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Writing Behavioral
Objectives and
Measuring
Behavior
June 2019
895.15
The North Dakota Statewide
Developmental Disabilities
Community Staff Training Program
Writing Behavioral Objectives and Measuring Behavior
This training manual was developed by the North Dakota Center for Persons with Disabilities
and is intended to be used for educational purposes by North Dakota community provider
agencies participating in the Community Staff Training Project through Minot State University.
Suggested citation:
Webster, J. (2019). Writing Behavioral Objective and Measuring Behavior. (Rev. Ed.) Minot,
ND: North Dakota Center for Persons with Disabilities a University Affiliated Program at
Minot State University.
Requests for use of this publication for any other purpose should be submitted to Minot State
University, NDCPD, Community Staff Training Project, Minot, ND 58707.
Production of this publication was supported by funding from the North Dakota Developmental
Disabilities Division within the Department of Human Services.
This product is available in alternative format upon request.
Acknowledgments:
The North Dakota Center for Persons with Disabilities wishes to thank all who contributed to the
2019 revisions of this training module. Special thanks to Jennifer Casey, Karla Kalanek, and
Ruth Soderstrom for review and input into this revised edition, and the North Dakota Regional
Staff Trainers. Revisions done in 1997 by Mary Mercer and Shannon Brills.
The North Dakota Center for Persons with Disabilities is a
member of the Association of University Centers on Disabilities
(AUCD). AUCD is a national network of interdisciplinary centers
advancing policy and practice through research, education and
services for and with individuals with developmental and other
disabilities, their families and communities.
COPYRIGHT 2019
By NORTH DAKOTA CENTER FOR PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES
a center of excellence in disability research and education at Minot State University
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction to Writing Behavioral Objectives and Measuring Behavior
Unit I: Describing Behavior
Lesson 1 - Why Use Descriptive Language?.........................................................4
Lesson 2 - Recognizing Language that Describes Behavior ................................14
Lesson 3 - Using Language that Describes Behavior……………………………20
Unit II: Behavioral Objectives
Lesson 1 - An Overview of Behavioral Objectives ..............................................23
Lesson 2 - Understanding the Components of a Behavioral Objective .................35
Lesson 3 - Behavioral Objectives Practice ............................................................44
UNIT III: Measuring Behavior
Lesson 1- Introduction to Behavior Measurement ..............................................51
Lesson 2 - Guidelines for Measuring Behavioral Objectives ...............................75
Lesson 3 - Data Collection to Determine the Function of a Challenging
Behavior ..............................................................................................80
Lesson 4- Data Collection to Teach a New Behavior…………………………..88
UNIT IV: Graphing Behavior
Lesson 1- Graphing Behavior Measurement Data .............................................109
Feedback Exercise Answer Keys…………………………………………………………..135
Appendices…………………………………………………………………………………..153
Appendix A - Sample Event/Frequency Data Recording Form
Appendix B - Sample Duration Data Recording Form
Appendix C - Sample Latency Data Recording Form
Appendix D - Sample Interval Data Recording Form
Appendix E - Sample Continuous Data Recording Form
Appendix F – Sample Scatter Plot Data Recording Form
Appendix G – Sample Behavior Checklist Data Recording Form
Appendix H – Sample Task Analysis Data Recording Form
Appendix I - Blank Graph
Introduction to Writing Behavioral Objectives and Measuring Behavior
Any observable actions are considered behaviors. However, the term behavior often has negative
connotations. You may have heard the expression “He is having a behavior” or “Her behavior is
terrible.” These expressions are not appropriate, and do not reflect people first language. While it
is true that some people with disabilities may exhibit challenging behaviors, behaviors may also
be good in terms of positive actions that a person may take (e.g., greeting co-workers or staying
on task) and learning new skills or activities (e.g., several discrete behaviors chained together to
form a skill or activity). This Module will address both forms of behavior.
The first step in implementing a program for changing a behavior (i.e. increasing positive
actions/teaching new skills or decreasing excessive challenging behaviors) is to use descriptive
language to define the target behavior that needs to be changed. For some individuals, the target
behavior may focus on a deficit (e.g., too few skills to cook a meal or grocery shop; too few
minutes on-task at work). After defining the target behavior, the next step is to write behavioral
objectives to increase the person’s desirable behaviors (e.g., increasing cooking or grocery
shopping skills or increasing time on task at work) or to decrease his or her excessive
challenging behaviors (e.g., too much screaming or too much hitting). Based on the person’s
behavioral objectives, the third step is to identify a data collection system to measure behavior so
that an instructional plan can be developed to teach positive actions/new skills (to address
deficits) or to implement a positive behavior support plan (to decrease excessive behaviors and
teach replacement behaviors that serve the same function as the challenging behaviors). Once the
data is collected, it can be visually represented on a graph (which is the fourth step of the
process).
This Module contains units with lessons in each of these four areas: Describing Behavior,
Writing Behavioral Objectives, Measuring Behavior and Graphing Behavior.
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Unit I: Describing Behavior
Lesson 1: Why Use Descriptive Language?
Instructional Objectives:
• Given two sets of reports about meetings regarding a person with disabilities, and a list of
questions regarding objectives, procedures, and outcomes, staff will identify the reports which
best provide specific information about objectives, procedures, and outcomes.
Introduction to Using Descriptive Language
Whenever a job, like yours, requires working closely with a group of people, clear
communication among the group members is essential. The group you work with may involve
some of all of the following people.
• people with disabilities
• other direct service staff
• professionals who provide periodic services (e.g., related service professionals)
• facility supervisors and administrators
• parents and advocates
Because all of you have a shared responsibility for assisting people to establish and achieve the
goals and objectives which make up their Individualized Plans, a clear definition of the following
is necessary:
• the person’s goals and objectives
• procedures planned for achieving objectives
• outcomes of those procedures
When communicating about these important areas, you should use precise language that leaves
little or no room for interpretation. This unit provides instruction and practice in the writing and
language skills needed for precise and clear communication of objectives, procedures and
outcomes.
Reviewing Reports for Descriptive Language
It is important to remember that information shared with co-workers and others must be specific
in order to be useful. An exercise to demonstrate this requirement follows. On the next two pages
are printed reports of two meetings of a group of staff in a community-based program. They met
to discuss new plans for Mary. Read the two reports and then answer the questions that follow.
You may refer back to the reports as often as you like when answering the questions.
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March 1, 2019
Person-Centered Planning Meeting with Mary
RE: Setting objectives and planning procedures in adult life domains
OBJECTIVES:
Employment: Mary has shown significant progress, but she still has some challenges.
Because of her cerebral palsy, sometimes it is difficult for her to complete her employment
tasks. Therefore, we all agreed than an important objective for Mary will be improvement in
fine motor skills so that she can complete her work tasks.
Independent Living: Mary has indicated that she would like to learn how to grocery shop and
cook. These skills will make Mary more independent at home and will help her to be able to
share household tasks with her roommate. A major objective for Mary will be knowing how to
grocery shop and cook.
Community: Mary has expressed an interest in getting around town more on her own. She
would like to learn how to take public transportation to work and the YMCA. We think it will
be especially motivating for Mary to learn how to take public transportation to the YMCA
because she is very motivated by swimming. An objective in the community domain is for
Mary to understand how to use public transportation.
Behavior: Mary’s behavior has made it difficult to work with her. Several staff are wondering
if a more restrictive living environment is needed. Before this is considered, however, the
objective is to develop a program that will teach Mary to act in less emotional ways and to
control her outbursts.
PROCEDURES:
Employment: Since fine motor skills are difficult for Mary, we decided to reward her for any
improvements in her performance. We realize that it will be difficult, but the team agreed that
such a procedure is necessary.
Independent Living: Even though Mary indicates she wants to learn how to grocery shop
and cook, she hasn’t done much about it on her own. She needs to spend more time practicing.
Therefore, all staff will try to motivate her to work on this on a regular basis.
Community: Because Mary is motivated to go swimming, the team agreed to help her
understand how to use public transportation to get to the YMCA first. If that goes well, the
team will consider helping Mary use public transportation to go to work.
Behavior: Mary seems to need a more structured environment. In order to provide more
structure, the team decided to consistently respond to her inappropriate behavior. We hope that
consistent responses will help her learn to control her own behavior.
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June 3, 2019
Team Meeting with Mary G.
RE: Sharing progress from objectives and assessing outcomes from the March Person-
Centered Planning meeting
PROGRESS AND OUTCOMES:
Employment: Some of the steps of the task analysis for Mary’s job are still hard for her. She
gets really frustrated on the difficult steps.
Independent Living: Mary didn’t quite meet her objectives, but she’s much more effective
with them than before and is less reluctant to practice.
Community: Mary likes riding the bus to go to the YMCA because she is very motivated by
swimming. She seems to be understanding how to ride the bus, but she still needs lots of
prompts.
Behavior: Mary doesn’t seem to be having as many emotional outbursts. We think that the
program to change Mary’s behavior is beginning to work.
CONCLUSIONS:
All programs will continue until the team can meet again in three months.
Questions
1. A major change regarding Mary’s behavior is to:
_____a) increase the number of times she smiles at work
_____b) decrease the frequency of her yelling and crying episodes
_____c) decrease her frequency of complaining
_____d) no specific answer is available in the reports
2. Mary’s staff will know when her cooking skills have improved when:
_____a) she can complete the cooking task analysis with 80% independence
_____b) she is able to prepare a three-course meal
_____c) she does not burn herself when draining the pasta
_____d) no specific answer is available in the reports
3. Mary’s employment objective is to:
_____a) complete her assigned tasks without complaining
_____b) independently fold and put 100 flyers into envelopes during a two-hour shift
_____c) work without any incidents of crying or yelling
_____d) no specific answer is available in the report
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4. For Mary’s bus riding skill, her support team will:
_____a) teach her how arrive at the bus stop on time, pay for her ride with tokens, and
get off at the correct stop
_____b) give her verbal praise when she gets off at the correct stop
_____c) provide her with appropriate models
_____d) no specific answer is available in the reports
5. Mary will meet her objective for grocery shopping when:
_____a) she can find all of the items on her shopping list
_____b) she knows how much to pay the cashier
_____c) she is able to independently complete 80% of the steps of the
task analysis for grocery shopping.
_____d) no specific answer is available in the reports
Answer Key
d is the correct answer for each question
It should not have taken long for you to realize that the questions could not be answered with the
information provided in the two reports. There is little or no specific, detailed and useful
information about Mary’s objectives, how the staff worked with her, or the exact outcomes of
instructional programs to teach Mary new skills or behavioral support plans to decrease her
challenging behaviors.
On the next three pages, you will find the same two reports, with some information added to
several of the paragraphs. Read the second version of the reports and then try once more to
answer the questions, which are reprinted following the revised reports.
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March 1, 2019
Person-Centered Planning Meeting with Mary
RE: Setting objectives and planning procedures in adult life domains
OBJECTIVES:
Employment: Mary has shown significant progress, but she still has some important needs.
Because of her cerebral palsy, Mary has difficulty with fine motor skills (especially with her
left hand). This makes it difficult for Mary to complete tasks at work that require the use of
both hands at the same time. Mary asked the team to assist her to improve her fine motor
skills. The team thinks it would be beneficial to have one of the agency’s occupational
therapists observe Mary at work. The team will consider this objective met when Mary is able
to independently fold and put 100 flyers into envelopes during a two-hour work shift.
Independent Living: Mary enjoys cooking and would like to learn how to shop for
ingredients for simple recipes that she can cook at home with her roommate. The team will
develop a task analysis for grocery shopping and cooking. These objectives will be met when
Mary is able to independently and accurately complete 80% of the steps of each task analysis.
Since Mary shares grocery shopping and cooking responsibilities with her roommate, she will
have opportunities to practice both skills on a weekly basis.
Community: Mary has indicated that she would like to learn how to get around the
community more independently. Since Mary’s apartment is on a bus route that goes to the
YMCA (and Mary is highly motivated to go swimming at the YMCA), an objective in the
community domain is for Mary to complete the steps for arriving at the bus stop on time,
paying with tokens for her ride, and getting off at the correct stop with 100% independence
and accuracy. Once she has mastered this objective, a new objective will be written for
generalizing this skill for using public transportation to get to work.
Behavior:
Mary’s behavior has made it difficult for staff to support her. The possibility of another living
environment has been discussed. However, most of the staff don’t want to give up, and Mary
does not want to move. The objective is to implement positive behavior supports to teach
Mary to decrease the frequency of her yelling and crying episodes from the 25-times-a-week
average she has now, to less than two times a week on average for a 10-week period. Because
most of Mary’s yelling and crying incidents have been related to tasks that are difficult for her
at work, staff believe that the folding adaptation that was designed by the OT will help to
reduce her frustration which will result in fewer episodes of yelling and crying.
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PROCEDURES:
Employment: Because it is difficult for Mary to use both hands to fold the flyers that need to
be put into envelopes, it may be helpful for the OT to make a folding adaptation so that the
task can be completed with just one hand. To make the task less intimidating, it might be
helpful to break it down into smaller steps (stacks of 10 flyers to fold and put into envelopes at
a time) so that Mary receives more frequent reinforcement for task completion.
Independent Living: The team will develop task analyses for grocery shopping and cooking.
The skills will focus on choosing a simple recipe, locating the ingredients at the store, using
the next-dollar strategy to pay, following the steps for preparing the recipe, and cleaning up
the kitchen after cooking. Staff will provide verbal reinforcement after each step of the task
analysis. Mary will also be motivated by the natural reinforcement of eating the food that she
cooks. She enjoys mealtimes with her roommate and sharing food preparation responsibilities
will be an incentive for learning these skills.
Community: Staff will create a task analysis for key skills for using public transportation such
as following the schedule to arrive at the bus stop on time, paying for her ride with tokens, and
pulling the signal cord at the correct stop for getting off the bus. The team believes Mary will
be motivated to learn how to use public transportation because she loves to go swimming at
the YMCA. Once she knows how to use public transportation to get to the YMCA, training
will be provided for taking the bus to work. This will be slightly more complicated because the
route to Mary’s work requires a transfer to a different bus.
Behavior: Staff will collect data on the frequency of Mary’s yelling and crying episodes. In
addition to the frequency data, staff will complete an ABC analysis of Mary’s behaviors to
determine the function that they are serving for her. They will use this data to implement an
extinction program and to identify a replacement behavior (asking for a quick break instead of
yelling or crying) that they can teach Mary that will serve the same function as her challenging
behaviors.
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June 3, 2019
Team Meeting with Mary G.
RE: Sharing progress from objectives and assessing outcomes from the March Person-
Centered Planning meeting
PROGRESS AND OUTCOMES:
Employment: Based on recommendations from the occupational therapist, Mary is using a
folding accommodation to fold flyers at work. She is able to fold an average of 80 flyers
during a two-hour shift. For now, one of Mary’s co-workers is putting the flyers that she folds
into envelopes. Once she has mastered folding, she will be responsible for also putting the
flyers into the envelopes. For now, working alongside a co-worker is motivating for Mary and
provides an opportunity for both of the individuals to work on their social skills.
Independent Living: Mary is going to the grocery store once a week and cooking every other
night. On average, Mary is completing 50% of the task analysis independently for grocery
shopping and 70% for cooking. She struggles with the steps for paying at the grocery store and
the steps for draining the pasta when she’s cooking. Her data is steadily increasing toward the
mastery criteria of 80% of the steps of the task analysis.
Community: For the bus riding task analysis, Mary is consistently completing 75% of the task
analysis independently. She still requires prompts for signaling her stop for getting off of the
bus.
Behavior: Based on the frequency data that staff are collecting, Mary is currently averaging
10 episodes of yelling/crying each week. This is down from her baseline average of 25
incidents a week. From the functional behavior analysis that Mary’s team completed on her
yelling/crying behaviors, it appears that these challenging behaviors serve two functions for
Mary: to seek attention from staff and to escape challenging tasks or demands at work. To
decrease these episodes, staff is ignoring Mary’s crying/yelling behaviors so that she no longer
uses them to gain staff attention. At the same time, Mary is being taught a replacement
behavior (verbally asking for staff attention or to take a break) that serves the same function as
her yelling/crying. In addition, the accommodation that the OT implemented to assist Mary
with folding flyers at work has made this task less challenging for Mary and her yelling/crying
behaviors in this setting have decreased.
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Questions
1. A major change regarding Mary’s behavior is to:
_____a) increase the number of times she smiles at work
_____b) decrease the frequency of her yelling and crying episodes
_____c) decrease her frequency of complaining
_____d) no specific answer is available in the reports
2. Mary’s staff will know when her cooking skills have improved when:
_____a) she can complete the cooking task analysis with 80% independence
_____b) she is able to prepare a three-course meal
_____c) she does not burn herself when draining the pasta
_____d) no specific answer is available in the reports
3. Mary’s employment objective is to:
_____a) complete her assigned tasks without complaining
_____b) independently fold and put 100 flyers into envelopes during a two-hour shift
_____c) work without any incidents of crying or yelling
_____d) no specific answer is available in the reports
4. For Mary’s bus riding skill, her support team will:
_____a) teach her how arrive at the bus stop on time, pay for her ride with tokens, and
get off at the correct stop
_____b) give her verbal praise when she gets off at the correct stop
_____c) provide her with appropriate models
_____d) no specific answer is available in the reports
5. Mary will meet her objective for grocery shopping when:
_____a) she can find all of the items on her shopping list
_____b) she knows how much to pay the cashier
_____c) she is able to independently complete 80% of the task analysis
_____d) no specific answer is available in the reports
Answer Key
1-b, 2-a, 3-b, 4-a, 5-c
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After reading the second version of the meeting reports, you found that the answers to the
questions were available to you. Why? Because the sentences added in the second version
contain language which clearly describes behavior of both the staff and the learner.
Compare the phrases in column one below, which were taken from version #1 of the reports,
with the phrases and sentences in column two, which came from version #2.
Column 1
“Mary didn’t quite meet her objectives, but
she’s much more effective with them than
before.”
“We try to reinforce her when her behavior is
good.”
“She seems to be understanding how to ride
the bus.”
“…act in less emotional ways and to control
her outbursts.”
Column 2
“On average, Mary is completing 50% of the
task analysis independently for grocery
shopping and 70% for cooking.”
The staff provides verbal reinforcement and
allows Mary to take a quick break to regroup
(which is the natural reinforcement for using
the appropriate behaviors) when she uses the
replacement behavior instead of the
challenging behaviors.
“Mary is consistently completing 75% of the
task analysis independently for bus riding.”
“decrease the frequency of her yelling and
crying episodes from the 25-times-a-week
average she has now, to less than two times a
week on average for a 10-week period.”
The phrases in column one are ambiguous and general. They do not tell us precisely what will
happen or has happened. Notice that all of the phrases and sentences in column two above
describe behaviors or actions that you could do, or that you could watch for and see happening
when others do them.
Whenever you write or talk about behavior, it is important that you avoid using general
statements such as those included in column one. If you do use a general statement (such as “has
shown significant progress”), be prepared to follow it immediately with a description of specific
behavior which demonstrates the truth of your general statement.
Why is this so important? If communication about a person’s program is not clear, then the
individual may not make progress toward his or her objectives. For example, suppose several
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staff members at both Mary’s residence and worksite have been instructed to, “Ignore Mary’s
outbursts” as part of her positive behavior support plan. Unless the staff got together and agreed
about what is meant by “outbursts,” each staff person might take an entirely different approach
with Mary. Some might ignore all of her outbursts. Others might ignore crying but not yelling or
might only ignore her outbursts if they are really loud or if they are disturbing others. Because
Mary may receive inconsistent and contradictory treatment, she may make little progress toward
reducing her challenging behaviors (or Mary might actually increase her “outbursts” in hopes of
gaining the same attention that she previously received before staff started ignoring her). In order
to apply positive behavior supports consistently, staff would need to define “outbursts” so that
everyone is addressing the same behavior. Known as operationalizing or pinpointing behavior,
this concept is described in Lesson Two of Unit 1. Individuals receiving supports have a right to
a well-planned, consistently carried out program. Don’t allow faulty communication and
imprecise language to get in the way of individual’s progress.
