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Utopia and Reality in
Architecture
The University
of Melbourne
Faculty of
Architecture
and Design
702613_Production of Digital Space
By: 320534_Gustavo Carezzato
“It is good to remember that Utopia is nothing but
the reality of tomorrow and that today’s reality
is yesterday’s utopia” Le Corbusier, Modulor
Abstract
This project explores the “extremes” in
architecture: utopia and reality,
nevertheless everything in between
regarded technology (digital spaces),
procedures and social transition, after the
sixties (60’s).
Considering that Utopia is in contradiction
with reality (Camus, Albert, 1988 Between Hell and
Reason), the ideologies that aim to transform
or explain the world sometimes forget
(intentionally or naively) the contradictions
of the practical world.
Therefore this article faces Utopia as a place
of ideal perfection, which is nothing more
than the product of abstract thought (Shaffer, Butler teacher at the Southwestern
University School of Law, 30 March 2004).
Furthermore, reality as a concept where
there are better and worse ways of
accomplishing ends, mindful that in
architectural practice the vision of “ideal
will be forever up dating” and technology
will make easier to materialize any design
project.
Above all, utopia and reality reflect a
process that is a cycle itself. There is no
right or wrong. There is just the fact that
architecture nowadays is living in a
realization period because of the advance
of technology, new materials and
perspectives of the building and
community1.
It also refers to digital spaces, designs, study
of economics (evaluation of comparative
advantages), the costs, benefits from
actions, the long and the short terms, the
psychological aspect as well the transition
of the process.
Introduction
The high level of technology brings today a
new concept of space. Therefore, the
design process not just changed but
developed better ways of communication
and achieved great production’s results.
There are software’s such as Rhinoceros©,
Autodesk© Revit and Autodesk© 3D Max 2
which represent this evolution.
This article describes the design process
enhancing the importance of the
transitions’ techniques used in the past till
the present day. To illustrate that consider
three different periods: middle age,
modernism and the present day.
1 As an example, there is a short story told by Fernando
Pessoa's released as "The Anarchist Banker" which
demonstrates the flexibility of the social ideologies among
its own supporters, presenting a character that even
though he says he is an anarchist in theory and practice, he
owns a powerful financial institution: a bank. The apparent
paradox is explained in a sophisticated sociological
discourse. (book available at:
http://www.cfh.ufsc.br/~magno/bancanarco.htm) 2 Software’s features and applications will be explained
later on.
The factor which is present at all times is
the improvisation in architecture. The
difference among them is that today the
technology makes it possible, providing a
better result. Actually, in many fields,
technology appears as a problem solving
tool that already changed the way of living
for present societies.
The future will be based in these societies,
and the more people access the digital
world (internet, softwares, games, etc), the
best will be the development of digital
spaces.
"In the next few years the struggle will not be
between utopia and reality, but between
different utopias, each trying to impose itself on
reality ... we can no longer hope to save
everything, but ... we can at least try to save
lives, so that some kind of future, if perhaps not
the ideal one, will remain possible." (Albert
Camus, Between Hell and Reason)
1. Transition
To achieve understanding of how digital
production is changing the concept of space
is important to notice that the
representation and visualization process is
divided in two aspects: 1. transition of
design production from paper to digital; 2.
the importance of evolution of technology
and the creation of virtual spaces that are
so common nowadays; 3. education
1.1. From paper to digital
Paper itself is not opposed to the digital but
against certain design practices that treat
both the image and the modes of
representation as an unproblematic and
neutral transformative space. In the past
(medieval period), for instance, the space’s
representation was limited to few people
with access to knowledge and construction
skills at the same time. Analyzing Gothic
architecture as a remarkable period where
cathedrals were monuments of Christianity,
built in centuries, imagine the degree of
difficulty for those who were actually
constructing3. Considering the site,
drawings, materials and person in charge,
there were no architect or engineer but
master builder (craftsmen/architects).
