Post on 18-Oct-2015
description
transcript
5/28/2018 Tips on Writing a Philosophy Paper
1/18
TIPSONWRITINGAPHILOSOPHYPAPER
DouglasW.Portmore
Copyright2001(Revised2006)byDouglasW.Portmore.SomeRightsReserved.ThisworkislicensedunderaCreativeCommonsLicense.Seefulllicensingdetailshere.
1.ConstructingaThesisStatementAthesisstatementisthatsentenceortwothatassertsyourpositiononagivenissue,
specifically,thepositionthatyouwillbearguingforinyourpaper. Thisthesis
statementshouldappearsomewhereintheintroductiontoyourpaper. Itcanbethe
firstsentence,althoughthatsoftenarathersimplisticandunexcitingwaytobeginyour
paper.Moreoften,then,athesisstatementshouldappearatorneartheendofthefirst
paragraphortwo.
Thefirststepindevelopingathesis(onceyouhavedecidedonatopic)isto
determinewhatyourpositionis. Todothis,youwillneedtothoroughlyreviewallthe
relevantcoursematerials. Inmostcases,youwillhavebeenpresentedwithanumberof
argumentsonbothsidesoftheissue. Carefullyanalyzeandevaluateallthose
arguments,takingnotesasyoudo. Intheprocess,youshoulddevelopyourowntake
ontheissue.
Itisimperativethatyouclearlydefineyourthesisbeforeyoubeginwriting,foritis
yourthesisthatwillguideyouthroughouttheentirewritingprocesseverythingyou
writeshouldsomehowcontributetoitsdefense. Thisdoesntmeanthatyourthesis
cantberevised,narrowed,orrefinedduringthewritingprocess;itslikelythatitwillneedtobe. Thepointisthatyouwontevenknowwheretostartunlessyouhaveat
leastaworkingthesistoguideyou.
Yourthesisshouldnarrowthefocusofyourpaper. Supposeyouareaskedtowrite
onthemindbodyproblem. Itsimportanttorealizethatitwontbepossibletoaddress
everyimportantphilosophicalissueconcerningsuchabroadtopicinjustonepaper.
Youllneedtochooseathesisthatnarrowsthefocustosomethingmoremanageable.
Dontbetooambitioushere.Yourenotgoingtosolvesomethinglikethemindbody
probleminfive,oreventwenty,pages. Ofcourse,itsalsoimportantnottogotoofarin
theoppositedirection. Yourthesismustntbetrivial. Instead,yourthesisshouldmake
aninteresting
assertion,
one
over
which
reasonable
people
might
disagree.
Yourthesisshouldbequitespecific,therebydefiningasharpfocusforyourpaper.
DontmakeaclaimsuchasPeopleshoulddonatemoneytohungerrelief
organizations. Thisisvague. Areyousayingthatdonatingmoneytohungerrelief
organizationsismoralobligatory,orareyoumerelyclaimingthatdoingsowouldbe
supererogatory? Ineithercase,youshouldstateyourreasonsformakingtheclaimthat
youdo,foryourthesisshouldprovidesomehintastowhatthemainargumentwillbe.
Tosumup,athesisstatementshould:
http://www.public.asu.edu/~dportmor/http://www.public.asu.edu/~dportmor/http://www.public.asu.edu/~dportmor/http://www.public.asu.edu/~dportmor/http://www.public.asu.edu/~dportmor/http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/1.0/http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/1.0/http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/1.0/http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/1.0/http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/1.0/http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/1.0/http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/1.0/http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/1.0/http://www.public.asu.edu/~dportmor/5/28/2018 Tips on Writing a Philosophy Paper
2/18
Bespecific. Benarrowenoughastobepracticablydefendedwithinthelengthparametersoftheassignment.
Makeaninterestingclaim,oneoverwhichreasonablepeoplemightdisagree. Providesomehintastowhatthemainlineofargumentwillbe.
Thefollowingaresomedosanddonts.
NO:
Iwillarguethatactutilitarianismisthemostplausiblemoraltheoryaround.NOTE: Thisistooambitious. Thereisnochanceofadequatelydefendingsucha
claiminanythingshorterthanabooklengthproject. Todefendsuchaclaim,
youwouldhavetocompareactutilitarianismwithKantianism,rule
utilitarianism,virtue
ethics,
moral
relativism,
moral
subjectivism,
divine
commandtheory,etc.andarguethatactutilitarianismdoesbetterthanallthe
othersintermsofourstandardsforevaluatingmoraltheories(i.e.,consistency,
determinacy,intuitiveappeal,internalsupport,etc.). Amoresensiblethesis
wouldfocusondefendingactutilitarianismagainstcertainspecificobjectionsor
wouldarguethatactutilitarianismismoreplausiblethan,say,Kantianism.
Deathandsufferingfromalackfood,potablewater,andbasichealthcareisbad.NOTE: Thisistrivial;noreasonablepersonwoulddisagree.
Iwilldiscussobjectionstomoralrelativism.NOTE: Itsnotenoughtosaythatyouwilldiscussacertainissue;youmuststate
yourpositionontheissue.
Ibelievethatthedivinecommandtheoryisanimplausiblemoraltheory.NOTE: Thisstatementmerelyreportswhatonebelieves;itdoesntassert
anythingabouttheplausibilityofthedivinecommandtheory. Athesis
statementmustmakeanassertionabouttheissueathand,notaboutonesbeliefs
concerningthatissue.
Iwillarguethatabortioniswrong.NOTE: Thisstatementisntspecificenough. Yourthesisshouldexplainwhy,on
yourview,abortioniswrong.
5/28/2018 Tips on Writing a Philosophy Paper
3/18
Iwillarguethatdonatingmoneytohungerrelieforganizationsiscounterproductive.
NOTE: Theissueofwhetherornotdonatingmoneytohungerrelief
organizationsiscounterproductiveisanempiricalissue,notaphilosophical
issue. Youmusttakeastandonsomephilosophicalissue.
Iwillarguethatdonatingoursurplusincometohungerrelieforganizationswouldresultinmoredeathsandmoresuffering.
NOTE: Theissueofwhetherornotdonatingoursurplusincometohungerrelief
organizationswouldresultinmoredeathsandmoresufferingisanempirical
issue,notaphilosophicalissue.Youmustaddresssomephilosophicalissue.
Thusamoreinterestingthesiswouldaddressthefollowingissue:Ifdonatingour
surplusincomewouldalleviatesignificantsufferingandsavelives,wouldwe
thenbe
morally
obligated
to
do
so?
YES:
Iwillarguethatevenifthefetusisapersonwitharighttolife,abortionis,nevertheless,morallypermissibleinthecaseofrape,forthefetushasnorightto
usethewomansbodywithout,atleast,hertacitconsent,andthisisclearly
absentwherethewomanispregnantasaresultofbeingraped.
NOTE: Thepositionyoutakedoesnthavetoexhaustthetopic. Forinstance,
theres
nothing
wrong
with
taking
a
stand
on
the
morality
of
abortion
in
the
case
ofrapewhileremainingneutralaboutothercases.
IwillarguethatThomsonsargumentisntcogent. Iwilldemonstratethatthereareimportantdifferencesbetweenkillingtheviolinist(inherFamousViolinist
Example)andkillingafetusthathasbeenconceivedasresultofrape.These
differencesundermineherargumentbyanalogyforthepermissibilityof
abortioninthecaseofrape.
NOTE: Youdonthavetomakeanypositiveassertion. Athesisthatassertsthat
somephilosophicalpositionisfalseorthatsomephilosophersargumentis
unsoundisaninterestingandimportantthesis.
IwillarguethatArthurscriticismsfailtoundermineSingerscentralthesis:thatwearemorallyobligatedtodonateoursurplusincometohungerrelief
organizations. IwillshowthatSingercanrebutArthursobjectionsby.
5/28/2018 Tips on Writing a Philosophy Paper
4/18
NOTE: Evenifyouagreeentirelywithoneofthephilosophersthatyouveread,
youcanstillhavesomethingoriginalandimportanttosay. Forinstance,you
couldshowhowthatphilosophermightrebutcriticismsfromanother.
IwillarguethatSingersthesisneedstoberevisedinlightofArthurscriticisms,butonlyslightly. IwillproposethefollowingrevisedversionofSingersthesis. AndIwillarguethatthisrevisedversionofSingersthesisavoids
Arthursobjections. Lastly,Iwilldefendthisrevisedthesisagainstother
potentialobjections.
NOTE: Ifyoucantseeanywaytodefendathesisinitscurrentform,youmight
suggesthowthatthesiscouldberevisedsoastoavoidtheobjectionsleveledby
another.
Iwillarguethatmanyoftheobjectionsthathavebeenleveledagainstactutilitarianism
can
be
met
and
that,
on
the
whole,
act
utilitarianism
is
a
rather
plausibletheory.Nevertheless,Iwilladmitthatoneseriousobjectionremains,
forwhichIcanseenoadequateresponsenamely,.However,thisdoesnot
meanweshouldrejectthetheory,for,asIwillshow,nonutilitariantheoriesface
thefollowingmoreseriousobjection...