Unit I: Lesson 1 – Points for Review
In order to provide successful services and supports, effective communication is crucial. When
developing positive support plans and instructional programs to address behavior excesses or
deficits, descriptive language must be used so that everyone knows exactly what is being
targeted.
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Unit 1 Describing Behavior
Lesson 2: Recognizing Language that Describes Behavior
Instructional Objectives:
• Given pairs of sentences about behavior, trainee will discriminate between the descriptive and
the evaluative sentence in each pair.
• Given a group of sentences about behavior, trainee will label the descriptive sentences and the
evaluative sentences.
• In the sentences labeled “descriptive,” trainee will underline the action phrases.
Introduction to Recognizing Language that Describes Behavior
After the behavior to be changed (i.e. increased for behavioral deficits and decreased for
behavioral excesses) has been identified, the next step is to define the behavior. This process is
known as operationally defining or pinpointing the behavior.
Operationally Defining/Pinpointing Behavior
Before goals and objectives can be written, behaviors that cannot be observed or measured (e.g.,
feels, thinks, appreciates, understands, comprehends, etc.) must be clearly defined. This process
is known as operationally defining or pinpointing behaviors and is done by refining broad
generalizations into specific, observable, and measurable behaviors.
• Behavior must be specific. When a behavior is specific, it means that it is defined so that
whoever is observing the behavior will know exactly whether it occurred or not. Any
person who knows the definition of the target behavior could spot it.
• Behavior must be observable. It is what we see or hear, such as a person sitting down,
standing up, speaking, whispering, yelling, or completing a task. In addition, behavior is
not what a person is feeling, but rather how the individual expresses the feeling. For
example, a student may show anger by stomping his feet, yelling, crossing his arms, and
swearing. These observable actions are more descriptive than just stating that the person
looks angry.
• Behavior must be measurable. When a behavior is measurable, the person who is
observing can tell when the behavior begins, ends, and how often it occurs. For example,
“disrupting her co-workers all the time” is not measurable. Instead, grabbing her co-
workers work supplies 10-20 times during each two-hour shift is measurable. While
disruptive behavior is not measurable, whoever is observing would be able to count
exactly how many times the person grabbed her co-workers supplies.
If the target behavior is not defined in a way that is specific, observable, and measurable, its
occurrence or nonoccurrence will be open to interpretation. For instance, it would be difficult for
someone to decide whether the person had performed the following behaviors:
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• Beth will understand how to cook.
• Kyle will recognize the value of coins.
• Sara will refrain from aggression.
• Kelsie will remain on-task at work.
When vague terms such as these are used, there is often disagreement about whether a behavior
has occurred or not. Since any behavior can be described in numerous ways, everyone who is
implementing an instructional or intervention program must agree on a common definition of the
target behavior. By clearly stating specific, observable, and measurable characteristics of the
behavior, everyone can agree whether or not the behavior has been performed by the learner.
An operational or pinpointed definition of the target behavior usually includes specific examples
of what the person is doing when he or she exhibits the target behavior. For example, when a
person is having a “melt-down” (which is an ambiguous behavior), she is crying and falling
down on the floor. Because crying and falling down on the floor are specific, observable, and
measurable, it is less likely that they will be interpreted differently by different observers.
Table 1 shows additional examples of behaviors that are not operationally defined/pinpointed in
the first column with a definition of the target behavior in the second column.
Table 1: Examples of Non-Defined and Defined Behaviors
Non-Defined Behaviors Defined Behaviors
Not disturbing co-workers • Not grabbing co-workers’ snack
• Not interrupting a co-worker
Not having an emotional outburst • Not crying
• Not yelling
• Not falling down on the floor
Being more respectful • Not interrupting
• Not rolling eyes after someone makes a
comment
Behaving appropriately • Staying at work station until break
• Not throwing work materials
• Not hitting others
Feeling angry • Not crossing arms on chest
• Not glaring
• Not yelling
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In each of the following pairs, identify which objective includes specific, observable, and
measurable behaviors.
• Mary will understand how to fold flyers and stuff envelopes, or Mary will fold 100 flyers
and put them in envelopes during her two-hour work shift.
• Mary will shop at the grocery store or Mary will find five items on a picture grocery-
shopping list.
• Mary will know how to ride the bus to the YMCA or Mary will get to the bus stop on
time, pay for her ride with a token, and pull the signal cord at her stop to get off.
• Mary will know how to make something for dinner or Mary will complete the steps in a
recipe to make spaghetti.
• Mary’s emotional outbursts will decrease or Mary’s use of words or gestures to
communicate will increase.
In each of these examples, the behavior that is specific, observable, and measurable is the second
statement in each pair.
Why do you think it is important for behaviors to be written in terms that are specific,
observable, and measurable? Primarily, this is important so that performance can be tracked, and
progress can be recorded and shared. When sharing progress at a meeting, it’s much more
beneficial for team members to hear “Mary knows how to complete 5 out of the 10 steps
required to make spaghetti” versus “Mary is getting better at making dinner or “Mary is using
words or gestures to communicate when she is frustrated at work”, “instead” of “Mary’s
emotional outbursts have decreased.”
Making Language Descriptive
Language that describes behavior tells what someone does or does not do. Language that
describes behavior talks about an observable action that you can see or hear happen. For
instance, Sam throws his clothes on the floor every night. In this example, you could observe
Sam throwing his clothes on the floor.
The behavior should be described so that it could not be mistaken for any other behavior. In this
case, we are only concerned with Sam throwing clothing. The behavior should be described so
that no instance of it could be excluded. In other words, any item of clothing that Sam throws
would count. Additionally, it should be described so that if more than one person was observing
simultaneously, their records of the behavior would look the same.
It is important to avoid stating an opinion about what someone “is” (e.g., lazy, calm, ambitious,
withdrawn, productive, etc.). For example, the statement “Sam is untidy,” is an opinion about
Sam. It describes a characteristic that someone thinks Sam has based on his/her evaluation of
Sam. It does not describe anything Sam actually does. “Sam is untidy” does not describe a
single, observable action that can be discriminated from many other observable actions.
Language that describes an inner state or emotion (e.g., angry, hopeful, depressed, happy, sad,
etc.) should also be avoided. Language that describes what someone apparently feels inside
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should be replaced with descriptions of what they actually do (e.g., frown, smile, falls asleep,
cries, etc.).
As a rule of thumb, it is important to remember that behavior is what someone does. This is
known as descriptive language because it defines an action that is specific, observable, and
measurable. On the other hand, when a person uses language that describes what he or she thinks
someone “is” (e.g., he is messy, or she is anxious) or what someone is allegedly feeling on the
inside (e.g., she is angry, or he is depressed), the type of language being used is evaluative
because it is based on an opinion.
Feedback Exercise 1
Mark sentences which describe specific, observable, and measurable behavior with a letter D
(for descriptive language). Mark sentences that state an opinion or describe a feeling with a
letter E (for evaluative language).
_______ 1. Jenn stays in her room during her spare time.
_______ 2. Jenn is withdrawn.
_______ 3. Sam is untidy.
_______ 4. Sam throws his clothes on the floor by his bed every night.
_______ 5. Joe frequently smiles.
_______ 6. Joe is happy.
_______ 7. Holly always says “please” and “thank you.”
_______ 8. Holly is a well-mannered person.
_______ 9. Mary does not speak.
_______10. Mary is shy.
See the answer key for Feedback Exercise 1 at the end of the Module.
Action Phrases
In the feedback exercise you just completed, the first sentence in each pair contains an action
phrase. Action phrases describe specific, observable, and measurable actions. You could see or
hear those actions when they happen. An action phrase always includes an action verb. For
example, look at the descriptive sentence “Jenn stays in her room during her spare time.” The
action verb is “stays.” The action phrase is “stays in her room.” You could observe Jenn doing
this. The behavior you could observe Sam doing in the second pair of sentences is described in
the action phrase, “throws his clothes on the floor.”
Sometimes the action verb by itself is enough to describe the behavior. Most often, however, a
few more words are needed to make the behavior specific. In the example, “Jenn stays in her
room during her spare time,” the action verb “stays” would not be sufficient. “Stays in her room”
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defines the actual behavior you would observe. In the other descriptive sentences, the action
phrases are “frequently smiles,” “chews with her mouth closed,” and “does not speak.”
The other sentences do not refer to a specific, observable, or measurable action or behavior. The
use of verbs such as is, are, was, were, seems, etc., indicates that no action is taking place. They
refer to opinions about inner states, qualities or characteristics that cannot be observed and
measured.
The “Hey Dad” Test
To help you determine whether a sentence or phrase describes behavior, apply the “Hey, Dad
watch me…” test. To do so, put the phrase after the words “Hey, Dad, watch me” and see if it
makes sense. Could Dad watch you and see a specific action? Let’s apply the test to some of the
phrases from the feedback exercise you did earlier:
Hey, Dad, watch me stay in my room…
Hey, Dad, watch me smile…
Hey, Dad, watch me chew with my mouth closed…
You’ll no doubt agree that those sentences make sense. We know Dad can watch these actions.
When you apply the test to phrases from the other sentences, they don’t make as much sense.
You can’t determine just exactly what Dad would be watching you do on the basis of these
sentences:
Hey, Dad, watch me be withdrawn…
Hey, Dad, watch me be happy…
Hey, Dad, watch me be a well-mannered person…
The Mental Image Test
Another useful way to determine whether a phrase describes a specific behavior is to determine
the mental image that you get from the phrase. If you find it hard to visualize a specific action, or
if several different possible images come to mind, then the phrase is either evaluative, or it is too
vague.
Use these tests to help you with Feedback Exercise 2.
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Feedback Exercise 2
In the following group of sentences:
1. Mark sentences which describe behavior with a letter D. Mark sentences that state an
opinion or describe a feeling with a letter O.
2. In the descriptive sentences, underline the action phrase.
_______1. William is lazy.
_______2. Lee arrives at work 10 minutes early each day.
_______3. Josie can read all words on her grocery list.
_______4. Kayla is very dependent on others.
_______5. Tyler is well-adjusted.
_______6. Samantha can tie her shoes without help.
_______7. Nick acts silly when he’s with other teenagers.
_______8. Alexandra always finishes her work assignments.
_______9. Ingrid has poor self-care skills.
______10. John always says “thank you” after he receives his order at the restaurant.
See the answer key for Feedback Exercise 2 at the end of the Module.
Unit I: Lesson 2 – Points for Review
After a target behavior has been identified, it must be described in terms that are specific,
observable, and measurable. This is known as pinpointing or operationally defining the
behavior. The behavior must be described in terms of action phrases that indicate exactly what
the person will be doing it when he or she is performing it. When the target behavior is
operationally defined, the person who is observing and measuring the behavior will know
exactly when it is occurring. To help with this process, the “Hey, Dad” and Mental Image tests
can be applied.
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Unit I: Describing Behavior
Lesson 3: Using Language that Describes Behavior
Instructional Objectives:
• Given a variety of scenarios, trainees will identify phrases that describe behavior.
• Given vague descriptions of behavior and evaluative sentences, trainee will rewrite the
sentences in specific behavioral terms.
• Trainee will write at least five sentences describing the behavior of individuals with whom
they work.
Introduction to Identifying Descriptive Behavior
As you have learned, when writing or talking about behavior, you should use precise, descriptive
language. This takes practice and requires you to develop the habit of questioning and evaluating
both your own language and language used by others.
Look at the following two paragraphs. Paragraph A and Paragraph B both are intended to
describe the same incident. To evaluate them, read the paragraphs and underline the action
phrases in each.
Paragraph A
This morning, Mary was verbally abusive to
her supervisor. She was frustrated with one of
her assigned tasks and had an episode. Mary
seemed to be unaware of the negative affect
her behavior had on her co-workers in the
same environment.
Paragraph B
This morning, Mary yelled at her supervisor
after he asked Mary to do a task over again.
When she could not complete it successfully,
Mary quit working, cried, and yelled at her
supervisor. The two women who work next to
Mary both stopped working and covered their
ears. They begged Mary to stop, but she
ignored them.
Which paragraph (A or B) provides the most specific and useful information about the incident?
Compare how you underlined the action phrases to the answer key below.
Paragraph A
This morning, Mary was verbally abusive to
her supervisor. She became frustrated with
one of her assigned tasks and had an episode.
Mary seemed to be unaware of the negative
impact her behavior had on her co-workers in
the same environment.
Paragraph B
This morning, Mary yelled at her supervisor
after he asked Mary to redo a task. When she
could not complete it successfully, Mary quit
working, cried, and yelled at her supervisor.
The two women who work next to Mary both
stopped working and covered their ears. They
begged Mary to stop, but she ignored them.
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It is obvious that Paragraph B gives the most descriptive and useful account of the incident. Did
you underline any phrases in Paragraph A? Let’s look at the reasons that some of those phrases
are not acceptable as descriptions of behavior.
…was verbally abusive
…became frustrated
…had an episode
…seemed to be unaware
This is not specific. Does it mean she
shouted? Swore? Called the supervisor nasty
names? Yelled at her supervisor?
What mental image do you get of Mary? Do
all people look the same when they are
frustrated? This doesn’t tell what Mary is
actually doing.
Do all people have identical “episodes”? Did
she hold his breath? Cry? Scream? Kick?
Refuse to talk? An “episode” is not specific
and could mean different things to different
observers.
This is not a specific behavior. What is Mary
doing to show she is “unaware”?
In Feedback Exercise 3, you will have an opportunity to practice defining target behaviors in
terms that are specific, observable, and measurable.
Feedback Exercise 3
Read the five sentences below. Each sentence contains either an opinion, a description that is
ambiguous or vague, or a statement about how someone is allegedly feeling. Rewrite each one
in the space given by using action phrases to make the sentences describe behavior that is
specific, observable, and measurable. Underline each action phrase you use. There is no single
“right answer” for any of these sentences. The behavior you describe will depend on how you
interpret the sentence. Make sure that the behaviors you describe can pass the “Hey, Dad,
watch me…” and visual image test. The first sentence is completed as an example.
Example: Jake is messy.
Jake leaves his wet towel and dirty clothes on the bathroom floor after his shower.
You try rewriting these:
1. Jon is aggressive toward others.
2. Faith is a productive employee.
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3. Hannah communicates poorly.
4. Dominic was unhappy this morning.
5. Liz is a very well-adjusted person.
You will find several possible examples for each of the above sentence. Your sentences may
be different, which is fine. The examples given help to point out just how inexact the language
is in the original sentences.
See the answer key for Feedback Exercise 3 at the end of the Module.
Exercise for Additional Practice
This time write your own sentences about behaviors you have observed in others. Write at least
five sentences that include action phrases that describe specific, observable, and measurable
behaviors that can pass the “Hey, Dad, watch me…” and visual image test.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Unit I: Lesson 3 – Points for Review
When defining behavior, precise and descriptive language must be used. Descriptions of
behavior should not include opinions (e.g., he is lazy, she is uncooperative, etc.), vague or
ambiguous terms (e.g., understands, aware of, appreciates, etc.) or statements about how
someone allegedly feels (e.g., depressed, angry, anxious, happy, etc.).
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UNIT II BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES
Lesson 1: An Overview of Behavioral Objectives
Instructional Objectives:
• Trainee will identify the purpose and characteristics of goals.
• Trainee will define the term “behavioral objective.”
• Trainee will specify the purpose of behavioral objectives.
• Trainee will name and describe the components of a behavioral objective.
• Given phrases of behavioral objectives, trainee will identify which component that each phrase
represents.
Introduction to Behavioral Objectives
Mary has just moved with a roommate to an apartment in the community. At one of her first
person-centered planning meetings, Mary and the rest of her support team agreed that there were
several things she needed to learn.
For example, Mary needed to learn how to complete some basic household tasks. She also
needed to learn how to use public transportation. In addition, Mary needed to decrease her
emotional outbursts. Specifically, the team decided to focus on increasing Mary’s skills for
grocery shopping, cooking, and riding the bus to the YMCA (and eventually to work), as well as
decreasing her episodes of yelling/crying (especially at work).
To help Mary learn these and other new behaviors, the team and others who support Mary will
have to prepare detailed, step-by-step teaching programs. First, however, they need to agree on
the specific outcomes for which their plans and programs are aimed. They will do this by
working together to write behavioral objectives that will be included in Mary’s Person-Centered
Plan (PCP). In this module, we’ll explore the process used to write behavioral objectives for
Mary. It is important to note that before objectives are written, assessment must be conducted,
and goals must be developed. Goals and objectives stem from assessments that are conducted
prior to the team planning process. Modules that will provide additional information regarding
these areas include: Assessment and Setting Goals, Person Centered Planning, and Achieving
Personal Outcomes.
Goals should correspond to assessed needs and desires that are documented in the person’s PCP.
Goals are written to help individuals with disabilities overcome barriers to full participation in
the community.
Table 2 presents examples of goals in each of the life domains (plus behavior) that were
identified at Mary’s person-centered planning meeting. It is important to remember that not
every person with disabilities will have goals in all of the adult life domains. The number and
type of goals that are included in a PCP must be customized for each person.
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Table 2: Goals Across Life Domains
Domain Goal
Working Mary will get a job doing office work and keep it for six
months.
Living Mary’s will learn to cook five simple meals.
Recreation/Leisure Mary will join the YMCA and use the pool to help manage her
weight at a healthy level.
Behavior Mary will communicate her needs effectively with friends,
family, and co-workers, using words or gestures.
Once goals are written, the person’s support team writes behavioral objectives as clearly defined
steps for accomplishing the goals.
Behavioral Objectives
A behavioral objective “describes the behavior that should result from the instruction or
intervention” (Alberto and Troutman, p. 40). For example, a behavioral objective for an
individual who has deficits in cooking skills would describe the level of cooking performance the
person should reach. For a person who is having episodes of yelling/crying at work, a behavioral
objective would specify what the individual should do instead of the challenging behavior (to
serve the same function). For example, the behavioral objective would indicate the number of
times the person should ask for help during his or her work shift instead of yelling or crying as a
means of communicating that he or she needs assistance. While it will be important to collect
ongoing data on the frequency of the yelling and crying behaviors, the emphasis should be on
increasing the appropriate replacement behaviors to make sure the intervention is working.
Purpose of Behavioral Objectives
Behavioral objectives have several purposes. They are written to clarify the goals of a person’s
behavior-change program. Well-written behavioral objectives facilitate effective instruction.
Because the behavioral objective specifies exactly what is being targeted, the person who is
providing instruction knows precisely which instructional strategies and materials to use.
Behavioral objectives also help with evaluation of progress. By having a clearly written
statement about increasing a behavioral deficit or decreasing a behavioral excess, data can be
collected and progress toward achieving the objective can be monitored. In addition, behavioral
objectives promote communication among those who are involved in the individual’s program
because anyone who reads a behavioral objective should be able to recognize what the person is
working to achieve and whether he or she is making adequate progress.
Writing Behavioral Objectives
A behavioral objective is a breakdown of a goal into its teachable components. Behavioral
objectives are based on the goals that were identified during the person-centered planning
process. Whereas goals are usually broad and long-term, behavioral objectives are more specific
and short-term. Behavioral objectives must include each of the four required components.
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Components of a Behavioral Objective
Behavioral objectives include four components to communicate all of the necessary information
and provide a basis for evaluation. While their order may vary in the written behavioral
objective, the required components are:
1) The learner
2) The target behavior
3) The condition(s)
4) The criteria for acceptable performance
Each of these components is described below.
1. The Learner
Designed to promote individualization of instruction, the specific individual for whom the
objective has been developed must be stated. To focus attention on the individual learner,
behavioral objectives include statements such as:
• Mary…
• The participant in the training program…
• The grocery store employee…
2. The Target Behavior
After the deficient or excessive behavior has been defined, the behavioral objective specifies
exactly what the person will be doing when the desired change has been achieved. The target
behavior spells out the precise response that is expected of the person to demonstrate mastery.
Each behavioral objective should only address one specific target behavior. For example,
washing and drying dishes would be written as two separate behavioral objectives because they
are two distinct skills.
The target behavior serves three main purposes.