There is a book named: The Pillars of the
Earth (1989), by Ken Follet4, based in
extensive research about the construction
of cathedrals in Europe. Follet’s describes
how was the representation process for the
construction itself related to the social
aspects from that time (Image 1).
The idea about how technology changes
time-space and how it is connect to utopia
and reality will be discussed later on in this
document.
3 Construction of the Gothic church (Cologne cathedral)
began in 1248 and took, with interruptions, until 1880 to
complete – a period of over 600 years. It is 144.5 meters
long, 86.5 m wide and its two towers are 157 m tall
(http://www.koelner-dom.de - Cologne Cathedral)
4 Author of The Pillars of the Earth - In a time of civil war,
famine and religious strife, there rises a magnificent
Cathedral in Kingsbridge. Against this backdrop, lives
entwine. At once, this is a sensuous and enduring love
story and an epic that shines with the fierce spirit of a
passionate age.
Image 1: Representation of design production in
1880s. Ref.: www.http://www.ken-
follett.com/pote/illustrations.html
Comparing middle age to Modernist times
in architecture, the implementation of new
techniques raised significantly the number
of people with knowledge based design,
resulting in more detailed representations
and efficient constructions in much less
time.
An example for that is the designing and
construction process of Brasilia5, (Brazil). At
that time Lucio Costa6 and Oscar Niemeyer
7
won the contest to build the new capital
(Image 2). Because of the complexity of the
project, short period to conclude the
construction and facing the limitation in
communication at that time, the designing
team was allocated to the region to work on
the representation (drafts) and to control all
process. Everything was made line by line,
plan by plan, section by section. For
instance, to make a project’s alteration was
necessary to manage all others drawings
one by one8.
5 Brasília is a planned city. It was built in 41 months and
was inaugurated on April 21, 1960. The construction of the
city was ordered by President Juscelino Kubitschek. The
main urban planner was Lúcio Costa and the chief
architect of most the public buildings was Oscar Niemeyer.
The city plan was based on Le Corbusier ideas
(http://www.knowledgerush.com/kr/encyclopedia/Bras%C
3%ADlia/). 6 Lucio Costa (1902/1998) was a pioneer and one of the
most important modernist architects in Brazil. 7Oscar Nyemeyer – Brazilian architect who is considered
one of the most important names in international modern
architecture. 8 Mastering Revit Architecture 2008 / Tatja Dzambazova/
Greg Demchak / Eddy Krygiel
Image 2: Representation of urban planning from
Brasilia, BRA, by Lucio Costa,1956. Ref.:
www.http://pessoas.hsw.uol.com.br/brasilia.htm
Then, during the period of 1990 to 1995,
considering the implementation of CAD9 in
many architectural offices, the space’s
representation started changing.
It is important to notice that the production
and representation played a
complementary role. CAD helped in terms
of visualization, details and variety of
information which transformed the way to
see design production. However, still there
is paper, drafts and old style architecture.
Since that period into the present day, new
types of softwares appeared claiming to
“help” professionals developing their
quality in representation of space.
Furthermore, this innovative circumstances
were not restricts just to an architectural
and engineering proposals but for industries
related to education, marketing, media,
government, transportation,
telecommunications and manufacturing.
There is a world leader in 2D and 3D design
software for manufacturing known as
Autodesk©, that contribute for this market
9 CAD – Computer-Aided Design
with a large number of users (http://usa.autodesk.com/adsk/servlet/index?siteID=
123112&id=5659302).
However, there are limitations to achieve
integration with others professionals
involved at the production process, because
few types of software compete to each
other and consequently there is no
recognition between them.
As an example for that, if there is an
architectural office using Autodesk© Revit
and an engineering office using CAD, they
will have to work together using paper as in
the past days.
Therefore, will be necessary to spend lots of
time to coordinate and manage every
necessary design alterations. As a result,
mistakes are more expressive if compared
to the BIM (Building Information
Modeling)10
process.