NOTE: Oftentimes,youllfindthatallthealternativepositionsfacesome
problemoranother. Inthiscase,youcanstilldefendonepositionoveritsrivals
byarguingthatitfacesfewerorlessseriousproblemsthantheothersdo. Of
course,youstillneedbeupfrontabouttheproblemsthatyourownfavored
position
faces,
and,
in
light
of
those
potential
problems,
you
may
want
to
make
yourthesissomewhattentative:utilitarianismseemstobethemostpromising
positionratherthanutilitarianismiscorrect.
2.TheIntroductionGetrightdowntobusiness!Avoidinflated,rhetoricalintroductoryremarks(commonly
knownas fluff).If,forinstance,yourpaperisonabortion,youshouldntwastelimited
spacewithsomeirrelevantandlongwindedspielaboutwhatanimportantand
controversialissueabortionis.Norshouldyoustartyourpaperoffwithasentencelike,
Downthroughtheages,mankindhasponderedtheproblemof.... Nevertheless,you
shouldmotivate
your
paper,
explaining
what
issue
or
problem
that
you
will
be
addressingandwhyitsimportantjustkeepitbrief.
Anintroductionisbestthoughtofasareadersguidetoyourpaper.Itshouldhelp
makeiteasierforthereadertofollowandunderstandyourpaper.Itshouldincludean
explicitstatementofwhatitisthatyouwillbearguingfor(thatis,yourthesis),and
defineforthereaderanyterminologythatsneededtounderstandyourthesis.The
introductionshouldalsomapoutthestructureofyourpaper,explainingtheorderin
whichyouwillargueforvariouspointsandexplaininghowallthosepointscome
5/28/2018 Tips on Writing a Philosophy Paper
5/18
togetherinsupportofyourthesis.Tosumup,agoodintroductionshould:(1)be
concise,(2)containaclearstatementofyourthesis,(3)introduce,verysuccinctly,your
topicandexplainwhyitisimportant,(4)indicate,verybriefly,whatthemainlineof
argumentwillbe,and(5)mapouttheoverallstructureofyourpaper.
Illustrations:
ThefollowingaretwoexamplesofthetypeofintroductionthatIamlookingfor.The
firstisMaryAnneWarrensintroductiontoherpaper OntheMoralandLegalStatusof
Abortion, TheMonist57(January1973)reprintedinTomL.BeauchampandLeRoy
Walters,eds.,ContemporaryIssuesinBioethics,3rded.(Belmont,CA:Wadsworth,1989),
p.211:
Wewillbeconcernedwithboththemoralstatusofabortion,whichforourpurposeswemay
defineastheactwhichawomanperformsinvoluntarilyterminating,orallowinganotherperson
toterminate,herpregnancy,andthelegalstatuswhichisappropriateforthisact.Iwillargue
that,whileitisnotpossibletoproduceasatisfactorydefenseofawomansrighttoobtainan
abortionwithoutshowingthatafetusisnotahumanbeing,inthemorallyrelevantsenseofthat
term,weoughtnottoconcludethatthedifficultiesinvolvedindeterminingwhetherornota
fetusishumanmakeitimpossibletoproduceanysatisfactorysolutiontotheproblemofthe
moralstatusofabortion.Foritispossibletoshowthat,onthebasisofintuitionswhichwemay
expecteventheopponentsofabortiontoshare,afetusisnotaperson,andhencenotthesortof
entitytowhichitispropertoascribefullmoralrights.
ThesecondexampleistheintroductiontomypaperWelfare,Achievement,andSelf
Sacrifice:
RECENTLY,
SOME
PHILOSOPHERS
haveargued
that
by
holding
that
it
is
the
achievement
of
our
goals
asopposedtothefulfillmentofourdesiresthatcontributestoourwelfare,wecanaccommodate
whatsattractiveaboutthedesiretheoryofwelfarewhileavoidingitsimplausibleimplications.
Theviewthattheachievementofonesgoals in itselfcontributestooneswelfare iswhatIcall
theAchievementView.Adifferentviewholdsthatthemeaningfulnessofonesselfsacrifices
initselfcontributestooneswelfare,whereonesselfsacrificescountasmeaningfulifandonlyif
theywerenot fornaught. I call thisview theNotforNaughtView,or theNFNView for
short.Inthispaper,IarguethattheNFNViewhasalltheadvantagesthattheAchievementView
hasplussomeothers,thatithasnoneofthedisadvantagesthattheAchievementViewhas,and
that,therefore,thosesympathetictotheAchievementViewshouldaccepttheNFNViewinstead.
Ofcourse, itispossibletoacceptbothviewssincetheyarenotcontraries,but iftheNFNView
hasalltheadvantagesandnoneofthedisadvantagesoftheAchievementView,thentheformer
shouldsupplantthe latter. IwontbearguingthattheNFNViewissuperiortoallotherviews
aboutwelfare,onlythatitissuperiortotheAchievementView.Nevertheless,thepaperwillbeofinterest even to thosewho oppose theAchievement View,because, as Iwill show, amuch
strongercasecanbemadeinfavoroftheNFNView,andsotheopponentsoftheAchievement
ViewshouldfindtheNFNViewtobeamoreworthycontender.
Thepaperhasthefollowingstructure.Insection1,Iexplicatethetwoviews.Insection2,I
arguethattheNFNViewhasalltheadvantagesthatphilosopherssuchasThomasScanlonand
SimonKellerhaveclaimedfortheAchievementView.Insection3,Iarguethat,unliketheNFN
View,theAchievementViewhasanumberofcounterintuitiveimplications,includingthatwe
should,otherthingsbeingequal,adoptgoalsthatwillplayamorecomprehensiveroleinour
5/28/2018 Tips on Writing a Philosophy Paper
6/18
livesand/orthatwillrequiremoreproductiveefforttoachieve.Insection4,IarguethattheNFN
Viewhasgreaterexplanatorypower,accountingforabroaderandmorediverserangeof
intuitionsaboutwelfare.Lastly,insection5,Iarguethat,unliketheAchievementView,theNFN
Viewiscompatiblebothwiththeideathatwecanprovideaunifiedtheoryofwelfareandwith
theideathatonlybeingswithsomesortofaffectcanhaveawelfare.
3.TheBodyThebodyofyourpapershouldinclude:(1)anexpositionoftheviews,concepts,and
argumentstobediscussed,(2)yourownargumentsinsupportofyourthesisand
claims,and(3)aconsiderationofobjectionsandcounterargumentsalongwithyour
responsestothem.
Eachbodyparagraphshouldpresentonlyasingleideaorsetofrelatedideas,and
eachshouldbringyourreaderonestepclosertoacceptingyourthesisandthecogency
ofyourarguments.Becauseeachbodyparagraphshouldbeastepinyourargument,
youshouldbemindfuloftheoverallorganizationofyourbodyparagraphs.Agood
waytotestthestrengthofbothyourtopicsentencesandyourargumentasawholeisto
constructanoutlineofyourpaperusingonlyyourpapersthesisstatementandthetopic
sentencescontainedinthebodyofyouressay.Thisoutlineshouldcontainthelogical
coreofyourpapersargument,anditshouldfollowaclearlogicalpattern.
Thefirststepinwritinganeffectivebodyparagraphistheconstructionofitstopic
sentence.Justasyourthesisstatementactsasthecontrollingideabehindyourentire
paper,atopicsentenceactsasthecontrollingideathatbindstogetherthesentences
withinaparagraph.Thesentenceswithinaparagraphshouldexplain,develop,or
supporttheidea/claimthatwasintroducedinthetopicsentence.(Althoughmost
paragraphsshouldhaveatopicsentence,noteveryparagraphneedsone.Forinstance,a
topicsentencewontbeneededinaparagraphthatcontinuestodevelopanideathat
wasintroducedbythetopicsentenceofthepreviousparagraph.Andalthoughatopicsentenceneedntalwaysappearasthefirstsentenceinaparagraph,itisoftenmost
effectivewhenitdoes.)
4.TheConclusionThebasicpurposeofyourconclusionistorestateyourthesisandsummarizeyour
argument,butitshouldnotjustbeacopyofyourintroduction.Inyourconclusion,you
shouldmakeafinalefforttoconvincethereaderthatyouhavebothestablishedyour
thesisandofferedacogentargumentinitsdefense.Theconclusionisalsotheplaceto
discusstheimplicationsand/orlimitationsofyourargument.Forinstance,youmight
explainwhatthepracticaland/ortheoreticalimplicationsofyourargumentare.You
mightalsopointtosomequestionsthatyourargumentraisesortosomeoftheissues
thatyourpaperleavesunresolved.