1) Ensures that different people are consistently observing and recording occurrence and
nonoccurrence of the same behavior.
2) Allows for confirmation by a third party that the change observed by the person
providing instruction/intervention has actually occurred.
3) Facilitates continuity if more than one person is implementing the
instruction/intervention.
To achieve these three purposes, the behavior must be defined so that it is verifiable (i.e. the
behavior is able to be seen or heard or a direct product of the behavior can be seen or heard).
This is done by making sure that the verb that is used to describe the behavior is specific,
observable, and measurable (as was described in Lesson 2 of Unit 1).
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In addition to the “Hey Dad” and mental image tests, the following questions can be asked to
determine if a target behavior is specific, observable, and measurable.
a) Can the number of times that a behavior is occurring within a particular time period be
counted? Can you determine how long the person exhibited the behavior during a specific
time period? The answer to both of these questions will be yes if the behavior is
operationally defined.
b) Will a third party know exactly what behavior is being modified? The answer to this
question should also be yes.
c) Can the target behavior be broken down into even more specific and observable target
behaviors? The answer to this question should be no.
3. The Condition(s)
The statement of conditions is the third component of a behavioral objective. It specifies the
antecedent(s) that should set the stage for performance of the target behavior. Conditions may be
natural in the environment (e.g., a stack of flyers sitting on the person’s work table) or delivered
by the person providing instruction (e.g., “It’s time to fold the flyers”). Conditions typically
indicate what supplies, equipment, and assistance will be provided to set the stage for person to
demonstrate the behavior. They also might indicate what is not allowed (e.g., Without assistance,
Mary will pull the cord at her bus stop to signal that she wants to get off.) The condition
statement may tell where (e.g., in the kitchen, at work, etc.) or when the behavior will be
performed (e.g., during the morning routine, before dinner, etc.). As you can see in the examples
below, the condition statement often starts with the word “Given” to describe what will be
provided to signal the learner to demonstrate the target behavior.
The categories of conditions (i.e. antecedent stimuli) are presented in Table 3.
Table 3: Categories of Conditions
Conditions Examples
Verbal Requests or Instruction • Given the verbal cue “Go back to your work
station,”
• Given the verbal prompt “It’s time to make
spaghetti,”
• Given the verbal instruction “Put the
envelope in the done pile,”
• Given the verbal cue “Find the items on
your list.”
Written or Picture Instructions • Given a written checklist of work tasks,
• Given a picture recipe,
Demonstration • Following a demonstration of how to fold
the flyers,
• Given a demonstration of how to make
spaghetti,
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Materials • Given the ingredients for making a
spaghetti,
• Given color-coding on the stove,
• Given a stack of papers and stapler,
• Given a picture recipe,
Environmental Setting or Timing • At work,
• In the break room,
• In the kitchen,
• During a two-hour work shift,
• At bedtime,
• At the grocery store,
Manner of Assistance • Independently,
• With the aid of a number line,
• With partial physical assistance,
Sometime the conditions are written at the beginning of the behavioral objective; other times
they are embedded within the objective. The placement of the condition(s) within the behavior
objective depends on the readability of the statement. It may read better if the condition(s) are
placed at the beginning of the objective. This is usually dependent upon personal preference as
either way is correct.
4. The Criteria for Acceptable Performance
The criteria statement specifies the level of performance that the person will be able to
demonstrate as a result of instruction/intervention. As the basis for evaluating progress, the
criteria statement is the standard for minimally acceptable performance. It is the standard against
which the effectiveness of the instruction/intervention selected to meet the behavioral objective
is measured.
Criterion one describes how well the person must demonstrate the target behavior (i.e. % of
independent steps of a task analysis, accuracy, # of times for a discrete skill, maximum # of
challenging behaviors).
Criterion two describes how long the behavior must be demonstrated to be considered mastered.
The second criterion is a measurement of consistency and reliability. The second criterion
indicates what evidence is required before the support team is satisfied that the person will be
able to consistently and reliably perform the objective without further supervision and assistance.
In establishing the second criterion, it is important to ask, “Is one successful performance of this
behavior sufficient evidence that the person can continue to do it reliably and consistently?” If
the answer is “yes,” then the Part 2 criterion is not needed. If the answer is “no,” then the second
part must be added. Part 1 and Part 2 criterion will be discussed in greater detail in Lesson 2 of
Unit 2.
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As you can see in Table 4, there are many measures by which criteria for acceptable performance
may be set.
Table 4: Measures of Criteria for Acceptable Performance
Measures Criteria
Level of independence and accuracy*
(How well?)
“with 90% accuracy”
“completing 90% of the steps of the TA
Speed (How fast?) “within 15 minutes”
“in less than 5 seconds”
Regularity (How often?) “every morning”
“once a week”
Duration (How long?) “for 10 seconds”
“for 3 weeks”
Latency (How long before initiation
of skill?)
“within 30 seconds of being prompted”
“within 5 minutes after coming back from lunch”
Quantity (How many?) “names 4 of his supervisors” (4 is the criterion)
“peels 5 medium potatoes”
Combination of above “at least 100 flyers folded with no errors during a two-
hour work shift” (accuracy, speed)
When determining the criteria for acceptable performance, it is important to be ambitious but
also realistic. Sometimes members of a person’s support team have difficulty finding this
balance. Here are some practical considerations that can assist team members in setting criteria
for mastery.
1. Type of skill – Different types of behavior lend themselves to different levels of mastery.
How many of us can say that our cooking skills are perfect 100% of the time? For some
behaviors, it is acceptable to set the criteria at 80 or 90 percent because the performance is
not expected to be perfect every time. Other behaviors, however, do require a criterion of
100% accuracy. Street crossing is a good example of a behavior for which the individual
should demonstrate 100% accuracy in order to say that the skill has been mastered.
It is also important to set high expectations for behaviors that are dangerous or harmful to the
person or others. For instance, “Jon will have zero instances of hitting his co-workers per
work shift” is appropriate since hitting others is dangerous and likely to result in Jon losing
his job. It’s important to note that a criterion of 100% accuracy may not be feasible for some
individuals. For example, it may not be possible for a person to inhibit aggression for an
extended period of time or with zero frequency. In these situations, the team would need to
include instructions for intervention in the person’s plan.
Following an assessment of the person’s behavior the team should know the function the
behavior is serving. The objective can then be written to address the replacement behavior.
For example, instead of “Jon will have zero instances of hitting his co-workers per work
shift”, the objective can focus on the positive replacement behavior, such as “Jon will say hi
to his co-workers to gain their attention.”
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2. Expectations similar to peers without disabilities – The mastery criteria should be appropriate
for the age of the person for whom the behavioral objective has been written. For instance,
saying a person will be completing assigned tasks 100% of the time at work is probably not
realistic since most people get distracted at times. Similarly, if a person without disabilities
only greets his co-workers 3 times during his work day, it is not reasonable to expect an
employee with disabilities to do so 20 times/day.
3. Changing conditions versus lowering criteria for mastery – Some individuals with disabilities
may never master a behavior at 75% or higher (assuming that is the reasonable amount that a
person without disabilities would do it). Mastering a behavior at 50% is not really
meaningful because their performance will be too hit or miss. Instead, it is better to change
the conditions under which the person will demonstrate the skill by adding prompts (e.g.,
Given partial physical assistance to fold the flyers or Given adaptive equipment for folding
flyers). Partial participation is another approach that could be used (i.e., having the person
learn a subset of the steps such as only putting the flyers in the envelopes after a co-worker
folds them) instead of lessening the level of mastery.
4. Practicality – It is important to write behavioral objectives that are practical to measure. For
example, if a person is working on walking independently, it is more practical to measure
whether Ryan is able to walk to the bathroom from his work area independently than it is to
collect data on if Ryan can ambulate independently for 25 feet.
The actual criteria that is set in behavioral objectives will depend on the target behavior and on
the planners’ knowledge of the learner’s abilities and circumstances. If the behavior involves
potential risk to the person or to the staff, criteria for acceptable performance should be set
conservatively.
Furthermore, at the beginning of a teaching program, the criterion may be set lower than will be
expected in the person’s final performance of the particular behavior. Both the conditions and the
criteria can be changed as the person progresses toward meeting the objective. As in many other
situations, “success” may be defined differently at the onset of the instructional program or
behavior intervention and modified as the person becomes more advanced.
Sample Behavioral Objectives
Going back to Mary’s cooking goal (Mary’s will learn to cook five simple meals) as an example,
Mary’s support team discussed her needs, strengths, and preferences, and agreed that Mary could
probably quickly learn how to cook spaghetti using a task analysis and least-to-most system of
prompts. Mary and the team also believed that she would benefit from using a picture recipe.
Two team members designed such a teaching program and provided a clear statement of the
intended outcome of instruction in the form of the following behavioral objective.
Given a picture recipe and the ingredients for making spaghetti, Mary will follow the recipe to
make spaghetti, completing 90% of the steps of the task analysis independently for three
consecutive trials.
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While this looks like a simple statement, it actually contains important information for all of the
people who are supporting Mary. The behavioral objective answers four questions.
1. Who is receiving instruction?
Answer: Mary is the learner in this behavioral objective.
2. What specific, measurable, and observable behavior will the person be doing to
demonstrate achievement of the objective?
Answer: Mary will follow the recipe to make spaghetti
3. What are the conditions under which the target behavior will occur?
Answer: Given a picture recipe and the ingredients for making spaghetti
4. What are the criteria for acceptable performance?
Answer: 90% of the steps of the task analysis independently (how well – Part 1
Criterion) for three consecutive trials (how long –Part 2 Criterion) The team did not
believe that Mary should be expected to cook spaghetti with 100% independence.
Because of her cerebral palsy, Mary may always need help on the steps related to safety
(i.e. using the stove to brown hamburger and draining the spaghetti noodles). For this
situation, partial participation would need to be indicated on the task analysis. The team
also believed that Mary needed to demonstrate the behavior for at least three consecutive
trials in order to say that she had achieved mastery. It is not enough to say that Mary only
has to demonstrate the behavior one time because she might just have been lucky.
Perhaps the next time she will not do quite as well. Before withdrawing Mary’s
supervision, she needs to be able to demonstrate the she can cook safely. Once Mary is
able to do so at 90% independence for three times in a row, staff believe they will feel
comfortable with Mary cooking on her own (with the exception of needing assistance
from her roommate with browning the hamburger and draining the pasta).
As you can see, this behavioral objective would give Mary and her support team a clear idea of
what she is working toward (the behavior), what special conditions will set the stage for Mary to
demonstrate the behavior, and how they will know that Mary has mastered the behavior (the
criteria for how well and how long).
As a result of this objective, Mary will learn a valuable independent behavior from people who
have a common goal in mind and a consistent instructional program from which to work. She
will not be expected to perform this behavior without supervision until she has demonstrated that
she is indeed capable of it. The degree of risk is, therefore, minimized.
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A breakdown of Mary’s behavioral objective for making spaghetti is shown in Table 5.
Table 5: Sample Behavioral Objective
Goal: Mary will learn to cook five simple meals.
Behavioral Objective: Given a picture recipe and the ingredients for making spaghetti
(conditions), Mary (learner) will follow the recipe to make spaghetti (behavior), completing
90% of the steps of the task analysis independently (Part 1 criteria for how well) for three
consecutive trials (Part 2 criteria for how long).
Component Example
Condition under which behavior will occur
(e.g., antecedent stimuli in the presence of
which the target behavior is expected to
occur)
Given a picture recipe and the ingredients for
making spaghetti;
Name of the Learner for whom the objective
was written
Mary
Target skill (e.g., observable behavior which
will be demonstrated by the student)
will follow the recipe to make spaghetti
Criteria for acceptable performance and
evaluation of learner performance (e.g.,
statement which sets the standard for
acceptable performance: indicates how well
and how long the learner must perform the
behavior/skill/activity for it to be considered
mastered)
with 90% independence according to the steps
in the task analysis for three consecutive
trials.
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As additional examples, Table 6 provides learning objectives (with the required components) for
each of the goals that were developed for Mary.
Table 6: Learning Objectives by Goal for Mary
Domain Goal Objective
Vocational Mary will get a job doing
office work and keep if for
six months.
• Given a pile of 100 flyers to stuff
in envelopes (condition), Mary
(learner) will fold the flyers
(behavior) with 100% accuracy for
three consecutive two-hour work
shifts (how well and how long
criteria for acceptable
performance).
Home and Daily
Living
Mary will learn to cook five
simple meals.
Other examples could
include:
Mary’s grocery shopping
skills will increase; Mary’s
bus riding skills will
increase.
• Given a picture recipe and the
ingredients for making spaghetti
(conditions), Mary will follow the
recipe to make spaghetti
(behavior), completing 90% of the
steps of the task analysis
independently for three consecutive
trials (how well and how long
criteria for acceptable
performance).
Using a picture grocery list
(condition), Mary (learner) will locate
five items (behavior) with 80%
accuracy for five consecutive times
(how well and how long criteria for
acceptable performance).
Using the next dollar strategy
(condition), Mary (learner) will pay
the correct amount to the cashier at the
grocery store (behavior), completing
100% of the steps of the task analysis
independently for five consecutive
times (how well and how long criteria
for acceptable performance).
Recreation/Leisure Mary will join the YMCA
and use the pool to help
manage her weight at a
healthy level.
• At the YMCA pool (condition),
Mary will swim laps for 15 minutes
(behavior), completing 100% of the
steps of the task analysis
independently for three times each
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week (how well and how long
criteria for acceptable
performance).
Behavior Mary will communicate her
needs effectively with
friends, family, and co-
workers, using words or
gestures.
• During her work shift (condition),
Mary (learner) will use words or
gestures to request assistance
during 100% of her work shifts for
four out of five work shifts (how
well and how long criteria for
acceptable performance).
In Feedback Exercise 4, you will have an opportunity to identify the required components of a
behavioral objective.
Feedback Exercise 4
Each of the following statements is one of the required components of a behavioral objective.
In the blank next to each, write the letter of the component that is represented in the statement.
L = Learner, B = Behavior, C = Condition, CR = Criteria
_____ 1. Will pay for her items at the grocery store
_____ 2. The employee at the grocery store
_____ 3. Using her assistive communication device
_____ 4. Following a demonstration of how to drain pasta
_____ 5. Without an error
_____ 6. With 95 percent accuracy
_____ 7. Will set the oven temperature
_____ 8. Mary
_____ 9. During a two-hour work shift
_____10. With partial physical assistance
_____11. Will signal to get off the bus at the correct stop
_____12. Five consecutive sessions
_____13. Will stuff 25 envelopes
_____14. In the kitchen
_____15. For 10 minutes
_____16. When arriving at work
_____17. 80% independence/accuracy on the task analysis
_____18. Sara
_____19. Given four possible dinner choices
_____20. Without assistance
See the answer key for Feedback Exercise 4 at the end of the Module.
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Unit II: Lesson 1 – Points for Review
Many adults with disabilities have a Person-Centered Plan (PCP) that includes goals and
behavioral objectives in important life domains. While goals are usually written in general
terms, behavioral objectives are specific, observable, and measurable.
Behavioral objectives include four required components: the learner, the target behavior,
the condition(s), and the criterion (Part 1 and 2).
The Learner – The person for whom the objective has been developed.
The Behavior – What the person will be doing to demonstrate achievement of the objective
(described in terms that are specific, observable, and measurable).
The Condition(s) – Special conditions under which the person must perform the behavior;
the antecedents (stimuli) that set the stage for the person to demonstrate the behavior.
Criteria – How well and how long that the person must perform the behavior before it is
considered to be mastered. The criteria have two parts: Cr-1 and Cr-2.
35
UNIT II BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES
Lesson 2: Understanding the Components of a Behavioral Objective
Instructional Objectives:
• Given the behavior component of objectives, the trainee will be able to identify which are
descriptive and which are evaluative.
• Given behavioral objectives, the trainee will identify the condition(s) for performance.
• Given behavioral objectives, the trainee will select the part one and part two criterion of
acceptable performance.
• Given behavioral objectives, the trainee will identify the conditions and criteria for
acceptable performance (part one and two criterion).
In this lesson we will take a closer look at the components of a behavioral objective.
Reviewing the Target Behavior
In Feedback Exercise 5, you will have an opportunity to review the target behavior in the
behavioral objective.
Feedback Exercise 5
Look at the list of phrases below and mark an X next to those which are descriptive enough to
be used as the behavior component. Remember to apply the rules you learned for descriptive
writing to the target behavior in the sentences below.
_____ 1. Mary will recognize her stop for getting off the bus.
_____ 2. Mary will not have an emotional outburst.
_____ 3. Mary will understand how to use the Internet to find a recipe.
_____ 4. Mary will swim 10 laps at the YMCA.
_____ 5. Mary will pay the correct amount for her groceries.
_____ 6. Mary will appreciate how to cook a three-course meal.
_____ 7. Mary will be aware of the weather.
_____ 8. Mary will use her communication device to order at a restaurant.
_____ 9. Mary will behave herself.
_____10. Mary will put her dirty lunch dishes in the dishwasher.
Please check the answer key for Feedback Exercise 5 at the end of the Module.
36
How did you do? Did you check any phrases which are not marked with an X in the answer
key? If so, read the material in the box which follows. If not, go on to the next practice
exercise.
The phrases which do not describe behavior in specific, observable, and measurable terms are
numbers 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, and 9. Notice that the verbs used in those phrases are not good action
words that describe something you could see or hear happening. Here are how the phrases look
in the “Hey, Dad” test you learned in Unit 1.
1. Hey, Dad, watch me recognize my stop for getting off the bus.
2. Hey, Dad watch me not have an emotional outburst.
3. Hey, Dad watch me understand how to find a recipe on the Internet.
6. Hey Dad, watch me appreciate how to cook a three-course meal.
7. Hey Dad, watch me be aware of the weather.
9. Hey, Dad, watch me behave myself.
When you apply the “Hey, Dad” test, if you still have some question, try to visualize yourself
“showing” Dad the target behavior. Is there one specific behavior you see yourself doing? A
good description of behavior should bring a single act to mind.
In Feedback Exercise 6, you will have another opportunity to identify observable behaviors
that are described in specific, observable, and measurable terms.
Feedback Exercise 6
Below are four behavioral objectives. Read each of them and underline the words which
describe the target behavior that Mary is expected to perform to demonstrate achievement of
the objective.
1. Given 10 pieces of clean silverware, Mary will put the silverware in the correct
spots of the silverware tray in 9 out of 10 trials.
2. Without being reminded, Mary will wash her hair every third day for six consecutive
weeks.
3. After putting her dirty clothes in the washing machine, Mary will turn the dial to the
correct setting on the first try when tested on five consecutive days.
4. Given a single bed and a single fitted sheet, Mary will put the sheet on the bed, fitting
all four corners of the sheet to the appropriate corners of the mattress for five
consecutive trials.
See the answer key for Feedback Exercise 6 at the end of the Module.
37
Did you find yourself underlining too much in these objectives? Remember that you were
only looking for the behavior component in this exercise, not conditions or criteria. If you
made any mistakes, you may want to review the material in Lesson 1 of this unit that covers
the behavior component of a behavioral objective.
Establishing the Criteria
In Lesson 1 of this unit, you learned that the criteria for acceptable performance has two parts.
In this lesson, we will refer to those two parts as Cr-1 (part one criterion) and Cr-2 (part two
criterion).
The part one criterion, Cr-1,measures one or more of the important characteristics of the
behavior itself, such as speed, independence, rate, quantity, duration, etc. to describe how well
the person must demonstrate the behavior.
The part two criterion, Cr-2, measures how long the person must perform the behavior
consistently and reliably in order to say with certainty that the behavior has been mastered.
That is, in addition to considering the number or percentage of independent steps that the
person must complete (Cr-1), the writer of the objective also needs to indicate the number of
times the person must meet the part one criterion to demonstrate mastery (Cr-2). The Cr-2 is
included in any objective in which a single acceptable performance of the aimed-for behavior
is not sufficient to say that the person can or will continue to perform that behavior. By
specifying the number of times that the target behavior needs to be demonstrated in order to
consider it mastered, the part two criterion provides closure to the teaching process (Alberto
& Troutman, 2013).