Considering more complex projects, there is
a necessity of being better in terms of result
and agility (connecting all points in charge,
such as: owner (client), professionals
(architects, consultants, constructors) and
providers). There is no need of paper or
drafts anymore caused by implementation
of BIM.
The association of design, manufacturing
and production is more connected than
ever and it is not essential to manipulate
10
Building Information Modeling results in higher quality
work, greater speed and productivity, and lower costs for
building industry professionals in the design, construction,
and operation of buildings based in three points; A - create
and operate on digital databases for collaboration, B -
manage change throughout those databases so that a
change to any part of the database is coordinated in all
other parts, C - capture and preserve information for reuse
by additional industry-specific applications.
(http://www.laiserin.com/features/bim/autodesk_bim.pdf)
materials at the construction site any more
(Image 3). Every component arrives on the
site already done to be built. One example
is the concept of Loblolly House11
that
shows an innovative structure involved
from design to production.
Image 3. The wall panels developed and refined
within the virtual model. The lower sequence of
images shows the same panels fabricated off-site
being delivered and installed on the site. (© Barry
Halkin, KieranTimberlake Associates) ref.:
11 Loblolly House won the BIM Award citations for both of
the categories in which it was submitted: Creating Stellar
Architecture Using BIM, which recognizes outstanding
quality of architectural design achieved through the use of
BIM; and Outstanding Design for Fabrication Using BIM,
which looks at how BIM enabled fabrication rules and
techniques to be incorporated into the design.
(http://www.inhabitat.com/2007/01/05/prefab-friday-loblolly-
house/)
http://www.aecbytes.com/buildingthefuture/2007/
BIM_Awards_Part1.html
As a result of implementation (BIM), some
important aspects have been emerged,
such as time savings, efficiency, productivity
and a new world of possibilities in
architecture, engineering and construction
production (Image 4).
It is the realization of the Utopia’s past and
the beginning of a new era of Utopia for the
future.
Image 4. Some views of the completed Loblolly
House project. (© Barry Halkin, KieranTimberlake
Associates)
1.2 Evolution of technology
The second important issue of that
transition is the appearance of many virtual
spaces based on a high technology and
acceptance from the society. Considering
that the first important aspect was the
evolution of researching tools and the
second, the implementation of the
electronic-mail (email); both created a
revolution in communication generally. The
time was not a barrier any more. People
where connected everywhere around the
globe, anytime.
This digital data or digital information acted
as a direct influence for the concept
emerging of space, realizing the Utopia of
being in two places (real and virtual) at
same time.
A paradigm shift occurred when people
started to figure out how best to use the
power of computers and the Internet was in
order to do things faster and better. In early
80’s, as many new technologies were being
introduced to the public, the discipline of
Architecture also benefited significantly
when an architectural design tools began to
be developed. Shortly thereafter, people
began to move away from traditional 2D
design and closer towards 3D CAD/BIM.
Many virtual spaces are available today not
just as social communities such as,
Facebook© (www.facebook.com/) and Orkut©
(www.orkut.com/), but also through internet
games like Second Life (http://secondlife.com/)
and World of warcraft
(www.worldofwarcraft.com).
Seems that the more society uses
technology and appliances, the more
devices will be created to develop this new
space. It is an attempt to make the virtual
looks even more alike the real.
Furthermore, there is the tendency from
architecture’s schools to upgrade their
educational systems in order to prepare
future professionals for the unstoppable
advance of technology. A variety of books
are available and a new era in on line or
virtual classrooms from schools12
started to
12
MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) Established
in 1865, the Department of Architecture at MIT is the
oldest and one of the most highly respected in the United
States. Through a program called OpenCourseWare, MIT
offers almost all its classes online - for free. Downloads
rise. A whole new world opened up for
students, architects and engineers.
1.3 Education
Nowadays you can also learn from your
desk when it is most convenient for you.