5.MakingtheStructureofYourPaperPerspicuous5.1Thestructureoftheparagraphswithinyourpaper:Agoodpaperwillhavealogicaland
perspicuousstructure.Youneedtoorganizeyourpointsandargumentsinalogical
5/28/2018 Tips on Writing a Philosophy Paper
7/18
fashionandatthesametimemakethatorganizationapparenttoyourreader.Each
paragraphshouldhaveaclearplaceintheoverallargument.Forinstance,heresone
commonstructure:introduction,explicationofsomephilosophicalpositionorproblem
(i.e.,explicationofthepositionthatyoullbecriticizingorexplicationthephilosophical
problemthatyouhopetosolve),themainargument(youllprobablyneedmorethan
oneparagraph),clarificationofandsupportforthecontroversialpremisesinyourmainargument(oneparagraphpercontroversialpremise),considerationofpotential
objectionsandyourresponsestothem(again,oneparagraphperobjection),conclusion.
Thekeytohavingyouressayfollowalogicalstructureistomakeanoutlinebefore
sittingdowntowrite.Itsdifficulttogiveanymorespecificadvicesincethebestlogical
structureforyouressaywilldependontheparticularitiesofyourargument.Butthere
aretwoobviouspointsthatyoushouldbeawareof:(1)makesureyouexplicateaview
orargument,clearlyandcharitably,beforecriticizingitand(2)explainkeyterms,
concepts,andexamplesbeforeemployingthem.
Icannotoveremphasizehowimportantitistomakethestructureofyouressay
perspicuousto
your
reader;
your
reader
shouldn
t
have
to
work
to
figure
it
out.
So
start
withagoodintroduction,onethatmapsoutthegeneralstructureoftheessay,andthen,
inthebodyofyourpaper,employtransitionalwordsandsentencestokeepyourreader
ontrack.
Usetransitionalphrases,suchas:
Iwillbeginby...
BeforeIsaywhatiswrongwithXsargument,Iwillfirst...
Atthispoint,weneedtoconsiderthefollowingobjection...
In
this
section,
I
will...
Inthenextsection,Iwill...
Havingarguedfortheviewthat...,Inowwishtoconsiderrivalviews.
AlthoughIhaveshown...,Istillneedtoprove...
Next,Iwilloffersupportforwhatisperhapsmymostcontroversialassumption,that...
Ihavearguedthat...,butsomeonemightobject...
Furthersupportforthisclaimcomesfrom...
Thesetransitionalphrasesgoalongwaytowardsmakingthestructureofyourpaper
perspicuous.Toillustrate,considerthefollowingtwopaperfragments:1
...WevejustseenhowXsaysthatP. Iwillnowpresenttwoarguments
thatnotP.
Myfirstargumentis...
Mysecondargumentis...
Xmightrespondtomyargumentsinseveralways. Forinstance,he
1IborrowthisfromJamesPryors GuidelinesonWritingaPhilosophyPaper.
5/28/2018 Tips on Writing a Philosophy Paper
8/18
mightsaythat...
However,thisresponsefails,because...
AnotherwaythatXmightrespondtomyargumentsistoclaimthat...
Thisresponsealsofails,because...
SowehaveseenthatnoneoftheresponsesopentoXsucceedin
rebuttingmyargument. Hence,weshouldrejectXsclaimthatP.
IwillarguefortheviewthatQ.
TherearethreereasonstoacceptQ.
First...
Second...
Third...
ThestrongestobjectiontoQis...
However,thisobjectiondoesnotsucceed,forthefollowingreasons...
Noticehoweasyitistoidentifyandfollowthestructureofeachpaper.Youwantyour
papertobejustaseasytofollow.
Youmightalsoconsiderdividingyourpaperintosections(andpossiblyeven
subsections),usinginformativeheadingstohelpguideyourreader.Thistoocanhelp
makethestructureofyouressayperspicuous.
Illustration:
I.Introduction
II.SingersArgumentforanObligationtoAssist
III.
Why
We
Should
Reject
His
Initial
Assumption
IV. HowSingerMightRespond
V.Conclusion
5.2Thestructureofthesentenceswithinyourparagraphs:Notonlyshouldtheparagraphs
withinanessaycohere,butsoshouldthesentenceswithineachparagraph.Theyshould
flowsmoothlyfromonetothenext.Thereareanumberofwaystoachievethis:(1)
Repeatkeywordsandphrases.Itisimportanttobeconsistentwhenreferringtokey
conceptsandtheories.Thisconsistencyandrepetitionwillhelpbindtheparagraph
together.(2)Usepronounstorefertowhatwasmentionedearlierintheparagraph.If
yousay
This
is
true
because...,
the
reader
is
forced
to
recall
what
this
refers
to.
The
pronoun,thus,causesthereadertosumup,quicklyandsubconsciously,whatwassaid
previously(whatthisis)beforegoingontothebecauseclause.Ofcourse,itismust
alwaysbeperfectlyclearwhatthepronounrefersto.Ifthe this isambiguoussuchthat
itcouldrefertoeitheroneofthetwothingsthatyoumentionedintheprevious
sentence,thenthereaderwillhavetopausetofigureoutwhichitis,andthatsbad.(3)
Createparallelstructures.Parallelstructuresarecreatedbyconstructingtwoormore
phrasesorsentencesthathavethesamegrammaticalstructureorusethesamepartsof
5/28/2018 Tips on Writing a Philosophy Paper
9/18
speech.Parallelstructureshelpthereaderseethattheparagraphisgivinganumberof
illustrationsofthesamegeneralidea.(4)Usetransitionalorbridgingwordstohelpthe
readerfollowthelogicalstructureoftheparagraph.
Herearesomeexamplesofsuchtransitionalwords:
Toshowaddition:and,also,besides,forone,inthefirstcase,first,second,third,finally
Tooffersupport:because,since,for,given Toconclude:so,thus,therefore,hence,consequently,accordingly,itfollowsthat,forthisreason,fromthis,asaresult,itwouldseemthen
Toillustrate:e.g.,forexample,forinstance,toillustrate,acaseinpoint Tospecify:i.e.,thatis,viz.,namely,specifically Tointensify:moreover,furthermore,mainly,principally,aboveall,afterall,whatsmore,moreimportantly
Toemphasize:certainly,indeed,infact,ofcourse Tocompare:likewise,similarly,bythesamereasoning Tocontrast:yet,but,rather,still,although,while,nevertheless,regardless,despite,evenso,inspiteof,however,whereas,eventhough,bycontrast,ontheone
hand...ontheotherhand...
Torefocus:inanycase,atanyrate,inaword,inshort,tosumup,toreturn Toindicatesupposition:assume,suppose,letsassume,letssuppose Toconcedeapoint:ofcourse,doubtless,itcannotbedenied,whilerecognizing,thefactremains
Illustration:Lookatthefollowingparagraph:2
TheancientEgyptiansweremastersofpreservingdeadpeoplesbodiesby
makingmummiesofthem.Mummiesseveralthousandyearsoldhavebeen
discoverednearlyintact.Theskin,hair,teeth,fingernailsandtoenails,andfacial
featuresofthemummieswereevident.Itispossibletodiagnosethediseasethey
sufferedinlife,suchassmallpox,arthritis,andnutritionaldeficiencies.The
processwasremarkablyeffective.Sometimesapparentwerethefatalafflictions
ofthedeadpeople:amiddleagedkingdiedfromablowonthehead,andpolio
killedachildking.Mummificationconsistedofremovingtheinternalorgans,
applyingnaturalpreservativesinsideandout,andthenwrappingthebodyin
layersofbandages.
Thoughweak,thisparagraphisnotatotalwashout.Itstartswithatopicsentence,and
thesentencesthatfollowareclearlyrelatedtothetopicsentence.Inthelanguageof
writing,theparagraphisunified(i.e.,itcontainsnoirrelevantdetails).However,the
paragraphisnotcoherent.Thesentencesaredisconnectedfromeachother,makingit
difficultforthereadertofollowthewriterstrainofthought.
2FromCharlesDarling,GuidetoGrammarandWriting,athttp://webster.commnet.edu/grammar/index.htm.
http://webster.commnet.edu/grammar/index.htmhttp://webster.commnet.edu/grammar/index.htm5/28/2018 Tips on Writing a Philosophy Paper
10/18
Belowisthesameparagraphrevisedforcoherence.(Italicsindicatespronounsand
repeatedkeywords,boldindicatestransitionalwords,andunderliningindicatesparallel
structures.)
TheancientEgyptiansweremastersofpreservingdeadpeoplesbodiesby
makingmummiesofthem.Inshort,mummificationconsistedofremovingthe
internalorgans,applyingnaturalpreservativesinsideandout,andthenwrappingthebodyinlayersofbandages.Andtheprocesswasremarkably
effective.Indeed,mummiesseveralthousandyearsoldhavebeendiscovered
nearlyintact.Theirskin,hair,teeth,fingernailsandtoenails,andfacialfeatures
arestillevident.Theirdiseasesinlife,suchassmallpox,arthritis,andnutritional
deficiencies,arestilldiagnosable.Eventheirfatalafflictionsarestillapparent:a
middleagedkingdiedfromablowonthehead;achildkingdiedfrompolio.