When both the Cr-1 and Cr-2 have been met, a new learning objective can be introduced. If
appropriate, the new learning objective may increase the Cr-1 to a higher level of
performance. For example, the Cr-1 could move from 75% independence to 90%
independence.
If you have difficulty telling where the part one criterion (Cr-1) ends and the part two
criterion (Cr-2) begins, remember the following rule:
You should be able to remove the part two criterion without changing the intended outcome of
the behavioral objective.
Let’s examine the first of our sample objectives to identify part one and part two of the
criteria. Answer the questions below concerning the following objective that was written for
one of Mary’s household tasks.
Given 10 pieces of clean silverware, Mary will put the silverware in the correct spots of the
silverware tray in 9 out of 10 trials.
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Suppose it is Mary’s responsibility to put away the clean silverware after emptying the
dishwasher. What does Mary have to do to meet the part one criterion? Put an X on the line
next to the correct answer.
_____a. Put the silverware away within 20 minutes of emptying the dishwasher.
_____b. Put away 8 of the 10 pieces of silverware.
_____c. Put the silverware in the correct spots of the silverware tray.
_____d. Put the silverware in a drawer.
Which answer did you choose?
You should have chosen c, because that is the Cr-1 stated in the objective for the performance
of the behavior. If Mary puts the clean silverware in the correct spots of the silverware tray,
you can say that she has met the part one criterion of the behavioral objective.
Once Mary has put the clean silverware in the correct spots of the silverware tray, when can it
be said that she has met the part two criterion of the behavioral objective? Put an X on the line
next to the correct answer.
_____a. When she has put the silverware in the correct spots 3 times in a row.
_____b. When she has put the silverware in the correct spots 9 out of 10 trials
_____c. When she has put the silverware in the correct spots when asked to do so.
_____d. Not until she has put the silverware in the correct spots 10 times in a row.
You should have selected answer b, because that is the criterion set for reliability and
consistency. The team who wrote this objective apparently felt that nine correct responses out
of 10 possible trials would be sufficient evidence that Mary had learned how to put the clean
silverware in the correct spots of the silverware tray. In other words, Mary had mastered this
behavioral objective.
The Feedback Exercise which follows will give you an opportunity to practice identifying part
one and part two criterion in a set of behavioral objectives.
FEEDBACK EXERCISE 7
Below are three sample objectives with the target behavior underlined. In the designated
blanks below, write the part one criterion and the part two criterion for each objective.
1. Given 10 pieces of clean silverware, Mary will put the silverware in the correct
spots of the silverware tray in 9 out of 10 trials.
Cr-1 In the correct spots of the silverware tray
Cr-2 In 9 out of 10 trials
39
2. Without being reminded, Mary will wash her hair every third day for six
consecutive weeks.
Cr-1 ______________________________________________________
Cr-2 ____________________________________________________________
3. After putting her dirty clothes in the washing machine, Mary will turn the dial to the
correct setting on the first try when tested on five consecutive days.
Cr-1 ______________________________________________________
Cr-2 ____________________________________________________________
4. Given a single bed and a single fitted sheet, Mary will put the sheet on the bed, fitting all
four corners of the sheet to the appropriate corners of the mattress for five consecutive
trials.
Cr-1 ______________________________________________________
Cr-2 _______________________________________________________
See the answer key for Feedback Exercise 7 at the end of the Module.
How did you do? On the next page, there is a discussion of several common errors that might be
made on this practice exercise. Even if you did not make all of these mistakes, you should read
through that material to become thoroughly familiar with part one and part two criteria.
Review of Common Errors
Behavioral Objective #1: Given 10 pieces of clean silverware, Mary will put the silverware in
the correct spots of the silverware tray in 9 out of 10 trials.
Did you include “in the correct spots” as the part one criterion. Sometimes people think that
“in the correct spots” is part of the behavior and do not recognize it as the part one criterion.
Behavioral Objective #2: Without being reminded, Mary will wash her hair properly every
third day for six consecutive weeks.
Did you make the error of including “every third day” in the part two criterion instead of part
one? Remember the rule which states: “You should be able to remove the part two criterion
without changing the intended outcome of the behavioral objective.” In this example, if you
remove “every third day for six consecutive weeks,” the objective’s meaning changes to
“without being reminded, Mary will wash her hair properly.” However, this objective is
concerned with the regularity of Mary’s hair washing. By regular we mean “every third day.”
When “every third day for six consecutive weeks” is removed, the intention and meaning of
the objective is lost. “Every third day” is an important part of the part one criterion.
40
“Six consecutive weeks” is added as the part two criterion to indicate how long Mary has to
demonstrate this behavior before it is considered to be mastered. Once Mary has demonstrated
regular, proper hair washing without being reminded for six weeks, her staff will still want her
to continue demonstrating the skill. A part two criterion is a way of saying, “this is the point
at which we believe that Mary is not only able to demonstrate the skill, but that she can
independently continue to demonstrate it, consistently and reliably.”
Behavioral Objective #3: After putting her dirty clothes in the washing machine, Mary will turn
the dial to the correct setting on the first try when tested on five consecutive days.
Did you leave out any of the criterion that belonged in part one? Using the rule, we applied in
Example #2, we can see that “correctly on the first try for at least six of the 10 numbers” must
all stay together as the part one criterion.
Behavioral Objective #4: Given a single bed and a single fitted sheet, Mary will put the sheet
on the bed, fitting all four corners of the sheet to the appropriate corners of the mattress for
five consecutive trials.
You may have had some difficulty determining the part one criterion for this behavioral
objective since it is different than the other examples. This behavioral objective includes an
accuracy criterion to answer the question, “How well must the behavior be performed?” How
well does Mary have to put the sheet on the bed? She has to put all four corners on correctly.
So far, we have looked at identifying the target behaviors and part one criterion and part two
criterion of four behavioral objectives. Next, we will practice identifying the condition
statements. By a process of elimination, it should be easy to spot the phrases that are
conditions. The first two are completed as a sample.
1. Given 10 pieces of clean silverware, Mary will put the pieces in the correct spots of the
silverware tray in 8 out of 10 trials.
In this behavioral objective, “Given 10 pieces of clean silverware” is the condition. In this
example, the condition statement describes the materials that will be provided to set the
stage for Mary to put the pieces in the silverware tray.
2. Mary will wash her hair properly without being reminded every third day for six
consecutive weeks.
“Without being reminded” is the condition in this behavioral objective. It
specifies what will not be provided when Mary is expected to demonstrate the
behavior. It also indicates that Mary is required to demonstrate this behavior
independently.
Now it’s your turn. Underline the condition statement in the last two behavioral objectives.
41
3. After putting her dirty clothes in the washing machine, Mary will turn the dial to the
correct setting on the first try when tested on five consecutive days.
4. Given a single bed and a single fitted sheet, Mary will put the sheet on the bed, fitting all
four corners of the sheet to the appropriate corners of the mattress for five consecutive
trials.
You should have underlined “After putting her dirty clothes in the washing machine” in
example #3 and “Given a single bed and a single fitted sheet” in example #4.
In Feedback Exercise 8, you will have the opportunity to identify and write components of
several behavioral objectives.
FEEDBACK EXERCISE 8
In the following set of examples, read each behavioral objective. On the blanks following the
behavioral objective, write each component. The first one is completed as an example.
EXAMPLE: For 15 consecutive working days, Mary will punch in on the time clock correctly
at the beginning of every shift without any prompts.
Condition(s): without any prompts
Behavior: punch in on the time clock
Cr-1: correctly at the beginning of every shift
Cr-2: for 15 consecutive working days
(In regard to the use of the word “correctly,” see the note on page 38)
1. Mary will staple five stacks of papers, using an electric stapler, during the first 15
minutes of her work shift for 10 consecutive trials.
Condition(s): ____________________________________________________
Behavior: _______________________________________________________
Cr-1: ___________________________________________________________
Cr-2: ___________________________________________________________
2. Given a cell phone with pre-programmed phone numbers, Mary will find the telephone
number for her employer, within three minutes of being asked in five consecutive tests.
Condition(s): ____________________________________________________
Behavior: _______________________________________________________
Cr-1: ___________________________________________________________
Cr-2: ___________________________________________________________
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3. Before dinner, Mary will set the table with plates, cups, and silverware in the proper
spots within five seconds of being asked, 8 out of 10 times.
Condition(s): ____________________________________________________
Behavior: _______________________________________________________
Cr-1: ___________________________________________________________
Cr-2: ___________________________________________________________
4. When shown 5 articles of clothing including three that are appropriate for cold
weather, Mary will point to all three of the winter clothing items within 30 seconds of
being asked in four out of five trials.
Condition(s): ____________________________________________________
Behavior: _______________________________________________________
Cr-1: ___________________________________________________________
Cr-2: ___________________________________________________________
5. In the morning, Mary will brush her teeth on the top and bottom fronts and sides
for 60 seconds for 14 consecutive mornings.
Condition(s): ______________________________________________________
Behavior: ________________________________________________________
Cr-1: ____________________________________________________________
Cr-2: ____________________________________________________________
6. At the end of each work shift, Mary will give her completed work to her supervisor
for five consecutive working days without being told.
Condition(s): _______________________________________________________
Behavior: ________________________________________________________
Cr-1: ____________________________________________________________
Cr-2: ____________________________________________________________
See the answer key for Feedback Exercise 8 at the end of the Module.
How well did you do on this practice exercise? Did you have difficulty telling the difference
between the part 1 criterion and the part 2 criterion? It is not unusual if you did. If you missed
any parts of this exercise, you might want to review this lesson and Unit II, Lesson 1 before
going on to Lesson 3.
43
Unit II: Lesson 2 – Points for Review
The criteria component of a behavioral objective includes two parts: part one criterion
(Cr-1) and part two criterion (Cr-2).
• Cr-1: A statement of the minimal acceptable standard for the person’s performance
of the behavior; how well the person must perform the behavior for it to be
considered mastered.
• Cr-2: A measurement of the person’s ability to consistently and reliably meet the
part one criterion over time; how long and regularly the person must perform the
behavior for it to be considered mastered.
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UNIT II BEHAVIORAL OBEJCTIVES
Lesson 3: Behavioral Objectives Practice
Instructional Objectives:
• Given poorly written or incomplete behavioral objectives, trainee will identify faulty or
missing components.
• Trainee will use information from a narrative to write behavioral objectives.
• Trainee will write at least three behavioral objectives with all of the required components
for individuals with disabilities where he/she works.
Introduction to Behavioral Objectives Practice
You need to be able to tell the difference between a well-written, useful behavioral objective,
and a faulty one. The most frequently made error is a lack of precision in describing one or
more of the components of the objective. If the behavioral objective does not adequately
specify the desired behavior, the criteria, and the necessary conditions, a number of mistakes
can follow.
Look at the following behavioral objective and then read the list of possible outcomes that
follow it.
After the dishes have been washed following the evening meal, Mary will put the dishes
away on Monday, Wednesday, and Friday for six consecutive weeks.
Decide which of these outcomes meets the behavioral objective as it is stated.
a) On Monday, Wednesday, and Friday evenings for six consecutive weeks, Mary put away
the clean dishes. But it took her more than an hour to do so. The average time for most
others to do this task is 10 minutes. Was the behavioral objective accomplished?
YES NO
b) On Monday, Wednesday, and Friday evenings for six consecutive weeks, Mary put away
the dishes. But she mixed the dinner plates with the salad plates, put the cups where bowls
belong, mixed the silverware and placed the glasses out of reach. They never did find the
spaghetti strainer. Was the behavioral objective accomplished?
YES NO
c) On Monday, Wednesday, and Friday for six consecutive weeks, Mary put away the clean
dishes. But by the end of the six weeks there were very few dishes left that she had not
dropped and either cracked or broken. (She cut her hand fairly seriously on a broken
glass.) Was the behavioral objective accomplished? YES NO
45
In all three (a, b, and c) above, Mary did meet the criteria stated in her objective and therefore
the objective was accomplished. However, it is obviously not appropriate for her to work in
the kitchen for an hour or more to complete a 10-minute task, break dishes, or lose items.
Where did the writers of this behavioral objective go wrong?
Cr-1, or the part one criterion, is the part of the behavioral objective that gives the standard for
judging how well the person performs the behavior. What is the Cr-1 in this objective? Let’s
break it down into its component parts and find out.
Answer Key
Conditions: After the dishes have been washed, following the evening meal
Behavior: Will put away the dishes
Criterion, part one: On Monday, Wednesday, and Friday
Criterion, part two: For six consecutive weeks
As you can see, the part one criterion is solely based on regularity – “on Monday, Wednesday,
and Friday.” There is no standard given to judge how well the actual behavior must be
performed.
It is almost never sufficient to use regularity alone as the part one criterion. Usually, a
regularity measurement will be combined with some measurement for the behavior itself. In
this case, if the planning team has a well-thought-out, shared definition for acceptable
performance of this behavior (perhaps from an earlier objective or teaching plan), they could
have simply added the word “correctly” or “properly” to the part one criterion. Otherwise, an
additional phrase or two defining what is acceptable for putting dishes away should be added
to the part one criterion. An alternative way to express the objective is shown below.
After the evening meal dishes are washed, on Monday, Wednesday, and Friday Mary will put
the clean dishes in their designated places in 15 minutes or less, with no more than 2
placement errors per evening and no more than one broken dish per week, for six consecutive
weeks.
You can see that the Cr-1, or part one criterion, provides four different standards which Mary
must meet:
1. On Monday, Wednesday, and Friday
2. In 15 minutes or less
3. no more than 2 placement errors per evening
4. no more than one broken dish per week
There are multiple measures of progress in this objective (speed, accuracy, and agility), which
makes it very complicated. This is NOT a good example of an objective. The team should
assess what Mary can do now and determine which skill to work on first.
46
Try evaluating the following behavioral objective:
Without assistance, Mary will load the washing machine with the appropriate amount of
clothing.
Condition(s): ________________________________________________________________
Behavior: __________________________________________________________________
Cr-1: ______________________________________________________________________
Cr-2: ______________________________________________________________________
Is anything missing or wrong?
Answer Key
Condition(s): without assistance
Behavior: will load the washing machine
Criterion, part one: with the appropriate amount of clothing
Criterion, part two: none
Obviously, a part two criterion is needed to assess whether Mary loads the washing machine
consistently and reliably. The use of the word “appropriate” is acceptable only as long as the
team has a shared definition the appropriate amount of clothing for the washer.
Did you note any other problems with the behavioral objective? Did you feel that the part one
criterion could have been more complete? Mary could meet the part one criterion and still do
the following things:
1. put in clothing that is not washable
2. mix colored and white clothing
3. put clean clothing in the machine
An alternative, part one criterion might be, “with the correct amount of laundry.” A part two
criterion, such as “in 8 out of 10 trials” or “on six consecutive laundry days” would complete
the behavioral objective.
From both of the examples, you can see the importance of being specific and descriptive so
that unwanted behaviors will be excluded. When you are writing behavioral objectives,
remember that the more explicit and specific you make them, the more useful they will be for
all of the members of a person’s support team.
As a precautionary note, four different Cr-1 for a single objective are rarely used. Four
different standards can make data collection cumbersome and may make it very difficult for
the individual and staff to see progress. Typically, the individual and the team will identify the
most critical standard to achieve and use that for the first objective and use remaining
standards in objectives which will be implemented after the individual meets the criteria on
the first.
47
Feedback Exercise 9
Read the following behavioral objectives. On the lines below, break each objective down into
its component parts. For each component, mark it OK if you think it is adequate; if it is not
adequate, explain what you think is wrong and if possible provide suggestions to correct it.
1. While eating, Tom will use silverware, for foods which should not be eaten with his
fingers, for 12 consecutive meals.
Condition(s): ________________________________________________________
Behavior: __________________________________________________________
Cr-1: ______________________________________________________________
Cr-2 _______________________________________________________________
2. Linda will hang up her coat every day after work for 10 working days in a row.
Condition(s): ________________________________________________________
Behavior: ___________________________________________________________
Cr-1: ______________________________________________________________
Cr-2: ______________________________________________________________
3. When asked to do so, Lucas will put on his pullover shirt within six seconds in six
consecutive trials.
Condition(s): ________________________________________________________
Behavior: ___________________________________________________________
Cr-1: ______________________________________________________________
Cr-2: ______________________________________________________________
4. Brynn will wash and peel the carrots for the vegetable snack bowl every Thursday
afternoon for three consecutive weeks.
Condition(s): ________________________________________________________
Behavior: ___________________________________________________________
Cr-1: ______________________________________________________________
Cr-2: ______________________________________________________________
5. Jack will enjoy his food without being messy at the majority of his meals.
Condition(s): ________________________________________________________
Behavior: ___________________________________________________________
Cr-1: ______________________________________________________________
Cr-2: ______________________________________________________________
See the answer key for Feedback Exercise 9 at the end of the Module.
48
It is important to note that an alternative method of stating objectives may be used for some
individuals with disabilities (especially those who are monitoring their own behavior). Rather
than stating the objective as if it were about another person, the objectives may be written as
if the individual were stating a personal goal. For example:
Without assistance, I will ride the bus from my home to my job, getting on and
off at the correct locations, for 15 consecutive working days.
Writing Behavioral Objectives
Now it’s your turn to write your own behavioral objectives. Read the following scenarios and
then write a behavioral objective for each, as instructed in the paragraph.
1. Elliott is a young adult who wants to get around more independently in his community. He
would like to gain independence by learning how to use the city bus that goes past his
home to get to work each day. Elliott and his PCP team want to initiate a teaching program
that will teach Elliott how to do this.
Write a behavioral objective that describes a possible outcome of this teaching program.
Then, in the blanks provided, break your objective down into its component parts.
Condition(s): ____________________________________________________________
Behavior: _______________________________________________________________
Cr-1: ___________________________________________________________________
Cr-2: ___________________________________________________________________
2. Sarah is working at an office in her community. However, if she is not supervised, she
leaves her work area and disrupts other workers. She and her PCP team decide to write a
positive behavior support plan to help Sarah develop better working habits.
Write one behavioral objective to improve Sarah’s work habits and break it down into its
component parts.
Condition(s): ____________________________________________________________
Behavior: _______________________________________________________________
Cr-1: ___________________________________________________________________
Cr-2: ___________________________________________________________________
3. Seth does not participate in many household tasks at his home. He uses a wheelchair to get
around his home. He has indicated he would like to learn to do tasks such as setting the
table for meals, dusting the furniture that is within his reach, preparing food, and sorting
laundry.
Write one behavioral objective to teach Seth a household task and break it down into its
component parts.
49
Condition(s): ____________________________________________________________
Behavior: _______________________________________________________________
Cr-1: ___________________________________________________________________
Cr-2: __________________________________________________________________
There are several possible correct answers for this practice exercise. To determine if your
behavioral objectives are written correctly, it is helpful to ask the following questions about
each of the behavioral objectives that you wrote. Following these questions, there is a sample
objective for each scenario (to which you can compare the behavioral objectives that you
wrote).
Questions
1. Does your behavioral objective describe a specific, observable, measurable target behavior
that the person will be doing when the objective is achieved? Can the action pass the “Hey,
Dad” test?
2. Does the part one criterion provide a way to measure the behavior itself such as how well,
how accurately, or by what method it should be performed?
3. Is there a part two criterion that clearly describes when the objective “ends”, and you can
expect the person to perform the behavior reliably and consistently?
4. Have the important conditions, such as what the person will be allowed (or not allowed),
what will be provided to set the stage for the person to demonstrate the target behavior,
where the behavior will occur, etc. been clearly specified?
Sample Correct Answers
1. Without assistance, Elliott will ride the bus from his home to his job, getting on and off at
the correct locations, for 15 consecutive working days.
Condition(s): without assistance
Behavior: will ride the bus from his home to his job
CR-1: getting on and off at the correct locations
CR-2: for 15 consecutive working days
2. When given a new task to complete, Sarah will remain on-task* for at least 15 minutes
without being prompted for at least five consecutive new task presentations.