This approach reflects virtual events
happening across the Internet as companies
responding to learner times and shrinking
budgets. Moreover, virtual events are
enabling participants from around the
world to meet and learn all in cyberspace13
.
Besides that, new methods of education are
being evaluated between architects and
Autodesk (software company mentioned
before) to develop, test and deliver tools
that are changing the industry in a positive
way while enabling architects to deliver the
work faster, better and more affordably. All
these inputs helps the software company
develop tools that best support the
workflow of the design and construction
industry.
Nevertheless that BIM Education
Corporation provides an affiliation of firms
and individuals, the collective resources of
which will allow the flexibility to offer
educational products and services for
projects of any size in international markets,
and to provide collective benefits to its
members.
include lecture notes, assignments, reading lists, and, in
some cases, galleries of student projects for more than
100 undergraduate and graduate courses in architecture.
MIT also offers some architecture courses in audio and
video formats.
(http://architecture.about.com/od/schools/tp/freecourses
.htm) 13
Cyberspace does not have a standard, objective
definition. Instead, it is used to describe the virtual world
of computers.
(http://www.techterms.com/definition/cyberspace)
The movement and communication across
space, from the geographical stretching-out
of design production, and the professional
experiences currently have been increasing
internationalization in the design process.
2. Improvisation in Architecture
Thinking about improvisation in
architecture14
is actually thinking of a real-
time improvisational system employing
evolutionary principles for the
transformation of space.
Improvisation in architecture shows how it
is possible to achieve the best quality in
production using alternatives design
process, based in a high level of technology.
But a design process based on graphic
computing and advanced visual
representations does not necessarily
exclude cognitive design processes. Design
computing can as well engage in the
visualization of abstract aspects of design
problems, and the rendering of the
relations between those aspects in
diagrams. Also structural or compositional
issues could as well benefit from graphic
design computing. (The Renaissance of Visual
Thinking - BIRGER SEVALDSON)
2.1 BIM (Building Integration Modeling)
BIM is the perfect example to visualize and
understand more about Utopia,
improvisation and reality related to
architecture.
14
An improviser thinks about what he is doing at different
levels of abstraction simultaneously. Continuously
switching between the macro- and micro-levels, he
attends to the minute details at one moment, only to
switch to structural development a second later (http://www.springerlink.com/content/5t2aea1vly6b422w/)
Building Information Modeling covers
geometry, geographic information, spatial
relationships, quantities and properties of
building components (for example
manufacturers' details). It can be used to
demonstrate the entire building life cycle
including the processes of construction and
facility operation. Quantities and shared
properties of materials can be extracted,
not to mention that specifics situations of
work can be isolated and defined. Systems
and sequences are able to be shown in a
relative scale with the whole facility or
group of facilities.
BIM is a process which differs from the
traditional sequence of drawings in the
parametric nature of it and goes far beyond
switching to new software. It requires
changes of the definition of traditional
architectural phases and more data sharing
than most architects and engineers are
used to. This will reflect on structured text
documents such as specifications may be
able to be searched and linked to regional,
national, and international standards.
The system is being responsible to act
consistently into project teams, producing
reliable information in a common
collaborative environment, increasing
understanding of design intent, improving
efficiency, and showing new ways of
working that creates more sustainable
design and construction. For instance,
integrated project delivery (IPD)15
is an
emerging business model in the building
industry that allows for the entire extended
team to collaborate early in the process to
make the most effective decisions together.
The IPD process is built on behavior and
contractual relationships that are increased
15
IDP - Integrated Project Delivery
by incorporating the technology-based
process of BIM.
“The time has come for geospatial to take
the hand of BIM and move toward the
building community and architecture.”
(http://vector1media.com/vectorone/?p=349)
2.2. Parametric Modeling
Since the 1960s the parametric modeling
has been present, but the design
production focused on is more common
nowadays. This is possible by a high
technology level for design production
where the time-space has been changing
usual characteristics.