Theparagraphisnowmuchmorecoherent.Theorganizationoftheinformationandthe
linksbetweensentenceshelpreadersmoveeasilyfromonesentencetothenext.Notice
howthiswriterusesavarietyofcoherencedevices,sometimesincombination,to
achieveoverall
paragraph
coherence.
6.DemonstratingMasteryofthePertinentPhilosophicalMaterialAgoodphilosophypaperwilldemonstratemasteryofthepertinentphilosophical
views,concepts,andarguments.Todemonstratemastery,youmustdomorethanjust
regurgitatewhatyouhavememorizedfromthelecturesandreadings.Regurgitation
doesntevendemonstrateunderstandingletalonemastery.(ThisiswhyIsuggestthat
youusequotesonlysparingly,andthatwhenyoudousethemyoualwaysexplainwhat
thequotedpassagesaysinyourownwordsseethesectionentitled Quotingbelow.)
Furthermore,theresadifferencebetweenmerelyunderstandingatopicandmastering
it.Foryoucanunderstandsomematerialwithoutbeingabletoconveythatunderstandingtoothers.Tohavemasteryistohavetheabilitytoteachthatmaterialto
others,tobeabletoexplainthematerialarticulatelyusingyourownwords,
descriptions,andexamples,suchthatevensomeonewithnopriorknowledgeor
understandingofthematerialcouldunderstand.Onceyouvemasteredatopic,you
shouldunderstanditwellenoughtogobeyondwhatyouhavereadaboutit.You
shouldbeabletopresentanddefendyourownviewsonthetopic.Thekey,then,to
demonstratingmasteryistoshowthatyoucanexplainthingsinanilluminatingway,
usingyourownwordsandusingyourownoriginalexamplesanddescriptions.
7.ArguingforYourPositionWritingaphilosophypaperinvolvesmorethansimplystatingyouropinions.Youmust
supportyourviewsbypresentingargumentsinfavorofthem.Youshouldalsotryto
defendyourviewsagainstpotentialcriticisms.Thatis,trytoanticipatewhatobjections
mightberaisedagainstyourviewsanddemonstrateboththatyouareawareofthese
possibleobjectionsandthatyoucanrespondtothemmoreonthislater.
Aphilosophypapershouldberationallypersuasive.Forone,thismeansthatyou
5/28/2018 Tips on Writing a Philosophy Paper
11/18
shouldappealtoyourreadersintellectasopposedtohis/heremotions.Thusyoushould
avoidtheuseofinflammatorylanguageandnamecalling.Forinstance,avoid
statementssuchas, AnydoctorwhowouldgiveapatientalethalinjectionisaNazi.
Second,ifyourargumentsaretobepersuasive,theymustnotrestuponunsupported,
contentiousclaims.Insteadtheyshouldultimatelyrestuponassumptionsthatevena
reasonablepersonoftheopposingviewwouldaccept.Soif,forinstance,youwanttoarguethatabortionismorallywrong,youshouldntbeginbyassumingthatthefetus
hasarighttolife.Realizethatsuchanargumentwouldunlikelypersuadeanyonewho
is prochoice. Afterall,theviewthatthefetushasarighttolifefromthemomentof
conceptionispreciselywhatmostprochoiceadvocateswouldcontest.Ofcourse,you
canarguethatthefetushasarighttolife;youjustshouldntassumeit.
Thepointistoavoidmakinganyassumptionswhichsomeoneoftheopposingview
issuretoreject.Youshouldthinkofyourpaperasanattempttopersuadesomeoneof
theopposingview,andifyouaretohaveanychanceofpersuadingsuchaperson,you
mustfirstfindsomecommongroundfromwhichtobuildyourarguments.Agood
exampleof
what
I
have
in
mind
here
is
Judith
Jarvis
Thomson
s
arguments
in A
DefenseofAbortion. Inthispaper,Thomsonarguesthatabortionismorally
permissiblewherethewomanispregnantastheresultofbeingraped.Nowwhatmakes
Thomsonsargumentssocompellingisthattheyarebasedonassumptionsthateventhe
mostextremeantiabortionist(i.e.,onewhoholdsthatabortionisalwayswrong)would
likelyaccept.
Thomsonasksyoutoimaginewakingupsomemorningtofindyourselfconnectedto
anunconsciousviolinistsufferingfromapotentiallyfatalkidneyailment.Supposethat
lastnighttheSocietyofMusicLoverskidnappedyouand,withoutyourconsent,
surgicallyconnectedtheviolinisttoyourcirculatorysysteminadesperateattemptto
save
his
life.
You
now
face
the
following
choice.
You
can
remain
connected
to
the
violinistforninemonthsbywhichtimetheviolinistwillbeabletosurviveonhisown,
oryoucanunplugyourselffromtheviolinistinwhichcasetheviolinistwill
immediatelydieasaresult.
Thomsonassumesthatinthissituationyouareundernoobligationtoremain
connectedtotheviolinistfortheninemonths.Youmayunplugyourselffromthe
violinistevenifthisentailskillinghim.Nowthisassumptionseemsrelatively
uncontroversial;itisonethatevenaproliferwouldlikelyaccept.Butfromthis
seeminglybenignassumption,Thomsonisabletoarguethatabortionissometimes
permissibleevenifthefetushasarighttolife,fortheviolinistsurelyhasarighttolife
andyetitispermissibleforyoutokillhim.Andabortingafetuswhoseexistenceisdue
torapeis,inallmorallyrelevantrespects,analogoustounpluggingyourselffromthe
violinist(orsoThomsonargues).ThusThomsonconcludesthatitispermissibletohave
anabortionincertaincircumstances(i.e.,thecaseofrape)evenifthefetushasarightto
lifefromthemomentofconception.
8.CriticizinganArgument
5/28/2018 Tips on Writing a Philosophy Paper
12/18
Donttreatthephilosophersorviewsyourediscussingasiftheywerestupid.Ifthey
werestupid,wewouldntbediscussingtheminthefirstplace.Soevenifyouare
subsequentlygoingtocriticizeanargument,stateitfirstinafairandsympathetic
manner,makingclearwhyareasonablepersonmightbeledtothinkinsuchaway.In
somecases,itmayevenbenecessarytomakecharitablerevisionstoanargument.That
is,sometimesanargumentisflawedinawaythatcanbeeasilyfixed.Inthiscase,youshouldexplainhowtheargumentcanberevisedandthenfocusyourcriticismsonthis
stronger,revisedversionoftheargument.Forinstance,considerthefollowingobjection
againstThomsonsviolinistexample.SomepeoplearguethatThomsonsviolinist
exampleisntanalogoustopregnancybecausebeinghookeduptotheviolinistfornine
monthsisagreaterburdenforthepersonkidnappedthanpregnancyisforanexpectant
motheratleast,apregnantwomancanwalkaroundandgoplaces,whereastheperson
hookeduptotheviolinistisconfinedtoahospitalbed.ButitseemsthatThomsoncould
easilyreviseheranalogyandstilluseitforthesameeffect.Afterall,evenifwesuppose
thattheviolinistisamidgetwhocouldbecarriedononesbackfortheninemonths,it
stillseems
permissible
to
disconnect
yourself
from
him.
Thepointisyoudontwanttotaketheweakestargumentforanopposingviewan
attackthat.Ratheryouwanttothinkofthestrongestpossibleargumentforanopposing
viewandshowthateventhatargumentfails.Onlythenwillyouhaveconvincedothers
thattheopposingviewisindefensible.
Itisimportanttokeepinmindthatitisneverthecasethattheonlyproblemwithan
argumentisthatitsconclusionisfalse.Iftheconclusionisfalse,theneither(a)oneor
moreofitspremisesarefalseor(b)itsreasoningisfaultysuchthattheconclusion
doesntfollowfromthepremises.Thus,ifyoudisagreewiththeconclusionofan
argument,youmustfindfaultwitheitheritslogicorwithoneofitspremises,andyou
need
to
be
explicit
about
which
it
is
and
why.
Youshouldensurethatyourcriticismsfocusontherelevantphilosophicalissuesas
opposedtoanyrelatedempiricalissues.Inotherwords,Iamnotinterestedinpapers
thatcontesttheempiricalassertionsmadeinthelecturesandreadings.Thepointofthe
assignmentistodemonstrateyourphilosophicalabilities,notyourknowledgeofany
empiricalfacts.Soif,forinstance,yourpaperisaboutabortion,dontgettooinvolvedin
empiricalissuessuchaswhetherornotthefetusissentientorselfawareby,say,the
secondtrimester.Youshouldinsteadfocusontherelatedphilosophicalissuessuchas
howsentienceandselfawarenesscanaffectthemoralstatusofafetus.
9.ConsideringPotentialObjectionsAfterofferingreasonsforacceptingyourthesis,youneedtoconsiderpotential
objections. Theseobjectionscomeintwovarieties,andyoumustconsiderboth.First,
thereareobjectionstoyourargument,whichcanbedirectedagainsteitheryour
reasoningoryourassumptions.Secondthereareobjectionstoyourthesis.Thefirstsort
ofobjectionisdirectedagainstthereasonsyougiveforyourthesis,whilethesecond
sortisdirectedagainstthethesisitself.