Condition(s): when given a new task, without being prompted
Behavior: remain on-task
Cr-1: for at least 15 minutes
Cr-2: for a at least five consecutive new task presentations
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*In this scenario, Sarah’s support team would need to have a shared definition of “on-task”
to make sure that everyone is observing the same target behavior.
3. In the morning when prompted, Seth will set the table for breakfast, making no more than
three placement errors, in less than 20 minutes for six consecutive mornings.
Condition(s): in the morning, when prompted
Behavior: set the table for breakfast
Cr-1: making no more than three placement errors, in less than 20 minutes
Cr-2: six consecutive mornings
The specifics of your objectives may have been quite different. This does not mean that they
are incorrect.
Additional Practice Exercise
Write three behavioral objectives for individuals whom you assist/support. Follow the rules
you have been given for writing descriptively and being specific about the target behavior,
criterion, and conditions. To evaluate your objectives, break them down into their component
parts and apply the four questions on page 47. Your instructor may ask you to submit this
practice exercise for evaluation and feedback.
1.
2.
3.
Unit II: Lesson 3 – Points for Review
When one or more of the required components of a behavioral objective is not written
precisely, it is difficult to implement the objective as intended. To avoid this, in addition to
the “Hey, Dad” and Mental Image test, there are four questions that can be asked to make
sure that behavioral objectives are written correctly.
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UNIT III
Lesson 1: Introduction to Behavior Measurement
Instructional Objectives:
• Trainee will state at least one reason why it is important to systematically and accurately
observe and report behavior.
• Trainee will name the dimensions of behavior that are observed and measured.
• Trainee will describe the seven major strategies for measuring behavior which are taught in
this module.
• Trainee will match a described behavior with an appropriate measurement strategy.
• Trainee will measure behavior using each of the seven measurement strategies.
Introduction to Data Collection
Once a behavior has been defined, it is necessary to collect data in order to effectively assess the
level at which the behavior is occurring. Such assessment is achieved by using a variety of data
collection strategies. This section describes several common data collection systems and how
they can be implemented to measure progress on behavioral objectives.
Data about a person’s target behavior should be done before (baseline trials), during
(instructional trials), and after (probe trials) a positive behavior support plan (to decrease
challenging behaviors) or instructional program (to increase skills) is implemented. Baseline
assessment of the behavior is used to evaluate the learner’s performance prior to instruction or
intervention. It provides a basis of comparison to determine whether the program is acceptable in
modifying the target behavior. Measuring the behavior while an instructional program or
intervention plan is being implemented provides day-to-day feedback to evaluate the effects of
the procedure and to make necessary modifications. Behavior measurement after the
instructional program or intervention plan is no longer being implemented allows the support
team to determine if the behavior change is being maintained and generalized.
Rationale for Collecting Behavior Data
While data collection may not be an enjoyable task for some direct support professionals, there
are excellent reasons for collecting data. Behavior data is the product of measuring and recording
behavior. It can serve many purposes. These include:
• Establishing a baseline of the target behavior that needs to increase or decrease
• Providing information about when and where the target behavior is most likely to occur
• Identifying how often, how long, how much, and how intense the target behavior is
• Indicating what and who is likely to trigger the target behavior
• Sharing objective information with the learner, families, staff, and administrators
• Determining whether interventions are effective
• Guiding data-based decisions
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Choosing a Data Collection System
Choosing a data collection system is the first step in observing and measuring behavior. The data
collection system that is selected must be appropriate for the behavior that is being observed and
for the kind of behavior change that is desired.
Table 7 shows several dimensions on which behaviors may be observed and measured. Please
note that while continuous recording and task analysis data collection systems are included on
this Table, they will not be described until Lesson 4 of Unit 3.
Table 7: Dimensions of Behavior
Dimension Description of What is Observed and Measured
Event Recording/
Frequency Count
The number of times the person engages in the behavior
Rate The frequency of the behavior within a specified time period
Duration The length of time that the person engages in the behavior
Latency Length of time between the instructions to perform it and the
occurrence of the behavior
Interval Whether the behavior occurred at the exact end of the interval
(momentary time sampling), during at least part of the interval
(partial interval recording), or during the entire interval (whole
interval recording)
Accuracy The degree to which a behavior is correct or incorrect
Permanent Product The number of artifacts that resulted from the target behavior
Continuous Recording The antecedents that trigger the challenging behavior and the
consequences that reinforce it
Task Analysis The percentage of steps that the person completes independently
and accurately
The most commonly used procedures for collecting and recording behavior data are frequency
count/event, duration, latency, interval/time sampling, accuracy, and permanent product.
Continuous recording and scatter plots are often used to determine the function that a challenging
behavior is serving for the person who is exhibiting it. Task analyses are also frequently used
with individuals with disabilities as part of an instructional program to teach a new skill. The
questions shown in Table 8 provide guidance in selecting a data collection system.
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Table 8: Guiding Questions for Choosing a Data Collection System
Question Data Collection System
Can you easily count each occurrence of the behavior? Does the
behavior have a distinct beginning and end? (e.g., How many
times Mary yells/cries at work during a two-hour shift?)
Event Recording/
Frequency Count
Did the length of the observation periods vary? If so, event
recording/frequency count data must be converted into rate.
Rate
Do you want to know how long a behavior lasts? (e.g., How long
does Mary work before having an episode of yelling/crying?)
Duration Recording
Do you want to know when a particular behavior begins
following a prompt? (e.g., How long it takes Mary to start
cooking after the verbal prompt “It’s time to start cooking.”)
Latency Recording
Does the behavior occur so frequently that it is difficult to
accurately count (e.g., How many times is Mary off-task{i.e.
staring off into space}during her two-hour work shift?)
Interval Recording
(Whole or Partial)
Momentary Time
Sampling
Can the behavior be checked to see if it is right or wrong? Accuracy
Does the behavior result in an artifact that can be counted? (e.g.,
How many flyers does Mary fold during a two-hour work shift?)
Permanent Product
Do you want to determine the function/purpose that a challenging
behavior is serving for an individual? (e.g., What is the purpose
of Mary’s yelling/crying behaviors during her work shifts?)
Continuous Recording
(Anecdotal Recording/
ABC Analysis)
Scatter Plot
Do you want to measure progress on a task that has multiple
steps? (How many steps of the task analysis for grocery shopping
or cooking can Mary independently and accurately complete?)
Task Analysis
Regardless of the data collection system that is being used, there are some general guidelines to
keep in mind. These are:
• Define (i.e., pinpoint) the behavior to be observed. The definition must be specific,
observable, and measurable so that no matter who is collecting data, it will be clear
whether the target behavior occurred.
• Decide which type of data collection system is most appropriate for recording the
behavior.
• Determine when the behavior will be observed (e.g., during just one time period or
multiple; in one activity or several; with the same person or with more than one person).
• Decide how long each observation will last. While 10 to 20-minute observation periods
are usually adequate, the results from longer sessions will be more accurate.
• Conduct observations at least three times to provide a more accurate representation of the
challenging behavior(s).
Each of the most common types of data collection systems are described in detail in the sections
below. These strategies can be used to measure positive as well as challenging behaviors. Lesson
1 of Unit IV will also describe how to graph each of these data collection systems.
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Data Collection Systems
Event Recording/Frequency Count
Event recording (also known as frequency count) is used when it is important to know how many
times a target behavior happens. Event recording/frequency count is simply a count of the
number of times the behavior occurs within a certain period of time. Each time the individual
engages in the target behavior, it is counted and recorded by the observer. There are several ways
to easily and discreetly record the number of behavior occurrences. These include:
• Recording tally or check mark each time the behavior occurs on a data collection form
• Using a hand counter (i.e. pressing a button each time the target behavior occurs)
• Making marks on a piece of masking tape that’s adhered to a table, desk, piece of
clothing, or wrist
• Using an object to count the number of events (e.g., transferring a small object like a
coin, paper clip, or button from one pocket to the other)
Event recording/frequency count should be used for behaviors that have a discrete beginning
and end and occur for short time frames rather than for extended periods. Sometimes
behaviors that have clear beginnings and endings occur in bursts, which may make it difficult
to record individual responses. Some examples are self-injurious behavior, swearing, and foot
stomping which all occur without pauses. In these cases, you could record one incident of the
target behavior as defined by the cessation of the response burst for a specified time period,
(e.g., one response burst of swearing might be many words in a row followed by a 10-second
period of time in which no swearing occurred). Other behaviors do not have clear beginnings
and endings. Such behaviors often cease for a moment and then start again right away, as in
yelling or crying. One would not know whether to record that one or two crying instances had
occurred. For behaviors with unclear beginnings and endings, different recording procedures
are required.
The period of time during which you record a behavior is called the observation period. If the
behavior to be recorded occurs during dinner, then your observation period would be the half
hour to one-hour period during which the person eats dinner. If the behavior occurs only a
couple of times a day, then you may want to record every twenty-four hours. If the behavior
occurs frequently and you cannot record all day because of practical problems, then a shorter
period of time (i.e., one hour) may be more appropriate. A general rule to follow is that the
greater the frequency of the behavior, the shorter the observation period needs to be if you
cannot record all the time.
Collecting Event Recording/Frequency Count Data
To collect event recording/frequency count data, the person who is observing should complete
the following steps:
1) Record the name of the person and observer.
2) Record the target behavior.
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3) Indicate the date, activity, and time when the observation begins.
4) Make a tally each time the person exhibits the target behavior (in the tally column).
5) Note the time when the observation ends.
6) Record the length of the observation.
7) Add the number of times that the target behavior occurred and record in the frequency
column.
8) If the length of the observation periods varied, calculate the rate of the target behavior by
adding the total number of times the target behavior occurred and dividing by the length of
the observation.
A completed example of event recording/frequency count data is shown in Table 9.
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Table 9: Sample Event Recording/Frequency Count Data
Person’s Name: Mary Observer’s Name: Jenna
Target Behavior(s): Yelling, crying, hitting
Date Activity/Time Tally of Times Target
Behavior Occurred
Length of
Observation
Frequency
5/17 Work
9-11am
Yelling 2 hours 2
//
Crying 1
/
Hitting 0
5/17 Work
1-3pm
Yelling 2 hours 8
//// ///
Crying 2
//
Hitting 4
////
5/18 Work
9-11am
Yelling 2 hours 11
//// //// /
Crying 2
//
Hitting 3
///
5/18 Work
1-2:00 pm
Yelling 1 hour 9
//// ////
Crying 3
///
Hitting 1
/
Date Comments
5/17 Mary did well at work this morning.
5/17 New task in the afternoon that was difficult for Mary.
5/18 Mary wasn’t feeling well at work this afternoon; complained of a
headache.
5/18 Mary wasn’t feeling well at work this afternoon; complained of a
headache; left early.
Please note the length of the observation periods. Since the final observation period in this
example was shorter than the others, the event recording/frequency count data would need to be
converted to rate (as described below).
If the observer wanted a visual representation of these data, the frequency of each of the target
behaviors could be plotted on a graph for each of the four days that the data were collected.
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Advantages and Disadvantages of Event Recording/Frequency Count
Event recording/frequency count has several advantages. These include:
• Works well for recording behaviors that occur too frequently or not frequently enough
• Data can be easily and inconspicuously recorded
• Data collection does not interfere with instruction
• Data can be recorded for short periods of time across multiple days to determine a
behavior pattern
Disadvantages of event/frequency recording are that it does not provide information about
antecedents and consequences of the behavior, whether response occur one after another or
far apart, or the duration of the response. If you want this kind of information, a different
recording procedure is required.
A blank event/frequency recording data collection form is provided in Appendix A.
Calculating Rate from Event Recording/Frequency Count Data
When collecting event recording/frequency count data, it is important to keep the observation
period constant throughout the program. This is important because the frequency of the
behavior may change only because you are recording for longer or shorter periods of time. If
observation periods vary in length, the event recording/frequency count data must be
calculated as rate data.
Rate measures are similar to event/frequency measures except that you use the length of the
observation period to compute rate. For example, suppose you observed Mary initiate a
conversation three times in one hour on Tuesday and three times in one-half hour on
Wednesday. If you were only using event/frequency recording, your data would show that
Mary initiated a conversation three times on both Tuesday and Wednesday.
This type of data collection does not consider that Mary initiated more conversations per unit of
time on Wednesday than Tuesday. When using event/frequency recording and your observation
time varies, it is best to use a measure of rate to express your data.
To compute rate, the observer counts the total number of behavior occurrences within a specified
time frame and divides by the length of the period. This calculation is reported as rate of
occurrence (e.g., the number of behaviors per minute or hour).
The formula for calculating rate is:
Total number of responses
Length of observation period
The quotient is expressed as a number per unit of time. In the above example, Mary’s rate of
initiating conversations on Tuesday is calculated as:
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3 = .05 conversation initiations per minute
60 min.
On Wednesday, Mary’s rate of initiating conversations is calculated as:
3 = .10 conversation initiations per minute
30 min.
It is often difficult to understand a figure such as .10 responses per minute. It is often better to
explain the data as an average of one response in every ten minutes. Therefore, Mary’s rate of
initiating conversations on Tuesday (.05 responses per minute) would be expressed as an
average of one response every 20 minutes.
Since rate measures are so similar to event/frequency measures, they have the same
advantages and disadvantages. A rate measure is as easy to take as an event/frequency count,
and it also tells you how often a behavior occurs. However, rate does not tell you about the
antecedents and consequences of the behavior, whether responses occur together or are
separated by time, or the duration of the response.
In Feedback Exercise 10 (on the following page), you will have the opportunity to review
some frequency data and answer a series of questions based on the information presented on
the form.
Feedback Exercise 10
Part A
Person’s Name: Gary Observer’s Name: Adam
Target Behavior: Asking Unnecessary Questions
Date Activity/Time Frequency Length of Observation Frequency
5/17 Work
9am – 3pm
Asking Unnecessary
Questions
5 hours (did not include a
one-hour lunch break
from 12-1pm)
14
//// //// ////
5/18 Work
9am – 3pm
Asking Unnecessary
Questions
5 hours (did not include a
one-hour lunch break
from 12-1pm)
15
//// //// ////
5/19 Work
9am – 3pm
Asking Unnecessary
Questions
5 hours (did not include a
one-hour lunch break
from 12-1pm)
11
//// //// /
5/20 Work
9am – 3pm
Asking Unnecessary
Questions
5 hours (did not include a
one-hour lunch break
from 12-1pm)
39
//// //// //// //// //// //// //// ////
Review Gary’s frequency data and answer the questions below.
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1. What was the target behavior?
__________________________________________________________________
2. For how many days did the observer collect data on the target behavior?
___________________________________________________________________
3. On what day(s) did Gary ask the most unnecessary questions?
__________________________________________________________________
4. On what day(s) did Gary ask the fewest unnecessary questions?
___________________________________________________________________
See the answer key for Feedback Exercise 10 Part A at the end of the Module.
It is important to note that the length of the observation periods was the same each time that
Gary was observed. If the length of the observation periods had varied, it would have been
necessary to convert the event recording/frequency count into rate data. In addition, after
reviewing Gary’s frequency data, his support team should probably determine what was
happening on May 20th that resulted in a significant increase in the number of unnecessary
questions that Gary asked. For instance, was a new task introduced? Was Gary needing extra
reassurance during that work shift? Was Gary asking unnecessary questions to gain additional
attention from his coach? In doing so, Gary’s support team might be able to figure out the
purpose that asking unnecessary questions is serving for Gary.
Part B
Fill out the blank frequency record using the information presented below.
David frequently hits other people. Your task is to count and record the number of times
David hits other people over a period of eight days. You started collecting data on 5/3.
On the first day you counted four hits; on the second day the number of hits rose to five. He
hit six times on the next day. On the fourth day the behavior occurred four times; on the fifth
day five times. You counted five hits on the sixth day, six hits on the seventh day, and seven
on the last day of data collection.
Name: Dates:
Observer:
Behavior Recorded:
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Date Frequency of Behavior
(Tallies)
Total
See the answer key for Feedback Exercise 10 Part B at the end of the Module.
Duration Recording
When an observer records how long a target behavior occurs from beginning to end, the data
collection system that is being used is duration recording. This system is useful when it is
necessary to know how long a target behavior is occurring so that it can be increased (if it is a
desirable behavior such as being on task or remaining in one’s seat) or decreased (if it is a
challenging behavior such as screaming or having a tantrum).
Using a stopwatch or other timing device, the observer times the person’s target behavior from
the moment it begins until the moment it stops. The duration of the target behavior is recorded on
a data sheet. Duration recording measures the total time that a behavior occurs.
Duration recording requires a precise definition of the target behavior. If behavior outbursts
(behaviors occurring in quick succession such as screaming, kicking, hitting, biting, or hair
pulling) are being recorded, the observer would need to know what constituted one incident of a
behavior outburst and how long the behaviors would have to stop before recording the next
episode.
Collecting Duration Data
To collect event recording/frequency count data, the person who is observing should complete
the following steps:
1) Record the name of the person and observer.
2) Record the target behavior.
3) Indicate the date, activity, and time of the observation.
4) Record the target behavior’s start and stop time.
5) Calculate the duration of each incident of challenging behavior.
6) Add the total duration of the challenging behavior for each observation period.
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7) Calculate the average duration of the challenging behavior for each observation period by
dividing the total duration of the challenging behavior by the total number of incidents of
challenging behavior.
A completed sample of a duration data collection form is shown in Table 10.
Table 10: Sample Duration Data
Student’s Name: Mary Observer’s Name: Jenna A.
Target Behavior: Tantrum (screaming and kicking while lying on the floor)
Date Activity/Time of
Observation
Time when
behavior begins
Time when
behavior stops
Duration of
behavior
Comments
5/17 Stuffing
Envelopes
9-11am
9:11am 9:24am 13 minutes Behavior started
after cue to start
working
10:03am 10:18am 17 minutes Behavior started
during transition
back to work after
bathroom break
Observation Summary Total
Duration
Average Duration
30 minutes 15 minutes
5/17 Stapling collated
papers
9-11am
9:03am 9:11am 8 minutes Behavior started
after cue to start
working
10:03am 10:16am 12 minutes Behavior started
after timer went
off to signal
returning to work
after bathroom
break
Observation Summary Total
Duration
Average Duration
20 minutes 10 minutes
If the observer wanted to visually represent Mary’s duration data, they could be plotted on a bar
graph to show the number of minutes that Mary engaged in the challenging behavior.
Summarizing Duration Recording
Duration data is usually reported as the total length of time that the target behavior occurred
during an observation period. To calculate the average duration of the target behavior, the
observer adds the duration of each incident and divides by the total number of incidents. In the
example above, Mary exhibited the target behavior for a total of 30 minutes during the first
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observation period. Because there were two incidents of challenging behavior during that time
(for a total of 30 minutes), the average duration is calculated by dividing 30 by 2.
30
2 = 15
During the second observation period, the total duration of Mary’s challenging behavior was 20
minutes. Like the first observation period, there were two incidents of challenging behavior.
Therefore, the average duration of Mary’s challenging behavior during the second observation
period was 10. This is computed by dividing 20 by 2.
20
2 = 10
If the observer continued to collect duration for the remainder of the week, the average weekly
duration of Mary’s challenging behavior could be calculated by adding the total duration of each
incident and dividing by the total number of incidents for the entire week.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Duration Recording
Duration recording has several advantages. It is more precise than interval recording. Duration
data shows gradual improvements in duration which often occur before changes in frequency of
the target behavior (although this data collection system provides both types of data). Duration
recording is most useful for measuring behaviors that occur frequently (e.g., talking to co-
workers), as well as for those that are harder to count because they do not have a distinct
beginning or end (e.g., finger flicking, pencil tapping).
Unless a staff member’s only responsibility is to observe during a specified time period, it may
be difficult to get an accurate measurement of how long a target behavior lasts. This is one
disadvantage of the duration recording method of data collection.
A blank duration data collection form is provided in Appendix B.