One example of this: “the team can change
geometric features of a building and see
how the change affects, say, aerodynamic
or acoustic properties. They can explore
how complex shapes that are hard to build
can be broken down into simpler ones, and
they can quickly calculate how much
material is needed to estimate the cost. The
results are buildings that would have been
impossible only a few decades ago, both
because their complex shapes were next to
impossible to construct and because of the
degree to which they exploit science to
interact optimally with their
environment.”16
16 Perfect buildings: the maths of modern architecture by
Marianne Freiberger.
(http://plus.maths.org/issue42/features/foster/)
2.3. Intelligent Materials and Simulations
Here the article describes the relationship
between Utopia and reality beyond the
implementation of intelligent materials and
simulations (Image 5) in architectural field.
The result of this is a reconfiguration of
thinking and producing space as
“adaptable, flexible and responsive – in
short, a fluid object”17
.
Image 5: A model of air currents flowing around the
Gherkin. Image © Foster + Partners.
(http://plus.maths.org/issue42/features/foster/)
2.3. Art and design
Looking at creative design computing it is
important to deal with certain dogmas that
obscure the understanding of what these
processes really are. The computer is
regarded as a rational tool and what is seen
on the screen often is taken as a simulation
based on logics.
To understand what is going on and take
advantage from design computing as a
generative technique were parts of the
design process are taken out of the
designers control and given over to the
machine, it is necessary to accept that
designers and artists playing and
17
The Zimbabwe Bush Pump: Mechanics of a Fluid
Technology – Amrianne de Laet and Annemarie Mol –
social studies of science 30/2 (April 2000) 225-63
experimenting with computers more than
often operate beyond pure rationality.
Though, there is a tendency to label and
explain what it is made in phrases that
seem to be based in rational explanations
there is often not any consistency in these
explanations. This may be a natural way of
working, or it may be a result from an
unfinished tentative exploration of the
potentials in a relatively new technology.
Designers have a lot to learn from
electronic artists who have been much
more able to accept and explore the
imaginative potential in new technologies.
A very well known, architect Frank Gehry18
is a visionary professional that is not afraid
of improvisation and definitely invests in
technology and communication to achieve
the results he wants in terms of the
realization of an “utopian project”. For
many architects such as, Norman Foster19
,
18
Frank Gehry was born in Toronto, Ontario, Canada in
1929. His deconstructed architectural style began to
emerge in the late 1970s when Gehry, directed by a
personal vision of architecture, created collage-like
compositions out of found materials. Instead of creating
buildings, Gehry creates ad-hoc pieces of functional
sculpture. Gehry's architecture has undergone a marked
evolution from the plywood and corrugated-metal
vernacular of his early works to the distorted but pristine
concrete of his later works. However, the works retain a
deconstructed aesthetic that fits well with the increasingly
disjointed culture to which they belong.
(http://www.greatbuildings.com/architects/Frank_Gehry.h
tml) 19
Norman Foster: was born in Manchester in 1935. After
graduating from Manchester University School of
Architecture and City Planning in 1961 he won a Henry
Fellowship to Yale University, where he gained a Master’s
Degree in Architecture. Since its inception, the practice has
received 470 awards and citations for excellence and has
won more than 86 international and national
competitions.
(http://www.fosterandpartners.com/Team/SeniorPartners
/11/Default.aspx)
Zara Hadid20
and Rem Koolhaas21 there is
no limitation, there is improvisation in the
architectural process.
Based on the idea of “what separates good
design from bad design may be determined
more by how people deal with the
experience of thrownness and interruption
than by the substance of the design itself”22
,
the article uses the examples below not to
determine good or bad design results.
To picture the idea of improvisation in
architecture, this article mention three
projects which is possible to see a new
perspective of representing form and space
beyond relationship between high
technology level and digital space of
production.
The first relevant project is The
Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao (Image 6),
Spain (1992) by Frank Gerhy.