Todealwiththefirstsortofobjection,youwillprobablyneedtooffersubarguments
5/28/2018 Tips on Writing a Philosophy Paper
13/18
(i.e.,argumentsthatdefendcertainstepsorassumptionsmadeinyourmainargument).
Butfirstyoullneedtoaskyourself,towhichofmyassumptionsandtowhichofthe
stepsinmyargumentissomeoneoftheopposingviewlikelytoobject.Youllneedto
offercounterargumentsagainstsuchobjections.Ultimately,theargumentativesteps
andassumptionsyourelyonshouldbeacceptabletoyouropponent.Thispartofyour
essayisabsolutelyessential.Forifyoufailtoconsiderandrebutsuchobjections,thenyouwillhavefailedtomakeasatisfactorypositivecaseforyourthesis.
Theothertypeofobjectionisdirectedagainstyourthesis/conclusion.Youshouldask
yourselfthefollowingquestions:Doesmyconclusionhaveanycontroversial
implications?CanIthinkofanycounterexamplestomyconclusion?And,most
importantly,DONTIGNOREYOUROPPONENTSCOUNTERARGUMENTS.Ifyou
makeaclaimthatoneofthephilosopherswevediscussedhasarguedagainst,you
absolutelymustaddressthatargumentseethesectionentitled Criticizingan
Argument. Inotherwords,ifyourthesisisPandoneofthephilosophersweve
discussedhasarguednotP,thenyoumustshowwherethatphilosophersargumentfor
notP
goes
wrong.
If
you
don
t,
you
will
receive
a
poor
grade.
Of
course,
if
you
don
t
thinkthatyoucanadequatelyrebuttheargument,thenyouneedtochangeyourthesis
tosomethingyoucandefend.
10.YourAudienceInyourpaper,youmustdemonstratethatyouhavemasteryofthephilosophicalissues
andargumentsthatyouarediscussing. Thebestwaytogoaboutdoingthisisby
pretendingthatyouarewriting,notforyourinstructor,butforsomeonewhoknows
absolutelynothingaboutphilosophyorthecoursethatyouretaking. So,asJamesPryor
putsit,
Pretendthatyourreaderhasnotreadthematerialyourediscussing,andhasnotgiventhetopic
muchthoughtinadvance.Thiswillofcoursenotbetrue.Butifyouwriteasifitweretrue,itwill
forceyoutoexplainanytechnicalterms,toillustratestrangeorobscuredistinctions,andtobeas
explicitaspossiblewhenyousummarizewhatsomeotherphilosophersaid.
Infact,youcanprofitablytakethisonestepfurtherandpretendthatyourreaderislazy,
stupid,andmean.Heslazyinthathedoesntwanttofigureoutwhatyourconvolutedsentences
aresupposedtomean,andhedoesntwanttofigureoutwhatyourargumentis,ifitsnotalready
obvious.Hesstupid,soyouhavetoexplaineverythingyousaytohiminsimple,bitesizedpieces
[whilealsoillustratingyourpointswithhelpfulexamples].Andhesmean,sohesnotgoingto
readyourpapercharitably.(Forexample,ifsomethingyousayadmitsofmorethanone
interpretation,hesgoingtoassumeyoumeantthelessplausiblething.)3
11.WritingClearlyandPreciselyRefrainfromusingstuffywordsandlongwindedsentences.Avoidpretentiousprose
suchas,alas,deem,quest,ponder,propound,etc.Beingclearisfarmore
importantthanappearingtohaveasophisticatedwritingstyle.Avoidusingvocabulary
3SeehisGuidelinesonWritingaPhilosophyPaper.
5/28/2018 Tips on Writing a Philosophy Paper
14/18
thatyouareunaccustomedtousinginordinaryconversation.Toomanystudentsthink
thatbeingphilosophicalinvolvesbeingcomplexandobscure.Quitetheopposite,
simplicityandclarityaretheidealsofphilosophy.
Youshouldchooseyourwordsverycarefully.Askyourself:DoeswhatIvewritten
preciselyexpressthethoughtsthatImeantoconvey?Donotleavesomethingunclear
andjustassumethatyourreaderwillbeabletofigureoutwhatyoumean.Forinstance,dontwritesomethinglike Abortionisthesamethingasmurder. Abortionandmurder
arenotthesamething.Ifabortionandmurderwerethesamething,thenonecouldsay
thatJacktheRipperabortedmanywomen.But,ofcourse,thisisabsurd.JacktheRipper
murderedmanywomenbutabortednone.Ofcourse,mostpeoplewouldunderstand
thatwhatyoumeantwasthatabortionisaformofmurder.Butwhetherornotyour
readerisabletofigureoutwhatyoumeantisirrelevant,becauseeitherwayitisbad
writing.
Youwillfindthatphilosopherswritewithadegreeofprecisionthatgoeswell
beyondthatwhichiscustomaryinordinaryconversation,andIwillexpectthesame
degreeof
precision
in
your
essay.
The
best
way
to
ensure
that
you
write
clearly
is
to
keepyourprosesimpleanddirect.Donttrytomakeyourwriting colorful. For
instance,dontusemetaphors justplainlysaywhatitisyouhavetosay.Andavoid
overstatingwhatyouhavetosay.Overstatementiscommonineverydayconversation
butunacceptableinaphilosophypaper.Forinstance,inconversationsomeonemight
say, Everyoneinthetropicsissorelaxed. But,ofcourse,noteveryonelivinginthe
tropicsisrelaxed.Sobecarefulwhenusingwordslike every and all.
Andavoidthefollowingpitfalls:
BadDiction:Thisiswhereawordisusedinappropriately.Example:
Rachels
s
argument
is
false.
(Statements,
claims,
beliefs,
etc.
can
all
be
trueorfalse,butnotarguments.Argumentsarevalidorinvalid,soundor
unsound,cogentornotcogent.)
Example: Thestatement Allhumanlivesarevaluable infersthatthelivesofpermanentlyunconscioushumansarevaluable. (Toinferistodrawsome
conclusionfromasetofstatementsorfacts.Buttodrawaconclusionisamental
actthatonlyrationalbeingscanperform.Thestatement Allhumanlivesare
valuable hasnomindandsocannotperformanymentalact,letalonethatof
inferring.Inthisexample,properdictiondemandsthattheword infersbe
replacedwiththeword implies.)
Example: Utilitarianismbelievesthattherightactistheonethatproducesthegreatesthappinessforthegreatestnumber. (Utilitarianismisaview,nota
consciousentity.Thusutilitarianismisincapableofthementalactofbelieving.So
youmustrevisethissentence.Initsplace,youcouldsay, Utilitariansbelieve...
or Utilitarianismistheviewaccordingtowhich...)
Vagueness:Thisiswhereonefailstoexpresswhats/hemeansprecisely. Example: Abortionisnotthebestsolutiontoanunwantedpregnancy. (Doesthismeanthatalthoughyouthinkthatabortionismorallypermissible,you
5/28/2018 Tips on Writing a Philosophy Paper
15/18
believethatitwouldbepreferableforwomenwithunwantedpregnanciesto
carrythemtotermandputtheirunwantedchildrenupforadoption?Or,does
thismeanthatyousimplythinkthatabortionismorallywrong?)
Ambiguity:Thisiswhereoneusesawordthatcanhavemorethanonemeaningbutfailstospecifywhichmeaningisintended.
Example: Afetusisaninnocenthumanbeing. (Byclaimingthatafetusishuman,areyoumerelyclaimingthatitisamemberofthespeciesHomosapiens?
Or,areyouclaimingthatitishumaninthemorallyrelevantsenseofthatterm,
thesenseinwhichwethinkyouandIarehumanbutsomeoneinapersistent
vegetativestateisnot?)
Example: Affirmativeactionisdiscrimination,plainandsimple. (Becarefulhere.Theword discrimination issometimesusedinanevaluativelyloaded
sensetorefertoprejudicedaction,butitisalsousedinanevaluativelyneutral
sensetorefertotheactofrespondingtodifferences.Andwhileitisclearthat
affirmativeactioninvolvestheactofrespondingtodifferencesinrace,itisnotat
allclear
that
it
involves
prejudice.
Consider
the
case
where
a
casting
director
refusestoauditionawhiteactorfortheroleofMalcolmX.Isthisdiscrimination?
Well,itisclearlydiscriminationintheevaluativelyneutralsenseoftheterm,but
itdoesntseemtobebasedonprejudice.Bottomline,theresnothingplainand
simpleaboutclaimingthataffirmativeactionisdiscrimination.)