Latency recording
When an observer measures the length of time that elapses between the onset of a stimulus (e.g.,
a prompt or event demand that introduces the opportunity to respond) and the occurrence of the
target behavior, the data collection system being used is latency recording. Latency recording is a
form of duration data collection and is usually used when the desired behavior is to decrease the
amount of time it takes for an individual to respond to a stimulus. For example, to record latency
for a compliance program, the time between a request and the occurrence of the requested
behavior would be measured. Another example of a latency is the time before one starts to wash
the dishes. In this case, you would measure the time from the end of the meal to the occurrence
of dishwashing. Other examples of behaviors that could be measured using this data collection
method are the amount of time it takes a person to start working after her supervisor gives her an
assignment or the amount of time it takes someone to respond to his co-worker after she says
“hi” or asks him a question.
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Latency recording is used when the behavior has a clear beginning so that the observer can tell
exactly when the behavior begins. It is also important to know the specific signal that triggers the
individual to exhibit the target behavior. Signals to start a behavior include verbal prompts (e.g.,
“It’s time to get up”), an event (e.g., watching your roommate get up), or an antecedent that is
natural for starting the task (e.g., a phone alarm going off).
To measure latency, a timing device such as a stopwatch is required so that the observer can start
the timer when the stimulus is provided (e.g., the end of dinner or the prompt “It’s time to wash
the dishes”) and stopped when the target behavior begins (e.g., Sarah starts washing the dishes).
Summarizing Latency Recording
To summarize latency data, the observer calculates the average latency. This is done by adding
all of the latency data together and dividing by the number of opportunities that were measured.
For example, when observing Mary at work, it was noted that it took her 60 seconds, 90 seconds,
50 seconds, and 35 seconds to start her four assigned tasks once her supervisor gave the
instructions. By adding 60 + 90 + 50 + 35 = 235 (total latency) and dividing by four (the number
of assignments), Mary’s average latency for starting her assignments is 58.75 seconds.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Latency Recording
Latency is especially useful when it is important to know the amount of time that elapses
between a signal to start work and the occurrence of the target behavior (i.e. starting work).
Signals to start work may include a verbal prompt (e.g., “It’s time to start working”), an event
(e.g., a timer that goes off at the beginning of the shift), or a natural antecedent for a task (e.g., a
pile of papers that need to be shredded). One advantage of a latency system of data collection is
that it shows if the individual is getting better at starting to work following one of the signals to
begin working. In this situation, the behavior that would be targeted for change would be to
decrease the amount of time it takes for the person to begin working following a signal that it’s
time to work.
Latency recording is also useful for preventing challenging behaviors. By knowing how much
time elapses in between the person starting to work and exhibiting a challenging behavior, the
person can be supported to start a new activity before reaching the point that he or she will
display the challenging behavior. For example, if latency recording shows that an individual
reaches her threshold after working on the same task for 35 minutes, the observer can engage the
person in a new task after approximately 30 minutes have passed. This will bypass the
occurrence of the challenging behavior at the 35-minute mark.
The greatest disadvantage of latency recording is the amount of time that it takes to monitor a
person’s behavior while not being able to complete other responsibilities at the same time.
A blank form for latency data collection is provided in the Appendix .
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Interval Recording
Interval recording (also known as time sampling) is a data collection system that involves
observing whether the target behavior occurs during a specified time frame. Once the length of
the observation period is determined (e.g., a three-hour work shift, a 30-minute dinner, a 15-
minute bedtime routine, etc.), the time frame is broken down into smaller increments that are the
same length. The increments may be short (seconds) or long (minutes). For example, an hour-
long observation period could be split into six 10-minute intervals or sixty 1-minute intervals,
etc. Choosing the appropriate length depends mainly upon the frequency at which the target
behavior occurs. As a general rule to follow, intervals should be longer for behaviors that occur
at a low frequency.
The observer uses a timer, watch, stopwatch, phone, or other device to track intervals. A data
sheet (divided into intervals) on which occurrences of behavior are recorded must also be
available. Once the observation period is completed, the observer calculates the percentage of
intervals in which the behavior occurred.
There are three main types of interval recording (time sampling) data recording systems:
momentary, partial, and whole.
1. Momentary Time Sampling
To use a momentary time sampling data collection system, the observer records if the behavior is
being exhibited immediately following each interval within a specified time period. A timing
device (e.g., timer, watch, stopwatch, cell phone) is necessary to track the interval lengths.
For example, if a person’s target behavior is to increase on-task behavior during 60 minutes of a
work shift, the time frame may be broken into one-minute intervals. At the end of each one-
minute increment, the observer looks up and records whether the target behavior is occurring or
not. If the person is on task at the end of each set interval, the observer records a plus. If the
target behavior is not occurring, a minus is recorded.
The momentary time sampling data collection system provides an estimate of behavior rather
than a frequency count of the behavior. One of the greatest advantages of this system is that the
observer does not need to be watching the person’s behavior the entire time. Because observation
times are shorter, momentary time sampling can be implemented within the daily schedule. This
data collection system is especially useful when it is difficult to determine when a behavior
begins and ends or when a target behavior’s frequency is too high to count. Because the target
behavior may occur during the interval but stop right before the moment of observation at the
end of the interval, the occurrence of the behavior may be underestimated. This is one
disadvantage of the momentary time sampling method of data collection.
2. Partial Interval Recording
When a partial interval recording data collection system is used, the observer records a plus (+) if
the behavior is exhibited at any time during the interval. A minus (-) is recorded if the behavior
does not occur during the interval. Partial interval recording does not count or tally exactly how
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many times the behavior occurred during the specified time period. Because it is likely that
partial interval recording will produce a slight overestimate of the occurrence of the target
behavior, it should be used when the goal is to decrease the target behavior.
3. Whole Interval Recording
Using a whole interval recording data collection system, the observer records a plus only if the
target behavior is present for the entire interval. Even if the target behavior occurred at some
point during the interval, a minus is recorded if the target behavior was not displayed for the
entire time frame. Whole interval recording tends to underestimate the occurrence of behavior
and therefore should be used when the goal is to increase the target behavior.
Collecting Interval Data
To collect interval data, the person who is observing should complete the following steps:
• Record the name of the person and observer.
• Record the target behavior.
• Indicate the date, activity, and time of the observation.
• Record data:
• Momentary Time Sampling – Record a plus (+) if the behavior occurred at the exact
moment when the interval ended or a minus (-) if the behavior was not occurring at the
exact moment when the interval ended.
• Partial Interval Recording – Record a plus (+) if the behavior occurred at least once in the
interval or a minus (-) if the behavior did not occur at least once in the interval.
• Whole Interval Recording – Record a plus (+) if the behavior was continuous during the
entire interval or a minus (-) if the behavior was not continuous during the entire interval.
• Count the total number of intervals in which the behavior occurred.
• Divide the total number of intervals in which the behavior occurred (those in which a + was
recorded) by the total number of intervals (those in which a + was recorded plus those in
which a – was recorded).
• Record the percentage of intervals in which the target behavior occurred.
A completed example is shown for whole interval data in Table 11.
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Table 11: Sample Whole Interval Recording Data
Person’s Name: Samantha Observer’s Name: Jenna
Activity/Time: Work 8:00am-12:00pm Date: May 17, 2019
Target Behavior: Working on assigned task Type of Interval Recording: Whole Interval
Instructions for Interval Recording
Momentary Time Sampling = Whole = Record a (+) if Partial = Record a (+) if
Record a (+) only if behavior behavior is continuous in behavior occurs at least
occurs at moment when entire interval once in interval
interval ends
Time + or - Comments Time + or - Comments
8:00-
8:09
+ 10:00-
10:09
- Refused to get back
to work after prompt
8:10-
8:29
+ 10:10-
10:29
- Refused to get back
to work after prompt
8:30-
8:39
+ 10:30-
10:39
+
8:40-
8:49
+ 10:40-
10:49
+
8:50-
8:59
- Was off-task waiting for
bathroom break
10:50-
10:59
+
9:00-
9:09
NA Bathroom break 11:00-
11:09
+
9:10-
9:29
+ 11:10-
11:29
+
9:30-
9:39
+ 11:30-
11:39
- Complaining about
being hungry
9:40-
9:49
+ 11:40-
11:49
- Complaining about
being hungry
9:50-
9:59
- Distracted by loud noise 11:50-
11:59
- Complaining about
being hungry
Total number of intervals in which a + was recorded 12
Total number of intervals 19
% of intervals in which the behavior occurred 63%
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The formula for calculating interval data is:
# of intervals in which behavior occurred
Total number of intervals
In the example above, a target behavior occurred in 12 of the 19 possible intervals.
12
19 = 63%
Mary exhibited the target behavior 63% of the time during a four-hour interval period.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Interval Recording
Interval recording is a good method to use if:
1. You are recording a behavior that does not have an easily defined beginning and ending.
2. You are recording more than one person’s behavior at the same time.
3. You are recording more than one behavior of one person.
4. You are recording more than one behavior of more than one person at the same time and it
is difficult to record frequency.
5. You are reinforcing someone after a certain length of time in which no inappropriate
behavior has occurred.
6. The behavior being observed is subtle (not obvious).
Table 12 illustrates advantages 1 & 2 of interval recording data.
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Table 12: Interval Recording for Advantages 1 & 2
Advantages Scenario
• Useful when the target behavior does
not have an easily defined beginning or
end
• Convenient when more than one
person’s behavior is being recorded
There are three roommates who argue a lot
in the supported apartment complex where
Kate works. Kate found it difficult to
adequately define the beginning and
ending of an argument, so she could not
take frequency data. She could define
when an argument was occurring, though,
because there was always shouting.
She decided to use interval recording. All
three individuals were home and awake
from 7 p.m. to 10 p.m. so she chose that as
the observation period. Kate divided the
three hours into 15-minute intervals, so
there were 12 intervals per night. If she
heard shouting at any time during the
interval, she put a plus “+” in the interval
corresponding to the person who was
shouting. If she heard no shouting a minus
“-” was recorded.
This is an example of partial interval
recording because the behavior is recorded
if it occurred at least once during the
interval. It does not have to last for the
entire interval or be occurring at the exact
end of the interval.
Interval 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Clare + + - + + + - - - + + - 7
Kelli + + - - + + - - - + - - 5
Becca - - - - - - + - - - - + 2
In this example, Claire was shouting during seven out of 12 intervals (58%). Gus was
shouting during five intervals (42%) and Becca was shouting during two intervals (17%).
Table 13 shows how interval recording can be used to record more than one behavior of one
person. It also shows how data can be collected on both challenging and positive behaviors at
the same time.
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Table 13: Interval Recording for Advantage 3
Advantage Scenario
• Applicable when recording more than
one behavior of one person.
Seth was working with Michael who
kicked, hit and swore at other people. He
also rarely said “hello” or “please” to
anyone. Seth decided to use interval
recording to record Michael’s multiple
behaviors during the same observation
period.
Key:
H = Hits S = Swearing K = Kicks
P = Please HI = Hello
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
H
H H H H H H H H H
K K K K K K K K K K
S S S S S S S S S S
HI HI HI HI HI HI HI HI HI HI
P
P P P P P P P P P
Each interval is 10 minutes in length. If any of the behaviors occurred during an interval, the
symbol for the behavior was underlined. There were eight intervals in which hitting occurred,
four intervals in which kicking occurred, five intervals in which swearing occurred, and no
intervals in which saying “hello” or “please” occurred.
Table 14 shows how interval data can be used to record more than one behavior of more than
one person at a time.
Table 14: Interval Recording for Advantage 4
Advantage Scenario
• Valuable for recording more than one
behavior of more than one person at a
time.
Jack is a staff member who assists
five people, all of whom have
positive behavior support plans.
The programs consist of increasing
appropriate behaviors (saying
“please” and “thank you”) and
decreasing inappropriate behaviors
(throwing objects and standing on
the furniture). There are so many
people and behaviors to record that
Jack found it difficult to use
frequency recording. He decided to
try interval recording. The
individuals were home and awake
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from 5 p.m. to 10 p.m. This was
Jack’s observation period. It was
five hours (300 minutes) in length.
Since the behaviors did not occur
very frequently, Jack chose 20-
minute intervals. This meant that
there were 15 intervals per night
(300 minutes divided by 20
minutes = 15). Jack devised a data
sheet that enabled him to record
behaviors of five individuals at the
same time in 20-minute intervals.
A part of the data sheet that Jack
used is shown below.
Key:
F = Standing on Furniture TO = Throwing Objects
P = Please TY = Thank You
Name 5:00 5:20 5:40 6:00 6:20
Matthew P TO
F TY
P TO
F TY
P TO
F TY
P TO
F TY
P TO
F TY
Nick
P TO
F TY
P TO
F TY
P TO
F TY
P TO
F TY
P TO
F TY
Jake
P TO
F TY
P TO
F TY
P TO
F TY
P TO
F TY
P TO
F TY
Mike
P TO
F TY
P TO
F TY
P TO
F TY
P TO
F TY
P TO
F TY
Zach
P TO
F TY
P TO
F TY
P TO
F TY
P TO
F TY
P TO
F TY
The final example in Table 15 shows how interval recording can be used to reinforce
nonoccurrence of a target behavior.
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Table 15: Interval Recording for Advantage 5
Advantage Scenario
• Useful for reinforcing nonoccurrence
of a target behavior.
Mary’s team wanted to help her to refrain
from yelling during her work shifts but
they wanted to use a positive method to do
so. Because Mary usually worked for an
hour before taking a break, the observation
period was 60 minutes (divided into 10-
minute intervals). Every time an interval
passed when there was no occurrence of
yelling, Mary’s job coach verbally praised
her. A part of the data sheet for Mary is
shown below.
Time 1 2 3 4 5 6
8-9 + + + + + -
9-10 - - - - - -
10-11 + + + + + +
A minus (–) was recorded for intervals in which yelling had occurred and a plus (+) was
recorded for intervals in which Mary had not yelled. During the first hour of Mary’s work
shift, yelling only occurred during the sixth interval. Yelling occurred during all of the
intervals of Mary’s second hour at work. No yelling occurred during the third hour of Mary’s
shift. During the three-hour observation period before Mary’s lunch break, there were seven
instances of yelling out of 18 total intervals. In other words, Mary yelled 39% of the time
during her morning work shift. It would be interesting for Mary’s staff to determine what was
happening during the second hour of her work shift to identify what was triggering more
instances of her yelling behavior.
Even though there are several advantages of using interval recording, there are also
disadvantages.
1. Data collected by interval recording does not indicate precisely how often a behavior
occurs. It simply tells you whether a behavior occurred at least once during an
interval.
2. Like event recording/frequency measures, interval recording does not give information
concerning the form of the behavior or its antecedents and consequences. Depending
on the type of interval recording system that is used (whole, partial, or momentary
time sampling), however, it does give a general idea of when the behavior occurred in
a particular observation period (whereas event recording/frequency count does not).
Summarizing Interval Recording Data
Interval data is typically presented as the percentage of intervals during which the target
behavior occurred. Since the number of marks recorded during observation sessions do not
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represent the exact frequency or duration of the response, the data are reported and charted as
the percentage of intervals in which the response occurred.
A blank interval data collection form is included in Appendix D.
Accuracy Measures
Accuracy measures indicate the degree to which a response is correct or incorrect. They are
typically used in a situation when the response being observed can be compared to some
criteria and evaluated as being either right or wrong. They are especially useful when there is
a permanent product that someone can check related to the person’s behavior. For example,
some academic behaviors have a permanent product (e.g., math worksheet, spelling test) that
someone checks for right and wrong answers. Also, some discrete skills, such as coin
identification for instance, can be measured in this way.
In their simplest form, accuracy data are recorded as either the number of right responses or
the number of wrong ones. However, accuracy measures leave two questions unanswered: (1)
How many opportunities did the person have to be correct? and (2) How long did it take to get
that many correct? The measures that will answer those questions are: (1) percent correct and
(2) rate correct, respectively.
The formula for calculating the percentage of correct responses is:
Number of correct responses
Number of Trials X 100
The formula for calculating the rate of correct responding is:
Number of correct responses
Observation Time X 100
It simply may not be enough to know that John got five answers correct on Monday and four
correct on Tuesday. You may also be interested in knowing that on Monday there were a total
of ten questions, and on Tuesday there were only six. The percent correct was higher on
Tuesday (67%) than on Monday (50%) even though the actual number correct was lower.
You may also want to know that on Monday it took John 40 minutes to do those ten questions
but on Tuesday, it took only 10 minutes to do six questions. The rate at which he answered
the questions Tuesday was much faster than on Monday. Monday’s rate of correct responding
was .125/minute (one every eight minutes), and on Tuesday, it was .4/minute (one every 2.5
minutes).
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Permanent Product
The final type of recording procedure is one in which you record a result of the behavior
(rather than the actual behavior). Permanent product refers to a lasting, tangible result of the
behavior to be modified. Examples of behaviors that have a permanent product include bed
making, dishwashing, items set on the table, homework assignments, papers thrown on the
floor, and a variety of work tasks (e.g., envelopes labeled, papers stapled, silverware rolled,
etc.). Each of these behaviors results in some tangible product which can be evaluated.
The fact that you do no need to observe the behavior itself can also be a disadvantage.
Permanent product data do not tell you anything about the behavior except that it occurred.
You cannot tell how long the task took or whether it was completed easily or with difficulty.
These data do not even demonstrate that the person involved was the one who completed the
task. How long a behavior took or whether the person had help are often important for a staff
member to know, especially when first teaching the behavior. In cases when it is unnecessary
or impossible to observe the behavior, permanent product may be sufficient.
Permanent product data are typically taken an interval basis. The recorder will simply note
whether or not the task has been completed, (or how much has been completed) at the end of
the specified intervals. These intervals may be fixed (e.g., once a day) or variable (e.g.,
random checks throughout the day).
Unit III: Lesson 1 – Points for Review
Behaviors may be targeted because they represent a deficit (i.e., too few skills or positive
actions) or an excess (i.e., too much of a challenging behavior). In order to systematically
develop an instructional program to teach new skills or a positive support plan to address
challenging behaviors, the target behavior must be observed and measured. Based on the
dimension of the target behavior that needs to be observed and measured, there are a variety
of procedures that can be used for collecting and recording behavior data. Guidelines for
selecting an appropriate measurement system, as well as advantages and disadvantages of
each, are described in this Module.
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UNIT III
Lesson 2: Guidelines for Measuring Behavioral Objectives
Instructional Objectives:
• Given characteristics of a target behavior, conditions, and criterion, trainee will identify an
appropriate measurement system.
• Given a behavioral objective within a scenario, trainee will specify reasons why the
proposed measurement system is incorrect for the behavior being measured.
Introduction to Guidelines for Measuring Behavioral Objectives
The first lesson of this unit described a variety of approaches that can be used to measure
behavior. This lesson presents several guidelines for choosing the most appropriate data
collection system for measuring behavior related to specific behavioral objectives.
1) Look at the Behavior
Compare the proposed measurement strategy with the characteristics of the behavior to be
measured. Table 16 shows appropriate measurement systems based on the characteristics of
the target behavior that need to be observed and recorded.
Table 16: Measurement Systems Based on Behavior Characteristics
Characteristics of the Behavior Appropriate Measurement System
Used for fairly obvious behaviors (asking
questions, fighting, crying, incontinence)
that have a discrete beginning and end.
No typical pattern of occurrence.
May occur many times a day, at many
different times.
Event Recording/Frequency Count
Used for behaviors identified for frequency
records when the observation periods vary
in length.
Rate
Used to determine how long a particular
behavior lasts. (e.g., On task, eye contact,
or maladaptive behaviors)
Duration Recording
Used to measure length of time from the
introduction of the opportunity to respond
to the occurrence of the behavior. (e.g.,
compliance to requests, following
directions, presentation of task materials)
Response Latency
Used for behaviors that do not have an
easily defined beginning and ending, as
well as subtle (not obvious) behaviors.
Interval Recording
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Used for behaviors that can be compared
to some criteria and evaluated as being
either right or wrong (e.g., academic
behaviors, coin identification).
Accuracy Measures
Used for behaviors that result in some
tangible product which can be evaluated.
(e.g. bed making, written assignments,
table setting, papers stapled, envelopes
stuffed). Does not tell how long the task
took or whether it was completed
independently.