20
Zara Hadid is first woman to win the Pritzker Prize for
Architecture in its 26 year history, ZAHA HADID (1950-) has
defined a radically new approach to architecture by
creating buildings, such as the Rosenthal Center for
Contemporary Art in Cincinnati, with multiple perspective
points and fragmented geometry to evoke the chaos of
modern life.( http://www.designmuseum.org/design/zaha-hadid) 21
A Dutch graduate of the AA School in London, Rem
Koolhas is both a rhetorical architect and a creator of real
physical buildings. He has been considered a noted
Deconstructivist at least since the major MOMA exhibition
in New York during 1987 or 1988, although Koolhaas tends
perhaps toward the more humanist, less absolute branch
of the Deconstructivist School.
(http://www.greatbuildings.com/architects/Rem_Koolhaas
.html) 22
Managing as Designing: Edited by Richard J. Boland, Jr.
and Fred Collopy, Standford Business Books
(http://www.sup.org/book.cgi?id=1448)
Image 6: Picture from Guggenheim Museum in
Bilbao (http://www.culturefeast.com/frank-gehry-
and-fetishism-ofform/)
The second relevant example is Vilnius
Guggenheim Heritage Museum in Vilnius,
Lithuania (Image 7) project by Zaha Hadid.
Image 7: Perspective of Vilnius Guggenheim Heritage
Museum (http://www.tuvie.com/guggenheim-
hermitage-museum-by-zaha-hadid)
The last example is Casa da Musica (Image
8), “Music’s House” free translation from
Portuguese to English; Porto, Portugal by
Rem Koolhaas.
Image 8: Casa da Musica by Rem Koolhaas. Photo ©
Christian Richters
(http://archrecord.construction.com/projects/portfo
lio/archives/0507oporto.asp)
3. Case Study
To explore this idea about time and design’s
production using a digital space, this article
will describe the design project of Nordpark
Cable Railway (Image 9), by Zaha Hadid.
Image 9: Congress Station by Thomas Mayer
(http://archrecord.construction.com/projects/portfo
lio/archives/0805nordpark-1.asp)
3.1. Case Study Introduction
The 1.8 km long Nordpark Cable Railway,
comprised of four new stations (Congress,
Loewenhaus, Alpenzoo and Hungerburg)
and a cable-stayed suspension bridge over
the river Inn, connecting the center of
Innsbruck to the top of the mountain in less
than half an hour.
The design for each station adapts to the
specific site conditions at various altitudes,
whilst maintaining the coherent overall
architectural language of fluidity. This
approach was critical to the design for the
railway, and demonstrates the seamless
morphology of Hadid’s most recent
architecture.
The project’s result gave the mention of
Zaha Hadid on The World’s 50 Most
Innovative Companies by SOM23
(http://www.archdaily.com/?s=Nordpark+Cable+Rail
way).
3.2. Description
Total roof structure area (all stations
inclusive): 2,500 square meters
Client: inkb (innsbrucker nordkettenbahnen
gmbh)
Architect: Zaha Hadid Architects
Design: Zaha Hadid with Patrik Schumacher
Project Architect: Thomas Vietzke
Design Team: Jens Borstelmann and Markus
Planteu
23
SOM: Skidmore, Owings & Merrill
(http://www.som.com/content.cfm/www_home)
Production Team: Caroline Andersen,
Makakrai Suthadarat, Marcela Spadaro,
Anneka Wagener, Adriano di Gionnis, Peter
Pichler, Susann Berggren
Local Partner: Malojer Baumanagement
GmbH
Planning Adviser: ILF Beratende Ingenieure
ZT
Contractor: Strabag AG
Engines & Cables Contractor: Leitner GmbH
Facade Contractor: Pagitz Metalltechnik
GmbH
Structural Engineers (concrete base):
Baumann & Obholzer Ziviltechniker
Structural Engineers (roof structure):
Bollinger Grohmann Schneider ZT
Bridge/Track Engineer: ILF Beratende
Ingenieure ZT
*Drawing: Zaha Hadid Architects - Site Plan
*Rendering Zaha Hadid Architects
Congress Station
*Longitudinal Section Congress Station by Zaha
Hadid Architects
*Congress Station - Photo: Thomas Mayer
*Rendering Zaha Hadid Architects
Loewenhaus Station
*Longitudinal Section Loewenhaus Station by Zaha
Hadid Architects
*Loewenhaus Station - Photo: Thomas Mayer
*Rendering Zaha Hadid Architects
Alpenzoo Station
*Alpenzoo Station - Photo: Thomas Mayer
*Rendering Zaha Hadid Architects
Hungerburg Station
*Longitudinal Section Hungerburg Station by Zaha
Hadid Architects
*Hungerburg Station - Photo: Thomas Mayer
*Images, renderings and drawings are from
arcspace.com
(http://www.arcspace.com/architects/hadid/nordpa
rk/nordpark.html)
4. Conclusion
The incorporation of high technology to the
daily life of society becomes transparent to
our activities, so that rarely, it is possible to
realize how much the technology has been
defined several changes of paradigm of
different aspects in society.