12.ArguingAgainstaClaimThefollowingaretwoofthemostcommonstrategiesforarguingagainstaclaim(You
mayfinditusefultoemploythesestrategiesinyourownpaperortoconsiderwhether
youropponentmightbeabletousethemagainstyou.):
ReductioadAbsurdum:Thisstrategyinvolvesarguingagainstaclaimbyshowingthatitimpliessomeabsurdity.Toillustrate,considerthatsomepeopleclaimthatthereason
humansufferingismoreimportant(morallyspeaking)thananimalsufferingisthat
humanshaveakindanddegreeofintelligencethatotheranimalslack.Here,onecould
arguethatweshouldrejectsuchaclaimgiventhatitimpliesthatthesufferingof
severelyretardedinfants(whoalsolackthekindanddegreeofintelligencethatnormal
adultshumanbeingspossess)islessimportantthanthesufferingofnormaladult
humanbeings,whichjustseemspatentlyabsurd.
PresentingaCounter
example:
This
strategy
involves
giving
an
example
that
proves
somegeneralpropositionfalse.Toillustrate,considerthatsomepeoplemaintainthatwe
onlyhavedutiestohelpthosepeoplethatstandinsome specialrelationship to
ourselves.Forinstance,theysayIhaveadutytohelpmyfamilybecauseofthenatureof
familialrelationships.AndtheysaythatIhaveadutytohelpmyemployerbecauseof
thenatureoftheemployer/employeerelationship.However,theywoulddenythatI
haveadutytohelpmyfriendsemployersinceIdonotstandinanyspecialrelationship
tothatemployer;sheisnotmyemployer.
5/28/2018 Tips on Writing a Philosophy Paper
16/18
Onewaytoargueagainstthisviewistopresentacounterexample.Onefamous
example,whichcomesfromthephilosophicalliterature,iscalled TheShallowPond.
Imaginethatwhilewalkingtoclassoneday,youseeasmallchilddrowningina
shallowpond.Inordertosavethechild,youneedonlywadeintotheshallowpondand
grabthechild.Nowmostofusareinclinedtojudgethatyouhaveadutytosavethe
child.Weareeveninclinedtothinkthatitwouldbeseriouslymorallywrongtojustwalkawayandletthechilddrown.Butnotethatyoudonotstandinanyspecial
relationshiptothechild,forwearetosupposethatthechildisacompletestrangerwho
belongstoadifferentcultureandsociety.TheShallowPond,then,constitutesacounter
exampletotheclaimthatweonlyhaveadutytoaidthosewithwhomwehavesome
specialrelationship.
13.DefiningYourTermsAvoiddictionarydefinitionsofphilosophicalterms.Dictionariesarenotauthoritative
whenitcomestophilosophicalmeanings.Dictionariesaregoodauthoritiesonthe
commonandordinaryusageofwords,buttheproblemisthatthephilosophicaluseofa
wordrarelycoincideswithordinaryusage.Philosophicaltermsoftenhavevery
specializedmeanings.Considerthewords valid and true. Inordinaryconversation,
thewordscanoftenbeusedinterchangeably,aswhensomeonemightsubstitute Thats
avalidclaim for Thatsatrueclaim. Butdontbemisledbythis.Youcannotusethe
word true todescribeanargument.Asphilosophersusetheseterms, valid isusedto
describethoseargumentswheretheconclusionnecessarilyfollowsfromthepremises,
and true isusedtodescribethosestatements(notarguments!)thataccurately
representthewaytheworldis.
Althoughyoushouldnotuseadictionarytodoso,itisimportanttodefine
philosophicalterms,aswellasotherkeyterms.Awordmustbedefinedifanyoffollowingapply:(1)itisatechnicaltermthatalaypersonisnotlikelytoknowthe
meaningof,(2)itisanordinarywordwhosemeaningisnotsufficientlyclearorprecise,
or(3)itisanordinarywordthatisgoingtobeusedtomeansomethingotherthanwhat
itordinarilymeans.Sodefinetechnicaltermslike determinism, aprioriknowledge,
and primafaciewrong. Anddefinewordslike euthanasia and abortion. Although
thesearefairlyordinarywords,theirprecisedefinitionsareopenfordebate.For
instance,inregardstoabortion,itisnotclearwhetherabortionnecessarilyinvolves
killingthefetus.Cantherebe livebirth abortions?Ifafetusisforciblyextractedbya
physicianandlives,wasitanabortion?Ourordinarynotionofabortionisntprecise
enoughto
settle
the
issue.
Lastly,ifyouaregoingtouseanordinarywordtomeansomethingotherthanwhat
itordinarilymeans,youmustmakethatcleartoyourreader.Forinstance,PeterSinger
usestheword person torefertoanyrational,selfconsciousbeing.Thus,asSinger
defines person, nonhumanscanbepersons.Ofcourse,itmayseemoddtocall
anythingbutahumanbeingaperson,butthisisonlybecauseSingerdoesntuse
person tomeanwhatitordinarilymeans.Nevertheless,thereisnothingwrongwith
5/28/2018 Tips on Writing a Philosophy Paper
17/18
usinganordinarywordinsuchanonordinarysensesolongasyoumakeitclearthat
youaredoingso andSingerdoes.
14.QuotingDo
not
rely
on
quotations
as
a
means
of
making
your
points.
You
should,
rather,
explain
thingsusingyourownwords.Theabilitytoexplainsomeoneelsespositionusingyour
ownwordsdemonstratestothereaderthatyouhaveaclearunderstandingofthat
personsviewpoint.Youshouldalsoavoidcloseparaphrasingforthesamereason.
Usequotationsonlyinordertosupportaparticularinterpretationofatext.Sodont
quoteunlessyouintendtodiscussthequotedpassageandhowitsupportsyour
interpretationofthetext.Perhapstheonlyotherexceptioniswhereyouwanttoquote
theprecisedefinitionofaword,asitisgivenbyoneofthephilosophersthatyoure
discussing.
15.PlagiarismPlagiarismistheactofusinganotherpersonsideasorexpressionsinyourwriting
withoutacknowledgingthesource...toplagiarizeistogivetheimpressionthatyouhave
writtenorthoughtsomethingthatyouhaveinfactborrowedfromsomeoneelse....
Otherformsofplagiarismincluderepeatingsomeoneelsesparticularlyaptphrase
withoutappropriateacknowledgment,paraphrasinganotherpersonsargumentasyour
own,andpresentinganotherslineofthinkingasthoughitwereyourown.4
Ifyouareatallunclearaboutwhatcountsasplagiarism,thenyoushouldseeyour
instructorbecauseplagiarismoftencarriesseverepenalties,rangingfromanFonthe
assignmenttoexpulsionfromtheuniversity.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Icannotclaimcreditformanyoftheideascontainedwithinthisguide.Manyofthem
havecomefromtheotherguidesthatIvelookedatIvelistedthembelow.Ihavealso
borrowedfromhandoutsusedbycolleaguesatboththeUniversityofCalifornia,Santa
BarbaraandtheCollegeofCharleston.Ihavetriedtogivecreditwherecreditisdue,but
Imayhaveleftsomepeopleout.Mysincereapologiestothoseindividualsandmy
thankstotheauthorsofallthoseguides.
OTHERGUIDESTOWRITINGPHILOSOPHY
A.P.Martinich,PhilosophicalWriting,2nded.(Cambridge,MA:Blackwell,1996). JoelFeinbergandRussShaferLandau,DoingPhilosophy(Belmont,CA:Wadsworth,2001).
StephenM.Garrison,AnthonyJ.Graybosch,andGregoryM.Scott,ThePhilosophyStudentWritersManual(EnglewoodCliffs,NJ:PrenticeHall,1997).
P.Martinich,PhilosophicalWriting,2nded.(Cambridge,MA:Blackwell,1996).4JosephGibaldiandWalterS.Achert,MLAHandbookforWritersofResearchPapers,3rded.(NewYork,NY:
TheModernLanguageAssociation,1988),2125.