Permanent Product
2) Look at the Conditions
The measurement strategy should be compared with the conditions that are specified. The
strategy and conditions must be consistent. This means that the behavior must be measured at
the time and place and with any special equipment and/or assistance that is specified in the
statement of conditions.
3) Look at the Criteria
The measurement strategy should be compared with the criteria. If the criteria require a
certain number of responses, the actual number should be specified. If the criteria require a
certain percentage of performance, a measurement strategy that allows percentages to be
calculated should be used.
Common Mistakes in Choosing an Appropriate Measurement Strategy
In the next section, some examples of common mistakes that occur if observers do not make
sure that the measurement strategy they select is appropriate for the behavior and/or consistent
with the objective, will be reviewed.
Example A
Lee engages in a lot of disruptive (yelling) behavior when he’s at work. He also wanders
around work or talks to others when he should be working. He and his PCP team agreed that
an objective should be written related to Lee increasing his on-task behavior. They wrote the
following objective:
Behavioral Objective:
“Lee will increase the amount of time he spends “on-task” (defined as doing his work) by
20%. He will maintain this criterion for at least one week.”
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Measurement Strategy:
The job coaches at Lee’s work agreed to observe him 10 times each work day for at least a
week. They agreed to make the observation periods at different times each day. They agreed
to record whether Lee was sitting at his work station when observed.
What is wrong with this measurement strategy?
Answer: The behavior specified in the objective is “on-task” (doing his work). The behavior
measured was “sitting at the work station.” Lee could easily sit at his work station without
being “on-task.”
The staff should either change the objective or change the behavior to be observed to “on-
task” (i.e. doing his work).
Example B
Chelsea works at Sylvia’s Salsa Shoppe. She works with a machine that fills jars of salsa. She
is presently filling only an average of 10 jars per hour. The PCP team wrote the following
behavioral objective:
Behavioral Objective:
“Chelsea will increase the number of jars she fills from an average of 10 to an average of 20
per hour. She will fill at least 20 jars per hour each work day for two weeks.”
Measurement Strategy:
The staff decided to observe Chelsea four times a day to assess whether she was filling the
jars. They agreed to observe Chelsea at 9:00, 11:00, 2:00 and 4:00 and to mark whether she
was filling jars at the times she was observed.
What is wrong with this measurement strategy?
Answer: The measurement strategy is not consistent with the behavioral objective.
Chelsea’s job coaches had agreed to measure the average number of jars being filled per hour,
not whether or not she was filling jars when observed.
The staff should either change the objective or change the measurement strategy to one that
requires them to observe and record the average number of jars that Chelsea fills during each
one-hour observation period.
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Example C
Jeremy lives in an apartment with a roommate. He and his roommate share household tasks.
Jeremy would like to learn how to complete some tasks in the kitchen. He would like to start
by learning how to set the table before mealtimes.
Behavioral Objective:
Before each mealtime, when asked, Jeremy will set the plates, cups, and silverware in the
correct plate on the table within 10 minutes of being asked with 100% accuracy/independence
for at least one week.
Measurement Strategy:
The staff at Jeremy’s apartment observed him for one week before breakfast and recorded
each time he set the table with the items in the correct place.
What is wrong with this measurement strategy?
Answer: The measurement strategy is not consistent with the conditions specified in the
objective. The objective requires Jeremy to set the table before all of the meals. The staff
should be recording the number of times Jeremy sets the table when asked and during all
meals, not just at breakfast. If the staff want to measure the behavior only at breakfast, they
will have to change the conditions of the objective.
Example D
Grace works at an insurance agency in her community. She kicks and screams an average of
10 times per working day. Each episode lasts an average of 15 seconds.
Behavioral Objective:
“At the job site, between 8 a.m. and 5 p.m., Grace will kick and scream less often and for
shorter episodes. She will decrease the number of episodes from 10 per work day to no more
than 5 per work day. She will decrease the average length of each episode from 15 seconds to
no more than 5 seconds. She will maintain this criterion for at least two weeks.
Measurement Strategy:
Grace’s job coach set up a simple frequency record sheet and made a mark each time Grace
kicked and/or screamed. He kept a record at the job site for two weeks between 8 a.m. and 5
p.m.
What is wrong with this measurement strategy?
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Answer: It is inconsistent with the objective. The objective’s criteria involve both the
frequency and length of each episode. The measurement strategy only involves recording the
number of episodes. It should also involve timing the episodes and recording the duration.
Example E
Susan lives in an apartment with two other women. She tends to avoid interacting with others.
When at home, she spends most of her time alone in her room or watching television. On
average, she interacts only about three times per night.
Behavioral Objective:
“Susan will increase the number of times she talks to others. While at home, she will talk to
others at least 6 times between 5 p.m. and 9 p.m. for 14 consecutive days.”
Measurement Strategy:
Susan’s support team decided to record every time Susan interacted with someone (talks to
someone) between 5 p.m. and 9 p.m. for 14 consecutive days.
What is wrong with this measurement strategy?
Answer: The measurement strategy is consistent with the behavioral objective. However, it is
not the most appropriate for the behavior being measured. The behavior “talks to others,” is
one that can be done anywhere within the residence at any time between 5 and 9 p.m. It is a
common, “non-obvious” behavior that unless a staff person were assigned to watch Susan
every minute between 5 and 9 p.m., the behavior could occur, but go unnoticed. Therefore, it
would probably be best to change the measurement strategy to a time sample record. A time
sample would require that a staff person check to see if Susan is interacting during certain
times (e.g., at 5:15 p.m.; 6:00 p.m.; 6:10 p.m.; 7:05 p.m.; 7:40 p.m.; 8:10 p.m.; 8:50 p.m.)
rather than every single minute between 5 and 9 p.m.
We often make the mistake of setting up a measurement strategy that tells us more about the
behavior of the observer than that of the person being observed. For example, a behavior such
as smiling at others in non-obvious and unpredictable as to time and place of occurrence.
Therefore, to record every time it occurs would require second-by-second observation. This is
so tedious and impractical that you often end up with a record of the number of times the staff
person was looking at the person rather than the actual number of times the individual smiled.
A time sample record would be a much more appropriate measurement strategy.
Unit III: Lesson 2 – Points for Review
There are several data collection methods that can be used for observing and recording
behavior data. It is important to select an appropriate measurement system by making sure that
it matches the target behavior, aligns with the conditions, and applies to the criteria.
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Unit III
Lesson 3: Data Collection to Determine the Function of a Challenging Behavior
Instructional Objectives:
• Trainee will identify continuous recording and scatter plot data collection systems that can
be used to determine the function/purpose of challenging behaviors.
• Trainee will specify common functions that behaviors serve for the individual who is
displaying it.
Introduction to Data Collection to Determine the Function of a Challenging Behavior
In some cases, it is not enough to simply have a measure of a particular dimension of a behavior.
Sometimes it is also important to know the purpose/function that a challenging behavior is
serving for the individual who is exhibiting it.
In order to hypothesize about the function/purpose, the first step is to define the challenging
behavior in terms that are specific, measurable, and observable (i.e. pinpointing the behavior).
After the challenging behavior is operationally defined, a variety of data collection systems can
be used to determine the function/purpose that the challenging behavior is serving. Indirect
methods (including checklists, surveys, and interviews) can be completed by those who are
familiar with the person’s challenging behavior(s). Two direct data collection systems can also
be used. These include continuous recording (i.e. anecdotal record or ABC analysis) and scatter
plots. Both methods provide the same information (i.e. the antecedent, challenging behavior(s),
and consequences), however, one records data using a narrative format and the other uses tallies
to record instances of the challenging behavior(s).
Completed in conjunction with person-centered planning (and oftentimes to supplement
checklists, surveys, and interviews), continuous recording (also known as an anecdotal record or
ABC analysis) and scatter plots are designed to help a person’s support team understand what is
triggering (antecedents) and reinforcing (consequences) his/her challenging behaviors. By
understanding the antecedents and consequences for challenging behaviors, a hypothesis about
the function of the behaviors can be developed, behavioral objectives can be written, antecedents
and consequences can be changed, and appropriate interventions to teach replacement behaviors
can be implemented as part of positive behavior supports.
Continuous Recording (Anecdotal Recording or ABC Analysis)
As part of a functional behavioral assessment, continuous recording (also known as anecdotal
recording or ABC analysis) involves observing the variables (antecedents and consequences) that
are related to the challenging behavior. Each time that an instance of the challenging behavior
(the behavior or B) occurs, the person who is observing records what happened immediately
preceding the challenging behavior (the antecedent or A) and what happened immediately
following the challenging behavior (the consequence or C). Continuous recording assists the
observer in identifying the possible function of the challenging behavior.
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For example, during an observation at Mary’s workplace, she has four incidents of
challenging behavior (as shown in Table 17 ). In the first column of the chart (A), the
observer records the antecedents that occurred immediately before each incident of the target
behavior. Antecedents can include environmental factors or the behavior of others. In this
example, environmental factors (i.e., Mary’s work materials and a timer) were the antecedents
for two of Mary’s challenging behavior episodes. The other two were triggered by the
behavior of another person (i.e., verbal prompts from the job coach).
In the second column of the chart (B), the observer records the target behavior(s) that Mary
exhibited. For each incident, the target behavior(s) is recoded in the same row as the
antecedent that triggered it. In three of the incidents that were observed, Mary’s challenging
behaviors were crying and yelling. One incident involved hitting her job coach.
In the third column, the observer records the consequences which immediately follow a
specific instance of behavior. Consequences are recorded in the same horizontal row as the
antecedent(s) and target behavior(s) for that particular episode. Like antecedents,
consequences can include physical environmental factors or the actions of others. In this
example, actions of others (excusing her from work, yelling at her, placing her in time out,
ignoring her, and begging her to stop) were the consequences that followed Mary’s
challenging behaviors.
Table 17: Continuous Recording Example
Name:______________________ Date:_______________________________
Setting:_____________________ Observation Time Frame:_______________
Observer:___________________
Antecedent (A) Behavior (B) Consequence (C)
A pile of envelopes to stuff at
work
Mary cries and yells at her
supervisor
Mary is excused from
stuffing the envelopes
Job coach gives Mary the
verbal cue “It’s time to start
working”
Mary hits the job coach Mary’s job coach yells at her
A timer signals that it’s time
to go back to work after lunch
Mary cries and yells at her
supervisor
Mary is placed in time out
Job coach tells Mary that it’s
time to go back to work
Mary cries and yells at her
job coach
Mary is ignored; Mary’s co-
workers cover their ears and
beg her to stop
A blank chart for continuous recording is provided in Appendix E.
Continuous recording is important because it assists a person’s support team to identify the
conditions under which a certain behavior occurs and also them to analyze the consequent
events that might be maintaining (i.e. reinforcing) the behavior.
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Continuous recording is not a simple recording technique. It is often difficult to write down
everything that is occurring in a situation. The following are some helpful hints to aid you in
becoming a skilled recorder:
1. Focus your attention on the individual whose behavior you are observing. When the person
engages in a challenging behavior, write this behavior in the behavior (B) column of the
chart.
2. Next, remember the event that occurred immediately prior to the behavior and write this
event in the antecedent column of the chart, while continuing to observe the individual so
you can write down the consequences of his behavior. In this sense, continuous recording
may be more appropriately called BAC recording, since you first record the individual’s
behavior and then record the antecedents and consequences of that behavior.
3. Often an event which follows a behavior (i.e., the behavior’s consequence) is the
antecedent for another behavior. It is often helpful to abbreviate your notes in order to have
more time to observe.
ABC recording can be used to assess many behaviors of an individual and the antecedents and
consequences which control them. Typically, however, it is used to record only one behavior
of interest along with its antecedents and consequences. You may only be interested in a
person’s yelling, and therefore only record yelling in the behavior column and the antecedents
and consequences of yelling in their appropriate columns. If the antecedent prompting the
behavior to occur or the consequence reinforcing the behavior can be determined, a program
can be written to change the behavior by changing the consequence or changing the
antecedent.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Continuous Recording
The greatest advantage of continuous recording is that the contextual information that it provides
can be useful in hypothesizing the function of the challenging behavior. A disadvantage of this
method is that it requires more time and effort by the person who is observing and only
establishes correlation not causation.
Determining the Function of Challenging Behaviors
Using the information that is recorded in the narrative, the person who is observing is able to
review the antecedents and consequences to determine what is triggering (antecedent) and
reinforcing the challenging behavior (consequence) that is being displayed by the learner. From
this information, the observer is able to formulate a hypothesis about the purpose or function that
the challenging behavior is serving for the learner.
Challenging behaviors typically serve for individuals with disabilities. These include obtaining
something that is desirable (i.e., attention, an object, a food item, etc.) or avoiding/escaping
something that is undesirable (i.e., a difficult task, a particular person, attention, etc.).
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It is important to note that some challenging behaviors may serve more than one
purpose/function. For example, a person may want to escape from one person but obtain
attention from another person.
After analyzing Mary’s ABC chart, it is apparent that she is displaying the challenging behavior
when it is time to work (antecedent). Because she often gets out of work (consequence) when she
displays the challenging behavior, a likely hypothesis is that the purpose or function that the
challenging behavior is serving for Mary is avoidance/escape for a variety of reasons (e.g., she
does not like the task or job coach, the task is difficult, he doesn’t like to go back to work after
lunch, the sound of the timer is aversive, etc.). This information is important because it is the
foundation for developing behavioral objectives to decrease the challenging behavior, changing
the antecedents or consequences, extinguishing the challenging behavior, and teaching an
appropriate replacement behavior that serves the same function as the challenging behavior.
Scatter Plots
Scatter plots are another direct method that can be used to observe individuals who are
displaying challenging behaviors. A scatter plot is an interval recording method in which the
observer numerically tallies instances of the challenging behavior as well as the antecedents and
consequences surrounding it. It enables the observer to identify the variables that may be
contributing to the challenging behavior by discovering patterns related to antecedents and
consequences as well as specific time periods.
Instructions for Completing a Scatter Plot
A scatter plot involves breaking the observation period into a number of smaller intervals.
During each interval, the person who is recording the data observes to see if the challenging
behavior(s) is occurring. Each time a challenging behavior(s) occurs, the observer notes the
antecedents (what occurred right before the challenging behaviors that triggered them), the
challenging behavior(s) that were displayed, and the consequences (what immediately followed
the challenging behaviors). The number that is recorded is the instance number and continues
horizontally across the chart. For example, instance number 1 of challenging behaviors occurred
during the person’s arrival at work. Instance number 1 was triggered by a request/prompt. The
challenging behaviors that were displayed during instance number 1 included hitting and
kicking. The consequence following instance number 1 was that staff yelled at the person. The
second and third instances of the challenging behaviors also occurred when the person arrived at
work. The antecedent for instances 2 and 3 were a request/prompt. The challenging behaviors
that were displayed during the second instance were hitting, yelling, and running away. Yelling
and running away were the challenging behaviors that were exhibited during instance 3. The
consequence that followed instances 2 and 3 was staff yelling. Instances 4, 5, and 6 occurred
while the person was working in the morning. The antecedents for instances 4, 5, and 6 were a
request/prompt and a hard task. Yelling and running away were the most prevalent challenging
behaviors associated with instances 4, 5, and 6. Getting out of the task was the consequence that
followed instances 4, 5, and 6.
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Instance numbers are recorded in the same way for the remainder of the observation period.
Summarizing scatter plot data results in a frequency count (the total number of times the
challenging behavior occurred during the observation period). After the instances of challenging
behavior are recorded, the observer calculates the number for each category (in the far right and
bottom columns of the form). In calculating the numbers for each column, the number of
incidents is counted (versus adding all of the numbers together).
The scatterplot data is summarized by visually scanning the data for patterns over days/weeks.
Once the number of incidents is calculated, they can be used by the observer to answer the
questions at the end of the form and to make data-based decisions about behavioral objectives
that could be written to support the person.
A blank scatter plot is provided in the Appendix..
A sample scatter plot is shown in Table 18.
Table 18: Sample Completed Scatter Plot
Activity/
Start & End
Time
Antecedents Behavior Consequences Total
Req
ues
t/P
rom
pt
Bei
ng I
gnore
d
Tra
nsi
tion
Har
d T
ask
Oth
er
Hit
s
Cri
es
Yel
ls
Runs
away
Oth
er
Att
enti
on
Tim
e out
Get
s out
of
task
Sta
ff y
ells
Oth
er
# o
f i
nci
den
ts o
f
chal
lengin
g
beh
avio
rs b
y
acti
vit
y
Arrival at
Work
8:00 – 8:15
1
2
3
1
2
1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
3
Job
8:15-10:00
4
5
6
4
5
6
4
5
6
4
5
6
4
5
6
3
Bathroom
Break/Snack
10:00-10:15
7 7 7 7 7 1
Job
10:15-
12:00pm
8
9
10
11
12
8
9
10
11
12
8
9
10
11
12
8
9
10
11
12
8
9
10
11
12
5
Lunch
11:30-12:00
0
Total # of
incidents
per category
11 0 6 8 0 2 0 7 12 0 0 0 8 4 1
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Like the ABC analysis, the scatter plot enables the observer to review behavior patterns and to
formulate a hypothesis regarding the function that the challenging behavior is serving for the
learner. In this example, the most frequent challenging behavior is running away. The most
frequent antecedent for the learner’s challenging behaviors is a request or prompt and the most
frequent consequence for the learner’s challenging behaviors is that he or she gets out of a task.
In this case, a probable hypothesis for the function of the learner’s challenging behaviors is
escape. It would be important to identify why the person exhibits the challenging behavior as
soon as he arrives at work and right after a request/prompt is delivered to start working. Does the
person dislike his job? Is the task that the person is being prompted to complete too difficult?
Does the person dislike the direct support professional who is delivering the prompt?
Using information from the scatter plot, the person’s support team could write behavioral
objectives that addresses decreasing the challenging behavior, modifying the antecedent (e.g.,
breaking down the task if it is too difficult or changing the person who delivers the prompt), not
allowing the person to escape from the difficult task (because that is the function that the
challenging behavior is serving for the individual) and teaching and reinforcing a replacement
behavior (using an appropriate behavior to request a break) that serves the same function as the
challenging behavior. Together, behavior objectives, antecedent strategies (modifying what
comes right before the challenging behavior), and consequence strategies (i.e. reinforcement of
an appropriate alternative behavior that serves the same function as the challenging behavior)
combine to form positive behavior supports.
In Feedback Exercise 11, you will have the opportunity to calculate data related to a person’s
challenging behavior in order to hypothesize about the function that the behavior is serving for
the individual.
Feedback Exercise 11
Review the data on the scatter plot below for a young adult who is enrolled in a post-secondary
program on a college campus. For Part A of Feedback Exercise 11, complete the scatter plot by
recording the total number of incidents in the column on the right and in the row on the bottom
of the data collection form. You will be recording numbers in the highlighted boxes of the data
collection form. Remember that you are not adding the numbers together. Rather, you are
recording number of incidents of challenging behavior. The first entry in the column on the right
and row on the bottom are completed as a sample.
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Part A
Activity/
Start & End
Time
Antecedents Behavior Consequences Total
Req
ues
t/P
rom
pt
Bei
ng I
gnore
d
Tra
nsi
tio
n
Har
d T
ask
Oth
er
Hit
ting
Kic
kin
g
Scr
eam
ing
Runs
away
Oth
er
Att
enti
on
Tim
e out
Get
s out
of
task
Tea
cher
/aid
e y
ells
Oth
er
# o
f i
nci
den
ts o
f
chal
lengin
g
beh
avio
rs b
y
acti
vit
y
Arrival at
Campus
8:00 – 8:05
1
2
3
1
2
1
2
3 1
2
3
3
Independent
Living
8:05-9:00
4
5
6
4
5
6
4
5
6
4
5
6
Bathroom
Break/Snack
9:00-9:30
7 7 7 7
Job
9:30-11:30
8
9
10
11
12
8
9
10
11
12
8
9
10
11
12
8
9
10
11
12
8
10
11
12
9
Lunch
11:30-12:00
Total # of
incidents
per category
8
See the answer key for Feedback Exercise 11 Part A at the end of the Module.
