Post on 14-Jan-2016
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The Evolution of Populations
Darwin and Mendel were contemporaries of the 19th century- at the time both were unappreciated for their work
The turning point for evolutionary theory was the development of population genetics- emphasizes genetic variation and recognizes the importance of quantitative characters
A population’s gene pool is defined by its allele frequencies
Population: a localized group of individuals belonging to the same species
Species: individuals that have the potential to interbreed and produce fertile offspring in nature
The total aggregate of genes in a population at any one time is called the population’s gene pool- all the alleles of a gene of all the individuals in a population
Example of allele frequency- population is 500 plants- 20 are white (rr)- 320 are red (RR), 160 are red (Rr)
Allele frequency is .8 or 80%- 320 X 2 (for RR) = 640 + 160 (for Rr) ; 800/1000 = .8
The Hardy-Weinberg theorem describes a nonevolving population- the frequencies of alleles and genotypes in a population’s gene pool remain constant unless acted upon by outside factors- the shuffling of alleles has no effect on a population’s gene pool
This idea was independently discovered by both Hardy and Weinberg in 1908
Uses 2 equations simultaneously- P + Q = 1- p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1
For the HW equation to work, 5 conditions must be met- large population size- no migration- no mutations- random mating- no natural selection
Mutations and sexual recombination generate genetic variation
Only mutations that occur in gametes can be passed along to offspring
A mutation that alters a protein is more likely to be harmful
Mutation: a change in a organism’s DNA- if mutation is in gametes, immediate change can be seen in the gene pool- if the new allele produced by a mutation increases in frequency, it is because the mutant alleles are producing a disproportionate number of offspring by NS or genetic drift
Unique recombinations of existing alleles in a gene pool are produced through meiosis- the effect of crossing over
Microevolution: the generation-to-generation change in a population’s frequencies of alleles
The two main causes of microevolution are genetic drift and natural selection
Genetic drift: a change in a population’s allele frequencies due to chance- the smaller the sample size, the greater the chance of deviation for idealized results- ex. coin toss
Bottleneck effect: genetic drift resulting from the reduction of a population such that the surviving population is not representative of the original population- generally caused by natural disaster
Founder effect: genetic drift in a new colony- a few individuals from a larger population colonize an isolated new habitat- ex. from mainland to island
Natural Selection: the differential success in reproduction- the alleles passed on to the next generation are disproportionate to the frequencies in the present generation- ex. Wildflower population
Gene flow: genetic exchange due to the migration of fertile individuals or gametes between populations- ex. Wildflower population in a windstorm
Genetic variation occurs within and between populations
Both quantitative and discrete characters contribute to variation within a population- quantitative variation indicates polygenic inheritance
- discrete characters can be classified on an either-or basis
Polymorphism: when two or more morphs (variations) are represented in high enough frequencies to be noticeable
Genetic variation can be measured at the level of whole genes (gene diversity) and at the molecular level of DNA (nucleotide diversity)
Gene diversity: the average percent of loci that are heterozygous
Nucleotide diversity: comparing the nucleotide sequence of DNA samples
Geographic variation: differences in gene pools between populations or subgroups. - NS can contribute to geographic variation
Diploidy and balanced polymorphism preserve variation
Genetic variation can be hidden from being selected against by the use of heterozygotes
Balanced polymorphism: the ability of natural selection to maintain stable frequencies of phenotypic forms
- ex. heterozygote advantage as seen in sickle-cell disease- ex. frequency-dependent selection: survival and production of any one morph declines if that phenotype becomes too common in a population
Populations can adapt to the environment in various ways
Directional selection: shifts the frequency curve for variations in one direction by favoring individuals that deviate from the average characterex. size of black bears
Diversifying (disruptive) selection: environmental conditions favor individuals on both extremes of a phenotypic range
Stabilizing selection: acts against the extremes; favors the more common intermediate variants