Post on 19-May-2018
transcript
PERSUASION AND THE ETHICS OF PUBLIC SPEAKINGBecause Aristotle Knew What He Was Talking About
PERSUASION Process of changing or reinforcing attitudes,
beliefs, values, and behaviors
Ethos, Pathos, and Logos Ethos—credibility Pathos—emotional appeal Logos—logical appeal (reasoning & evidence)
People will be persuaded by one or more of these reasons
QUALITIES OF POSITIVE ETHOS Credibility—whether you are qualified to speak on
a given topic Competence Character
Establish Credibility Competence—informed, skilled, knowledgeable Trustworthiness—believable and honest Dynamism—energy (charisma)
Enhance Credibility Initial Derived Terminal
STRENGTHEN YOUR ETHOSEach time you speak, people form impressions of you
Share audience concerns Cite reputable expertsUse personal experienceBe clear and interestingConsider different points of viewDeliver with dynamism
APPEALING TO EMOTIONS (PATHOS) Fundamental to motivating an audience Never a substitute for logical arguments and
available evidence Dimensions of emotion = pleasure, arousal, power Be ethical when using emotion. Use:
Concrete examples Emotion-arousing words Visual images to evoke emotion Appropriate metaphors and similes Appropriate fear appeals Appeal to several emotions; hope, pride, courage,
etc.
ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS Avoid deception and manipulation Recognize and respect power of emotions Avoid distraction and disorientation Don’t overwhelm audience Use emotional appeals to supplement and
complement well-reasoned arguments
MORE ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS Have ethical goals and use ethical means Ethical dilemmas
Professional obligations can create A conflict of responsibilities A choice between “the lesser of two evils”
Circumstances can create Situations dictate a change Does the end justify the means?
ETHICAL GUIDELINES Are your purposes consistent w/ prevailing
norms? Would you violate your own ethics by speaking
out? Are you willing to stick to your ethical principles? What are the ethical standards?
Your basic ethical obligationsTell the truthTake responsibilityAvoid plagiarism(!!!)
THE ETHICAL SPEAKER Is not expected to be perfectly objective Provides good arguments, sound reasoning
and solid evidence Remains open to new information Is well informed and fully prepared Contributes useful presentations
BUILDING AN ARGUMENT (LOGOS) Use logic and evidence to persuade
Logic—System of rules for making inferences Reasoning—Process of drawing conclusions from evidence Evidence—Facts, examples, statistics, expert opinions
Claims Debatable assertion by speaker Takes a side on an issue and invites debate A statement with which you want your audience to agree
Types of Claims Fact Value Policy
TYPES OF CLAIMS
FACT CLAIMSClaims about the truth or falsity of an assertion Involve existence, scope or causality Questions about past / present Predictions of the future Require empirical proof: real examples,
statistics, and expert testimony
Example:To persuade my audience that William Shakespeare did not write the plays attributed to him.
VALUE CLAIMSClaims about the worth, rightness, and morality of an idea or action Involve what we consider good or bad, right or
wrong Focus on what we believe to be appropriate,
legal, ethical or moral Determine how we should evaluate facts, ideas
or actions
Example:To persuade my audience that bicycle riding is the ideal form of land transportation.
POLICY CLAIM
Claim about whether a specific course of action should or should not be taken Determine our future actions Deal with how to solve problems Evaluate options by costs, feasibility,
advantages and disadvantages “Should” is either stated or implied
Two kinds of policy claims:1. Speeches to gain passive agreement2. Speeches to gain immediate action
SPEECHES TO GAIN PASSIVE AGREEMENT Goal is to convince audience that a given
policy is desirable without encouraging the audience to take action in support of it.
Example:To persuade my audience that there should be stricter safety standards on amusement park rides.
To persuade my audience that the age for full driving privileges should be raised to 18.
SPEECHES TO GAIN IMMEDIATE ACTION Goal is to convince the audience to take
action in support of a given policy
Examples:To persuade my audience to vote in the next presidential election. (i.e. everyone old enough to vote should vote)
To persuade my audience to become literacy tutors. (i.e. you should be a literacy tutor)
ACTIVITY Write your topic on a piece of paper Write a policy claim about your topic
Are you seeking passive agreement or immediate action?
Be clear about what the audience should understand and/or do at the end of your speech This is your plan of action
Be prepared to share this with the rest of the class
ANALYZING POLICY CLAIMS1. Need—you must establish that there is a need
for change Burden of Proof—your obligation to prove that
change is necessary2. Plan—you must have a plan to solve the
problem 3. Practicality—Does your solution solve the
problem? Does it create new problems? Has this plan worked elsewhere? How has this plan been implemented elsewhere?
REASONABLE ARGUMENTS Qualified at a level appropriate to the strength
of the reasoning and evidence behind it Words that indicate our level of confidence Examples: “possibly”, “probably”, or “beyond any
doubt” Recognize reservations
Exceptions to our claim, or conditions under which we no longer hold the claim
“Unless” Evidence
Consider the criteria or standards that support your evaluation
Reflect on the rules, principles or standards we employ in making judgments
Tests: quality, relevancy, amount
FORMS OF REASONING
INDUCTIVE REASONINGMoves from a set of specific examples to a general conclusion
A number of representative examples makes the case Claims must be carefully qualified Reservations may be needed Can be strengthened with evidence
ExampleFact 1: My physical education course last term was easyFact 2: My roommate’s physical education course was easyFact 3: My brother’s physical education course was easyConclusion: Physical education courses are easy
DEDUCTIVE REASONINGDraws a conclusion about a specific case based on generally accepted premise
Usually we reason from qualified premises to probable conclusions
Premises are often already accepted by audience Speaker may assume the audience will fill in the missing
premise Syllogism is a classic example
Example1. The U.S. Constitution guarantees all U.S. citizens the right
to vote2. Women are U.S. citizens3. Therefore, the U.S. Constitution guarantees women the
right to vote
CAUSAL REASONINGFrom effect to cause, or cause to effect
At the heart of scientific investigation Rarely simple Reputable sources are important Qualified due to complexity Can be difficult to claim causation
ExampleDrinking soda will make you fat
Caution: post hoc, ergo propter hoc
ANALOGICAL REASONINGWhat is true in one case will be true in another
Literal analogy compares similar examples Figurative analogy is similar to metaphor; rarely
proves anything Should be qualified
ExampleIf you’re good at racquetball, you’ll be good at Ping-Pong
LOGICAL FALLACIES: FAULTY REASONING Causal (post hoc, ergo propter hoc)
Just because one event follows another does not mean the two are related
Bandwagon Fallacy If “everyone” thinks it’s a good idea, then it must be
Either/Or Fallacy Argues that there are only two approaches to solving
a problem, thus ignoring the complexity of the issues and other possible solutions (e.g. “it’s either vote for higher property taxes or close the library”)
Hasty Generalization Reaches a conclusion from too little/nonexistent
evidence (i.e. just because something happens in one case does not mean it will happen in all cases)
LOGICAL FALLACIES, CONT. Ad Hominem
Attacks irrelevant personal characteristics of a person, rather than attacking his or her ideas
Red Herring Attacks an issue using irrelevant facts or arguments
as distractions Appeal to Misplaced Authority
Relies on celebrated or popular people to endorse an idea, rather than relying on experts
Non Sequitur (it does not follow) Your conclusion does not follow from your statement
(e.g. “a new parking garage should not be built on campus because the grass on the football field is not well-maintained”)