http://shop.barnesandnoble.com/textbooks/booksearch/isbnInquiry.asp?userid=1LKG36QHG9&mscssid=TR6US41BQWQ29H9K56P7XB8HFF8J133C&isbn=0534516823http://shop.barnesandnoble.com/textbooks/booksearch/isbnInquiry.asp?userid=1LKG36QHG9&mscssid=TR6US41BQWQ29H9K56P7XB8HFF8J133C&isbn=0534516823http://shop.barnesandnoble.com/textbooks/booksearch/isbnInquiry.asp?userid=1LKG36QHG9&mscssid=TR6US41BQWQ29H9K56P7XB8HFF8J133C&isbn=0534516823http://shop.barnesandnoble.com/textbooks/booksearch/isbnInquiry.asp?userid=1LKG36QHG9&mscssid=TR6US41BQWQ29H9K56P7XB8HFF8J133C&isbn=0132373718http://shop.barnesandnoble.com/textbooks/booksearch/isbnInquiry.asp?userid=1LKG36QHG9&mscssid=TR6US41BQWQ29H9K56P7XB8HFF8J133C&isbn=0132373718http://shop.barnesandnoble.com/textbooks/booksearch/isbnInquiry.asp?userid=1LKG36QHG9&mscssid=TR6US41BQWQ29H9K56P7XB8HFF8J133C&isbn=0132373718http://shop.barnesandnoble.com/textbooks/booksearch/isbnInquiry.asp?userid=1LKG36QHG9&mscssid=TR6US41BQWQ29H9K56P7XB8HFF8J133C&isbn=0132373718http://shop.barnesandnoble.com/textbooks/booksearch/isbnInquiry.asp?userid=1LKG36QHG9&mscssid=TR6US41BQWQ29H9K56P7XB8HFF8J133C&isbn=0132373718http://shop.barnesandnoble.com/textbooks/booksearch/isbnInquiry.asp?userid=1LKG36QHG9&mscssid=TR6US41BQWQ29H9K56P7XB8HFF8J133C&isbn=0132373718http://shop.barnesandnoble.com/textbooks/booksearch/isbnInquiry.asp?userid=1LKG36QHG9&mscssid=TR6US41BQWQ29H9K56P7XB8HFF8J133C&isbn=0132373718http://shop.barnesandnoble.com/textbooks/booksearch/isbnInquiry.asp?userid=1LKG36QHG9&mscssid=TR6US41BQWQ29H9K56P7XB8HFF8J133C&isbn=0132373718http://shop.barnesandnoble.com/textbooks/booksearch/isbnInquiry.asp?userid=1LKG36QHG9&mscssid=TR6US41BQWQ29H9K56P7XB8HFF8J133C&isbn=0132373718http://shop.barnesandnoble.com/textbooks/booksearch/isbnInquiry.asp?userid=1LKG36QHG9&mscssid=TR6US41BQWQ29H9K56P7XB8HFF8J133C&isbn=0132373718http://shop.barnesandnoble.com/textbooks/booksearch/isbnInquiry.asp?userid=1LKG36QHG9&mscssid=TR6US41BQWQ29H9K56P7XB8HFF8J133C&isbn=0132373718http://shop.barnesandnoble.com/textbooks/booksearch/isbnInquiry.asp?userid=1LKG36QHG9&mscssid=TR6US41BQWQ29H9K56P7XB8HFF8J133C&isbn=0631202811http://shop.barnesandnoble.com/textbooks/booksearch/isbnInquiry.asp?userid=1LKG36QHG9&mscssid=TR6US41BQWQ29H9K56P7XB8HFF8J133C&isbn=0631202811http://shop.barnesandnoble.com/textbooks/booksearch/isbnInquiry.asp?userid=1LKG36QHG9&mscssid=TR6US41BQWQ29H9K56P7XB8HFF8J133C&isbn=0631202811http://shop.barnesandnoble.com/textbooks/booksearch/isbnInquiry.asp?userid=1LKG36QHG9&mscssid=TR6US41BQWQ29H9K56P7XB8HFF8J133C&isbn=0631202811http://shop.barnesandnoble.com/textbooks/booksearch/isbnInquiry.asp?userid=1LKG36QHG9&mscssid=TR6US41BQWQ29H9K56P7XB8HFF8J133C&isbn=0631202811http://shop.barnesandnoble.com/textbooks/booksearch/isbnInquiry.asp?userid=1LKG36QHG9&mscssid=TR6US41BQWQ29H9K56P7XB8HFF8J133C&isbn=0631202811http://shop.barnesandnoble.com/textbooks/booksearch/isbnInquiry.asp?userid=1LKG36QHG9&mscssid=TR6US41BQWQ29H9K56P7XB8HFF8J133C&isbn=0631202811http://shop.barnesandnoble.com/textbooks/booksearch/isbnInquiry.asp?userid=1LKG36QHG9&mscssid=TR6US41BQWQ29H9K56P7XB8HFF8J133C&isbn=0631202811http://shop.barnesandnoble.com/textbooks/booksearch/isbnInquiry.asp?userid=1LKG36QHG9&mscssid=TR6US41BQWQ29H9K56P7XB8HFF8J133C&isbn=0631202811http://shop.barnesandnoble.com/textbooks/booksearch/isbnInquiry.asp?userid=1LKG36QHG9&mscssid=TR6US41BQWQ29H9K56P7XB8HFF8J133C&isbn=0132373718http://shop.barnesandnoble.com/textbooks/booksearch/isbnInquiry.asp?userid=1LKG36QHG9&mscssid=TR6US41BQWQ29H9K56P7XB8HFF8J133C&isbn=0132373718http://shop.barnesandnoble.com/textbooks/booksearch/isbnInquiry.asp?userid=1LKG36QHG9&mscssid=TR6US41BQWQ29H9K56P7XB8HFF8J133C&isbn=05345168235/28/2018 Tips on Writing a Philosophy Paper
18/18
JayF.Rosenberg,ThePracticeofPhilosophy:AHandbookforBeginners,3rded.(EnglewoodCliffs,NJ:PrenticeHall,1995).
ZacherySeech,WritingPhilosophyPapers,3rded.(Belmont,CA:Wadsworth,1997). ColinAllen, AGuidetoWritingPhilosophyEssays.http://snaefell.tamu.edu/~colin/Phil416/writing.html.
IstvanBerkeley, HowtoWriteaPhilosophyPaper.http://www.cariboo.bc.ca/ae/php/phil/mclaughl/courses/howrit.htm.
BarryBrown, HowtoWriteanEssayinBioethics.http://www.chass.utoronto.ca:8080/philosophy/phlwrite/brown1.html.
RichCameron, TheStructureofaTypicalPhilosophyPaper.http://www.colorado.edu/philosophy/fac/cameron/ethics1100/ho.rfww.html.
R.L.Franklin, OnWritingPhilosophyAssignments.http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/emd/staff/godlovs/tips/rlfessay.htm.
JamesHarold, OnWritingPhilosophyPapers.http://www.tc.umn.edu/~harol006/paper.html.
R.W.Hepburn, Goodandbadinphilosophyessays.http://www.arts.ed.ac.uk/philosophy/study_html/vademecum/sections/section4/4
1.htm.
PeterLipton, WritingPhilosophy.http://www.pitt.edu/~rclifton/WritingPhilosophy.html.
GeoffreyPayzant, Whatdoeshewant?http://www.chass.utoronto.ca:8080/philosophy/phlwrite/payzant.html.
JamesPryor, GuidelinesonWritingaPhilosophyPaper.http://www.princeton.edu/~jimpryor/general/writing.html.
EvanThompsonandDuffWaring, EssayWritingHandbookforPhilosophyStudents.
http://www.yorku.ca/hjackman/Teaching/handbook.pdf.
MichaelTooley, WritingaGoodEthicsEssay.http://spot.colorado.edu/~tooley/WritingEssays.html.
EllenWatson, AGuideforWritingPapersinPhilosophy.http://www.uq.oz.au/~pdgdunn/watessay.htm.
MartinYoung, UndergraduatePhilosophicalWriting.http://eee.uci.edu/programs/philoswr/.
RichCameron, TheStructureofaTypicalPhilosophyPaper, athttp://www.colorado.edu/philosophy/fac/cameron/ethics1100/ho.rfww.html.
AdamPolak, EssentialsofEffectivePersuasiveEssays, athttp://spot.colorado.edu/~tooley/WritingEssays.html.
CharlesDarling,GuidetoGrammarandWriting,athttp://webster.commnet.edu/grammar/index.htm.
MartinYoung, UndergraduatePhilosophicalWriting, athttp://eee.uci.edu/programs/philoswr/.
