Spanish territories

‐ 1821: following liberal revolt in Portugal (similar to Spain), King returned home to protect throne

BrazilSon Pedro I on throne:

‐ political sentiments shifting

towards separatism

‐ Pedro attempted to retain control by supporting

Independence

‐ 1822 Brazil became

‘constitutional monarchy’ Pedro I: reigned 1822-34

Brazil:Protected property of Portuguese in Brazil but . . . opposed slavery: Problem

‐ slave‐owning class dominated society, economy, politics

‐ Brazil most important importer of African Slaves 18th, early 19th c: 40% of all trade

‐ by 1820s, slaves and black freedmen integral to Brazilian society

Slave Trade: 40% to Brazil

Slave Markets in Brazil

Rio de Janeiro, 1830s

Permambuco, 1820s

Free-born White Woman in litter carried by black Slaves [Photo c.1860]

BrazilBritain abolished international slave trade 1807:

‐ followed with pressures on French, Spanish, Portuguese

‐ Pedro ratified Treaty 1831

‐ opposition to his ‘anti‐slavery’ policies from powerful minority too strong: forced to abdicate

BrazilSucceeded by Pedro II: abolished slavery May1888

Brazil1898 Pedro II Deposed by Army: Republic Declared

The Americas in the Making: 18 ‐19 C. · ‘New World’ : Viceroyalties of Spain, New Granada...

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