In this sense, mentioned as an example the
emergence of a redefinition of time-space
in architecture practice enabled by the
migration from information on the paper to
the digital environment (computer).
A parallel between this change and other
possible changes quietly, focusing on
question the practice of contemporary
architecture which is experiencing a
profound - and possibly silent - change of
paradigms, based on intensive use of digital
technology now no longer only in the stage
of development of projects in architecture,
but throughout the time between Utopia
and reality.
Based on high technology level, between
design production, space production and
materials, Utopia and reality now are more
connected than ever and time-space
between both is smaller each day.
References:
KIEFERLE, J. et al. 2006. Interactive Simulation of
architecture in Virtual Environments. In: V.
BOURDAKIS e D. CHARITOS (eds), Proceedings of the
24th Conference on Education in Computer Aided
Architectural Design in Europe 2006. Volos, Greece.
KOLAREVIC, B. 2003. Architecture in the digital age:
design and manufacturing. New York, Spon Press,
313p.
MITCHEL, W.J. 2005. Constructing Complexity. In: B.
MARTENS e A. BROWN (eds), Computer Aided
Architectural Design Futures 2005. Vienna, Austria.
MITCHELL, W.J. 1996. City of Bits, space, place, and
the infoban. Cambridge, The MIT Press, 225 p.
Sites:
EACbytes
2007 Third Annual BIM Awards, Part 1 http://www.aecbytes.com/buildingthefuture/2007/
BIM_Awards_Part1.html
Plus Magazine … living mathematics http://plus.maths.org/issue42/features/foster/
Great Buildings http://www.greatbuildings.com/architects/Frank_Ge
hry.html
Foster + Partners http://www.fosterandpartners.com/Team/SeniorPar
tners/11/Default.aspx
Tuvie Design of the Future
http://www.tuvie.com/guggenheim-hermitage-
museum-by-zaha-hadid
arcspace.com (http://www.arcspace.com/architects/hadid/nordpa
rk/nordpark.html)
SOM.com
http://www.som.com/content.cfm/www_home
arch daily http://www.archdaily.com/?s=Nordpark+Cable+Rail
way
MIMOA – mi modern architecture http://www.mimoa.eu/projects/Austria/Innsbruck/N
ordpark%20Cable%20Railway
World Building Directory http://www.worldbuildingsdirectory.com/project.cf
m?id=48
archiDE http://archide.wordpress.com/2009/02/16/nordpar
k-cable-railway-by-zaha-hadid-architects-austria/
Architectural Record http://archrecord.construction.com/projects/portfol
io/archives/0805nordpark-1.asp
http://archrecord.construction.com/projects/portfol
io/archives/0507oporto.asp
guardian.ca.uk http://www.guardian.co.uk/travel/gallery/2007/dec/
03/architecture.railtravel?picture=331434481