http://shop.barnesandnoble.com/textbooks/booksearch/isbnInquiry.asp?userid=1LKG36QHG9&mscssid=TR6US41BQWQ29H9K56P7XB8HFF8J133C&isbn=0132308487http://shop.barnesandnoble.com/textbooks/booksearch/isbnInquiry.asp?userid=1LKG36QHG9&mscssid=TR6US41BQWQ29H9K56P7XB8HFF8J133C&isbn=0132308487http://shop.barnesandnoble.com/textbooks/booksearch/isbnInquiry.asp?userid=1LKG36QHG9&mscssid=TR6US41BQWQ29H9K56P7XB8HFF8J133C&isbn=0132308487http://shop.barnesandnoble.com/textbooks/booksearch/isbnInquiry.asp?userid=1LKG36QHG9&mscssid=TR6US41BQWQ29H9K56P7XB8HFF8J133C&isbn=0132308487http://shop.barnesandnoble.com/textbooks/booksearch/isbnInquiry.asp?userid=1LKG36QHG9&mscssid=TR6US41BQWQ29H9K56P7XB8HFF8J133C&isbn=0132308487http://shop.barnesandnoble.com/textbooks/booksearch/isbnInquiry.asp?userid=1LKG36QHG9&mscssid=TR6US41BQWQ29H9K56P7XB8HFF8J133C&isbn=0132308487http://shop.barnesandnoble.com/textbooks/booksearch/isbnInquiry.asp?userid=1LKG36QHG9&mscssid=TR6US41BQWQ29H9K56P7XB8HFF8J133C&isbn=0132308487http://shop.barnesandnoble.com/textbooks/booksearch/isbnInquiry.asp?userid=1LKG36QHG9&mscssid=TR6US41BQWQ29H9K56P7XB8HFF8J133C&isbn=0132308487http://shop.barnesandnoble.com/textbooks/booksearch/isbnInquiry.asp?userid=1LKG36QHG9&mscssid=TR6US41BQWQ29H9K56P7XB8HFF8J133C&isbn=0132308487http://shop.barnesandnoble.com/textbooks/booksearch/isbnInquiry.asp?userid=1LKG36QHG9&mscssid=TR6US41BQWQ29H9K56P7XB8HFF8J133C&isbn=0132308487http://shop.barnesandnoble.com/textbooks/booksearch/isbnInquiry.asp?userid=1LKG36QHG9&mscssid=TR6US41BQWQ29H9K56P7XB8HFF8J133C&isbn=0132308487http://shop.barnesandnoble.com/textbooks/booksearch/isbnInquiry.asp?userid=1LKG36QHG9&mscssid=TR6US41BQWQ29H9K56P7XB8HFF8J133C&isbn=0132308487http://shop.barnesandnoble.com/textbooks/booksearch/isbnInquiry.asp?userid=1LKG36QHG9&mscssid=TR6US41BQWQ29H9K56P7XB8HFF8J133C&isbn=0132308487http://shop.barnesandnoble.com/textbooks/booksearch/isbnInquiry.asp?userid=1LKG36QHG9&mscssid=TR6US41BQWQ29H9K56P7XB8HFF8J133C&isbn=0132308487http://shop.barnesandnoble.com/textbooks/booksearch/isbnInquiry.asp?userid=1LKG36QHG9&mscssid=TR6US41BQWQ29H9K56P7XB8HFF8J133C&isbn=0132308487http://shop.barnesandnoble.com/textbooks/booksearch/isbnInquiry.asp?userid=1LKG36QHG9&mscssid=TR6US41BQWQ29H9K56P7XB8HFF8J133C&isbn=0132308487http://shop.barnesandnoble.com/textbooks/booksearch/isbnInquiry.asp?userid=1LKG36QHG9&mscssid=TR6US41BQWQ29H9K56P7XB8HFF8J133C&isbn=0132308487http://shop.barnesandnoble.com/textbooks/booksearch/isbnInquiry.asp?userid=1LKG36QHG9&mscssid=TR6US41BQWQ29H9K56P7XB8HFF8J133C&isbn=0132308487http://shop.barnesandnoble.com/textbooks/booksearch/isbnInquiry.asp?userid=1LKG36QHG9&mscssid=TR6US41BQWQ29H9K56P7XB8HFF8J133C&isbn=0132308487http://shop.barnesandnoble.com/textbooks/booksearch/isbnInquiry.asp?userid=1LKG36QHG9&mscssid=TR6US41BQWQ29H9K56P7XB8HFF8J133C&isbn=0132308487http://shop.barnesandnoble.com/textbooks/booksearch/isbninquiry.asp?userid=1LKG36QHG9&mscssid=TR6US41BQWQ29H9K56P7XB8HFF8J133C&isbn=0534520960http://shop.barnesandnoble.com/textbooks/booksearch/isbninquiry.asp?userid=1LKG36QHG9&mscssid=TR6US41BQWQ29H9K56P7XB8HFF8J133C&isbn=0534520960http://shop.barnesandnoble.com/textbooks/booksearch/isbninquiry.asp?userid=1LKG36QHG9&mscssid=TR6US41BQWQ29H9K56P7XB8HFF8J133C&isbn=0534520960http://shop.barnesandnoble.com/textbooks/booksearch/isbninquiry.asp?userid=1LKG36QHG9&mscssid=TR6US41BQWQ29H9K56P7XB8HFF8J133C&isbn=0534520960http://shop.barnesandnoble.com/textbooks/booksearch/isbninquiry.asp?userid=1LKG36QHG9&mscssid=TR6US41BQWQ29H9K56P7XB8HFF8J133C&isbn=0534520960http://shop.barnesandnoble.com/textbooks/booksearch/isbninquiry.asp?userid=1LKG36QHG9&mscssid=TR6US41BQWQ29H9K56P7XB8HFF8J133C&isbn=0534520960http://shop.barnesandnoble.com/textbooks/booksearch/isbninquiry.asp?userid=1LKG36QHG9&mscssid=TR6US41BQWQ29H9K56P7XB8HFF8J133C&isbn=0534520960http://shop.barnesandnoble.com/textbooks/booksearch/isbninquiry.asp?userid=1LKG36QHG9&mscssid=TR6US41BQWQ29H9K56P7XB8HFF8J133C&isbn=0534520960http://shop.barnesandnoble.com/textbooks/booksearch/isbninquiry.asp?userid=1LKG36QHG9&mscssid=TR6US41BQWQ29H9K56P7XB8HFF8J133C&isbn=0534520960http://shop.barnesandnoble.com/textbooks/booksearch/isbninquiry.asp?userid=1LKG36QHG9&mscssid=TR6US41BQWQ29H9K56P7XB8HFF8J133C&isbn=0534520960http://snaefell.tamu.edu/~colin/Phil416/writing.htmlhttp://www.cariboo.bc.ca/ae/php/phil/mclaughl/courses/howrit.htmhttp://www.chass.utoronto.ca:8080/philosophy/phlwrite/brown1.htmlhttp://www.colorado.edu/philosophy/fac/cameron/ethics1100/ho.rfww.htmlhttp://www.lincoln.ac.nz/emd/staff/godlovs/tips/rlfessay.htmhttp://www.tc.umn.edu/~harol006/paper.htmlhttp://www.arts.ed.ac.uk/philosophy/study_html/vade-mecum/sections/section4/4-1.htmhttp://www.arts.ed.ac.uk/philosophy/study_html/vade-mecum/sections/section4/4-1.htmhttp://www.arts.ed.ac.uk/philosophy/study_html/vade-mecum/sections/section4/4-1.htmhttp://www.arts.ed.ac.uk/philosophy/study_html/vade-mecum/sections/section4/4-1.htmhttp://www.arts.ed.ac.uk/philosophy/study_html/vade-mecum/sections/section4/4-1.htmhttp://www.pitt.edu/~rclifton/WritingPhilosophy.htmlhttp://www.chass.utoronto.ca:8080/philosophy/phlwrite/payzant.htmlhttp://www.princeton.edu/~jimpryor/general/writing.htmlhttp://www.yorku.ca/hjackman/Teaching/handbook.pdfhttp://spot.colorado.edu/~tooley/WritingEssays.htmlhttp://www.uq.oz.au/~pdgdunn/watessay.htmhttp://eee.uci.edu/programs/philoswr/http://www.colorado.edu/philosophy/fac/cameron/ethics1100/ho.rfww.htmlhttp://spot.colorado.edu/~tooley/WritingEssays.htmlhttp://webster.commnet.edu/grammar/index.htmhttp://eee.uci.edu/programs/philoswr/http://eee.uci.edu/programs/philoswr/http://webster.commnet.edu/grammar/index.htmhttp://spot.colorado.edu/~tooley/WritingEssays.htmlhttp://www.colorado.edu/philosophy/fac/cameron/ethics1100/ho.rfww.htmlhttp://eee.uci.edu/programs/philoswr/http://www.uq.oz.au/~pdgdunn/watessay.htmhttp://spot.colorado.edu/~tooley/WritingEssays.htmlhttp://www.yorku.ca/hjackman/Teaching/handbook.pdfhttp://www.princeton.edu/~jimpryor/general/writing.htmlhttp://www.chass.utoronto.ca:8080/philosophy/phlwrite/payzant.htmlhttp://www.pitt.edu/~rclifton/WritingPhilosophy.htmlhttp://www.arts.ed.ac.uk/philosophy/study_html/vade-mecum/sections/section4/4-1.htmhttp://www.arts.ed.ac.uk/philosophy/study_html/vade-mecum/sections/section4/4-1.htmhttp://www.tc.umn.edu/~harol006/paper.htmlhttp://www.lincoln.ac.nz/emd/staff/godlovs/tips/rlfessay.htmhttp://www.colorado.edu/philosophy/fac/cameron/ethics1100/ho.rfww.htmlhttp://www.chass.utoronto.ca:8080/philosophy/phlwrite/brown1.htmlhttp://www.cariboo.bc.ca/ae/php/phil/mclaughl/courses/howrit.htmhttp://snaefell.tamu.edu/~colin/Phil416/writing.htmlhttp://shop.barnesandnoble.com/textbooks/booksearch/isbninquiry.asp?userid=1LKG36QHG9&mscssid=TR6US41BQWQ29H9K56P7XB8HFF8J133C&isbn=0534520960http://shop.barnesandnoble.com/textbooks/booksearch/isbnInquiry.asp?userid=1LKG36QHG9&mscssid=TR6US41BQWQ29H9K56P7XB8HFF8J133C&isbn=0132308487