For Part B of Feedback Exercise 11, use the numbers that you recorded to answer the following
questions.
Part B
1) What is the most frequent antecedent(s) for this learner’s challenging behavior(s)?
2) What is the most frequent challenging behavior(s) that this learner exhibits?
3) What is the most frequent consequence(s) for this learner’s challenging behaviors?
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4) Based on the data, what do you believe is the function/purpose that the challenging
behavior(s) is serving for this learner?
5) What is one antecedent intervention that you could implement to support this learner?
6) What is one consequence intervention that you could implement to support this learner? The
consequence intervention must always include a replacement behavior that serves the same
function as the challenging behavior.
See the answer key for Feedback Exercise 11 Part B at the end of the Module.
Unit III: Lesson 3 – Points for Review
Sometimes it is not enough to know how many times or how long a target behavior is
occurring. It some cases, it is also important to know the function that a challenging
behavior(s) is serving for the individual who is exhibiting it. To do this, data about the
antecedents and consequences surrounding a challenging behavior must be collected.
Continuous recording and scatter plots are the two most common approaches for gathering
information about a challenging behavior’s function. Once this data has been collected, it can
be analyzed to determine the purpose of the challenging behavior(s). By identifying one (or
more) of these functions (e.g., obtaining something that is desirable or avoiding/escaping
something that is undesirable) a positive support plan can be developed to decrease the
challenging behavior(s) and teach a replacement behavior that serves the same function.
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Unit III
Lesson 4: Data Collection to Teach a New Behavior
Instructional Objectives:
• Trainee will state how behavior checklists are used to measure task completion.
• Trainee will specify how task analytic instruction is used to teach a new skill.
• Trainee will differentiate between discontinuous and continuous baseline data collection
approaches.
• Trainee will identify response prompts and how they are delivered and recorded.
Introduction to Data Collection to Teach a New Behavior
Sometimes data needs to be collected in conjunction with teaching a person a new skill. Behavior
checklists are one approach that can be used to identify skills on which instruction needs to be
provided. Once skills are targeted for instruction, a task analysis may be developed in order to
break down a complicated skill into its component steps.
Behavior Checklists
A common strategy for measuring task completion – especially tasks which have a predictable
time or place of occurrence – is to use a behavior checklist. For example, a behavior checklist
might be used to document the completion of self-care tasks. The basic measurement goal in
this case is to determine, out of a list of all the self-care tasks required, how many the person
successfully finishes.
Examples of other behaviors for which a checklist approach is useful include:
• Completing household tasks
• Arriving at work or home on time
• Taking medications
• Finishing work assignments
To record such behaviors, you will complete the following steps:
1. Define or describe the behavior.
2. Determine when and where the behavior is supposed to occur.
3. Check to see whether the behavior occurred.
4. Record your observations, using a behavior checklist.
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How to Use a Behavior Checklist
A behavior checklist can be used to track whether a person is completing a variety of tasks as
part of his/her PCP. There are several steps for recording data on a behavior checklist.
1. On the top part of the sheet, write the person’s name and the name(s) of the staff. Who is
involved in observing and recording occurrences of the behavior? Also, write the dates
which mark the beginning and the end of the observation period.
2. On the far-left side of the sheet, under the column labeled date, enter the date of each
recording. You can see that there are a number of columns under the label behavior which
you can use to list the specific behaviors you are recording.
In Table 19 below, you will see an example of how the checklist strategy for measuring
behavior was used to record the completion of daily grooming tasks.
Table 19: Behavior Checklist
Learner’s Name: John Observer’s Name(s): Joe C and Bob T.
Target Behavior: Grooming Tasks Dates: 6/6 to 6/11
Key:
+ = behavior did occur
o = behavior did not
occur
/ = not applicable
Date Dressing Combing Hair
Bathing Brushing Teeth
Shaving Totals
+ - / %
6/6 + + + - + 4 1 0 80%
6/7 + - + - - 2 3 0 40%
6/8 + + - + - 3 2 0 60%
6/9 + - - - + 2 3 0 40%
6/10 + + + - - 3 2 0 60%
6/11 + - - - - 1 4 0 20
Totals
+ 6 3 3 1 2
- 0 3 3 5 4
/ 0 0 0 0 0
% 100% 50% 50% 17% 33%
This checklist provides a daily record of John’s performance related to five different
grooming skills over a six-day period.
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The observers (Joe C. and Bob T.) first defined or described each of the grooming tasks by
listing what John had to do in order to complete each of the tasks. They then decided where
and when to observe John to check for the completion tasks. If John successfully completed
the task, they recorded a plus (+) in the appropriate column; if John did not complete the task,
they recorded a minus (-); and if for some reason John did not have a chance to complete the
task, they recorded a slash mark (/).
You can see, for example, that on 6/10, John successfully completed the dressing, combing
and bathing tasks, but did not brush his teeth or shave. The total columns on the right-hand
side of the checklist provide a daily summary of the person’s performance. Again, for 6/10,
the total columns show that John successfully completed three tasks (a 3 is entered under the
+ total column) and did not complete two tasks ( a 2 is entered under the - total column).
The far-right column, labeled % is used to record the percentage of all the possible tasks that
the person completed successfully. For example, on 6/10, there were five possible grooming
tasks, and John successfully completed three of them. The percentage figure is obtained by
dividing the total number successfully completed (3) by the total number possible (5) and
multiplying by 100. As you can see, the result is 60% on 6/10. As John learns to complete
more of the tasks, this percentage will increase.
The total rows at the bottom of the page provide a six-day summary of the person’s
performance with respect to each of the grooming skills. Looking at the checklist, you can see
that John dressed himself each day (6 is entered in the + total row), but only shaved two of the
six days. One hundred percent was recorded for dressing, since John dressed himself each
day. However, since he only shaved two of the six days, 33% (2 ÷ 6 x 100 = 33%) was
recorded for shaving.
The percentage figures in this bottom row allow you to quickly determine which of the
grooming skills on which the person needs to focus. In the example above, it would be
important for John’s support team to determine why he is not shaving. Does John lack the
skills that are required for shaving? Is shaving a task that is not motivating for John? Does he
prefer to have facial hair? Is the shaving task too difficult for John? If the task is too difficult,
it might be helpful to break down the target behavior into smaller steps. This is known as a
task analysis and will be described in a subsequent section of this Module.
A blank behavior checklist is provided in Appendix G.
In Feedback Exercise 12, you will have an opportunity to analyze a behavior checklist on
which data was collected on four tasks that are part of a person’s morning routine.
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Feedback Exercise 12
Look at the behavior checklist below and answer the questions which follow it.
Learner’s Name: Alexis Observer’s Name(s): Tessa O.
Target Behavior: Grooming Tasks Dates: 6/10 to 6/14
Key:
+ = behavior did occur
o = behavior did not
occur
/ = not applicable
Date Dressing Combing
Hair
Bathing Brushing
Teeth
Totals
+ - / %
6/10 + + - + 3 1 0 75%
6/11 + + + - 3 1 0 75%
6/12 + - - + 2 2 0 50%
6/13 + / - + 2 1 1 66%
6/14 + + + + 4 0 0 100%
Totals
+ 5 3 2 4
- 0 1 3 1
/ 0 1 0 0
% 100% 75% 40% 80%
Part A
1. List the four behaviors which were observed and recorded.
a._________________________
b._________________________
c._________________________
d._________________________
2. Who was the observer? ______________________________
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3. Did Alexis bathe on 6/10?
Circle YES or NO
4. Did Alexis brush her teeth on 6/12?
Circle YES or NO
5. On which day did Alexis complete the most grooming tasks? ________
6. Which one of the four grooming skills did Alexis complete most often?
________________________________________________________
7. Which one of the four grooming skills did Alexis complete least often?
________________________________________________________
8. On 6/13, a hash mark (/) is recorded for brushed teeth. What does this mean?
_____________________________________________________________
9. On which task did Alexis score 100%? ________________________________
10. On what day did Alexis score 50% for tasks completed? __________________
See the answer key for Feedback Exercise 12 Part A at the end of the Module.
In this example, it would be important for Alexis’ support team to question why she isn’t bathing
every day. Is bathing difficult for Alexis? Does she prefer to shower? Does Alexis have the
required skills that she needs for bathing? Is she unmotivated to bathe on a daily basis? Would
Alexis prefer to bathe in the morning rather than in the evening? Depending on the answers to
these questions, Alexis’ team could develop an instructional program or positive behavior
support plan to assist her in gaining the skills that are required for bathing (or support her to
switch to showering if that is preferable).
Part B
You have been given the assignment of observing and recording several morning tasks of
Braden T., for a three-day period. The tasks are making his bed, dressing himself, and arriving at
breakfast on time.
You began recording on August 4 and observed and recorded these behaviors each morning for
three days. The first morning, Braden completed each of the tasks. The next morning, he did not
make his bed or dress himself. He did, however, make it to breakfast on time. The third morning
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he made his bed, dressed himself, but was late for breakfast. Use that information to fill in the
following checklist.
Learner’s Name:__________ Observer’s Name(s):___________
Target Behavior:__________ Dates:__________
Key:
+ = behavior did occur
o = behavior did not
occur
/ = not applicable
Date Totals
+ - / %
Totals
+
-
/
%
See the answer key for Feedback Exercise 12 Part B at the end of the Module.
Based on the data from Braden’s behavior checklist, it would be important for his support
team to figure out what is happening during his morning routine. For instance, the team
should determine what was different on the first day that enabled Braden to both make his bed
and dress himself and still arrive at breakfast on time. Did he start his morning routine earlier
on the first day? Had he picked out his clothes the night before? Was breakfast later that
morning? By answering these questions, the support team might determine that Braden’s
morning routine needs to be modified so that he can complete his tasks in time for breakfast.
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Practicum: Using a Behavior Checklist
The purpose of this exercise is to give you practice in using a behavior checklist.
Instructions for Practicum Behavior Checklist
Choose at least three behaviors displayed by one individual to whom you provide support
(there is space for recording up to five behaviors). The behaviors you choose should be
either activities of daily living or the completion of simple tasks. These behaviors should
occur at a relatively predictable time or place. Behaviors such as talking to others or
inappropriate verbal behavior would not be good choices because these behaviors could
occur anytime during the day and in a variety of places.
It would be best if you chose behaviors that the person does not always perform. You may
want to teach the person to perform one or several of these behaviors at a later date. The
data you collect will provide a pre-training record (baseline) of the person’s performance.
The following is a list of possible behaviors to record on your behavior checklist:
1. making a bed
2. brushing teeth
3. being on time for meals
4. getting to work on time
5. dressing independently
6. bathing properly
7. washing hands before meals
8. setting the table
9. loading the dishwasher
10. completing a task at work
Before recording, be sure to 1) define each behavior in descriptive terms (i.e., specific,
observable, and measurable), and 2) determine when and where the behavior is supposed to
occur.
Fill out the name of the person and observer (yourself) and the behaviors you propose to
observe. Show your form to your instructor. He or she will tell you: 1) whether the
behaviors you have selected are appropriate, 2) how many days you should record these
behaviors.
When you have recorded the behaviors for the specified time period, meet with your
instructor and show him/her the results.
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Behavior Checklist for Practicum
Learner’s Name:_____ Observer’s Name:__________
Target Behaviors:_______________ Dates:__________
Key:
+ = behavior did occur
o = behavior did not
occur
/ = not applicable
Date Totals
+ - / %
Totals
+
-
/
%
Task Analysis
After completing a behavior checklist, it may become apparent that some people with disabilities
will need instruction to learn new skills. Others may need to have a difficult skill broken down
into smaller steps so that it is easier to learn. Some of the skills that individuals with disabilities
need to learn are discrete behaviors (e.g., one-step such as pushing a switch to operate an
appliance). Other skills that people with disabilities need to learn are combined to form a chained
activity (e.g., multiple steps to complete an activity such as tooth brushing, following a recipe to
prepare a meal, or loading the dishwasher). One of the most effective ways to teach skills that are
part of a chained activity is through a method known as task analysis.
Definition of a Task Analysis
A task analysis is defined as the process of breaking a chained activity into smaller, more
manageable steps so that each step can be systematically taught to individuals with
intellectual/developmental disabilities. The term “task analysis” can be used as either a noun or a
verb. The actual sheets of paper containing the steps of the activity (noun), as well as the act of
breaking down a chained activity into its component steps (verb) are both considered a task
analysis.
As an evidence-based best practice, a task analysis can be used for any activity that can be
broken down into smaller steps including daily living, employment, and recreation/leisure skills
as well as functional academics, positive behaviors, communication, and social skills. Rather
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than requiring the person to master an entire chained activity all at once (which can be
overwhelming for some people with intellectual/developmental disabilities), a task analysis
allows the individual to learn the activity one-step at a time. Used in conjunction with other
systematic instructional practices (e.g., prompting, chaining, and reinforcing), a task analysis
procedure can be used to effectively teach individuals with disabilities regardless of cognitive
level and communication abilities.
A task analysis is the process of breaking down a chained activity into a series
of discrete responses (step-by-step) that are linked sequentially.
Task analytic data collection allows the person providing instruction to track progress made on
multi-step tasks. The observer analyzes the activity in order to break a complicated skill (e.g.,
preparing a food item, tooth brushing, stuffing envelopes at work) into its smaller component
steps. The data allows the person providing instruction to see small progress being made on skills
that are more difficult and pinpoints where individuals may need more instruction or support to
successfully complete the entire activity. Results will show increase in percentage of steps
completed independently and accurately. In addition, results will show consistency of steps being
performed across time (maintenance) and in a variety of scenarios (generalization).
An advantage of this measurement is that the person learning the skill (as well as the person
providing instruction) notes small steps of success that can keep motivation levels higher for
continued effort. It allows the person who is providing training to examine more complicated
skills to offer more support (e.g., breaking down the skill into smaller steps or utilizing partial
participation) where data indicates that person may be struggling. It is also an effective way to
monitor the level of independence in performance of the task. A disadvantage of the task analysis
method of data collection is that the person is required to closely monitor the person engaged in
the activity to score each individualized step.
Differentiating Between Discrete Behaviors and Chained Activities
When a skill is a discrete behavior, only a single response is required. Discrete behaviors have a
clear beginning or end. Examples of skills that are discrete behaviors include: pointing to an item
to order on a picture menu, saying “hi” to a co-worker at a job site, pushing a button on a
communication device to request a snack, and signing “yes” or “no” when asked a question.
In contrast, a chained activity is a series of discrete behaviors that are chained or sequenced
together to form a more complex skill. Chained activities require multiple responses to complete.
Examples of chained activities include handwashing, meal preparation, grocery shopping, bus
riding, and rolling silverware at work.
Each chained behavior includes:
• An antecedent (discriminative stimulus or SD) followed by
• A behavior (response or R) followed by
• A consequence (or CR which then becomes the new antecedent to trigger the next
behavior and so on)
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The following diagram shows the sequence of a chained activity.
SD R1 CR SD R2 CR
SD = Discriminative Stimulus
R = Response
CR = Consequence (reinforcer)
Prior to implementing systematic instruction, it is important to determine if the skill that is being
targeted is a discrete behavior or chained activity. This is important because a task analysis is an
effective strategy for teaching chained activities.
Rationale for Using a Task Analytic Approach to Instruction
For most people without disabilities, completing complex tasks is second nature. However, for
individuals with disabilities who have traits that make learning difficult, completion of complex
tasks is often very difficult. For example, it may not be as easy as we think to simply tell a
person who has intellectual/developmental disabilities to put her coat on to go home at the end of
her work shift. While it may seem self-explanatory, there are actually several steps involved.
First, where is the coat? If the person is not already holding it, she has to go to a location to get
it. Once she has the coat, how does she put it on? She could just stick her arms in, but then it
would be backwards. She could lay it on a table, stick both arms in upside down and then flip it
over her head, but that is three separate steps. She could put one arm in and then send the coat
around her back until she finds the other sleeve into which she puts her arm. Again, that is three
more steps. Finally, should she fasten the coat or leave it open? Does the coat have a zipper,
snaps, or buttons? Each of these fasteners requires several different processes. Therefore, the
simple instruction of putting on a coat to go home at the end of the workday may not be as easy
as it seemed initially.
When instructors understand all of the steps involved for a particular task, they will be able to
teach the task in a logical sequence. They will also be able to identify any steps that may need
extra instruction, adaptations, or support. In addition, a task analysis serves several other
functions as shown in Table 20.
Table 20: Functions of a Task Analysis
• Means of identifying teachable component parts of a chained activity
• Steps determine the way the task is taught (application of chaining procedures)
• Functions as a basis for data collection and system of measurement to evaluate skill
mastery
• Links curriculum and teaching methods
• Saves teaching times
• Allows more than one person to work with learners
• Serves as a communication tool between professionals and parents/guardians
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Developing a Task Analysis for Chained Activities
Chained activities that require a task analysis usually include multiple steps that comprise a
larger skill. Once a chained activity has been targeted for instruction (using one of the
approaches described in Module 3), it needs to be broken down into smaller steps so that the
learner can successfully demonstrate the skill be completing each step. There are three main
ways for professionals to break down the targeted activity into more manageable steps. These
include:
1) Completing the activity themselves and recording each step
2) Observing another person (in real time or via video) completing the activity and
recording the steps
3) Asking a support person to help the individual with intellectual/developmental disabilities
perform the chain and recording the steps
A blank task analysis is provided in Appendix H.
Determining the Number of Steps in a Chained Activity
A task analysis should be individualized for each specific person. This means that the number of
steps for completing the same activity must be individualized and may vary depending on the
person for whom it is developed. For example, while one individual may only need three or four
steps in a task analysis to complete the skill of handwashing, another person may need the task
broken down into 10 or more steps to be able to successfully complete the same skill. As a
general guideline, individuals who have disabilities that are characterized by more severe
intellectual and/or physical disabilities will probably need task analyses that include more steps
than for those individuals whose disabilities are less severe. Once the person tries the task
analysis, it may need to be adjusted by increasing or decreasing the number of steps.
Determining the Sequence of Steps in a Chained Activity
When identifying the steps in a task analysis, there are some skills for which the sequence of the
steps is important; for others, the order of steps is immaterial. For example, street crossing is an
activity for which the order of the steps is important. Setting the table, however, is a skill for
which the sequence of steps is irrelevant. It does not matter if the person places the cup on the
table before the silverware or the other way around.
Operationally Defining the Steps in a Chained Activity
Each step in the task analysis should be operationally defined (i.e., pinpointed) as a discrete
behavior or response. This will enable the person providing instruction to know whether or not
the individual has successfully completed the step. Furthermore, when the person completes one-
step of the task analysis (and is reinforced for the correct response), the completed step becomes
the natural antecedent/stimulus (also known as the Discriminative Stimulus or SD) for the
individual to move on to the next step. Each completed step sets the occasion for completion of
the next step. For example, folding a flyer should prompt the person to put the flyer in the
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envelope which is the next step of the task analysis. Ultimately, when each discrete behavior or
response has been chained together, the person will have mastered the skill/activity.
An example of a chaining sequence (using the formula of antecedents/discriminative stimuli,
behaviors/responses, and reinforcement) is provided in Table 21.
Table 21: Example of a Chaining Sequence: Using a Fork
“It’s time to eat.” Food and fork are placed in front of learner – SD
1. Person picks up the fork – Correct Response 1
• Fork is in hand – Reinforcement is delivered
• Fork is in hand – Antecedent for Response 2 (SD)
2. Person stabs food with fork – Correct Response 2
• Food is on fork – Reinforcement is delivered
• Food is on fork – Antecedent for Response 3 (SD)
3. Person lifts up fork with food – Correct Response 3
• Fork with food is moved from plate to air – Reinforcement is delivered
• Fork with food is in air – Antecedent for Response 4
4. Person brings fork to mouth – Correct Response 4
• Fork is in mouth – Reinforcement is delivered
• Fork is in mouth – Antecedent for Response 5 (SD)
This sequence would continue until each step of the task analysis was completed and the
learner had eaten all of his food.
Baseline Data
Baseline data is information about a person’s level of performance prior to the beginning of
instruction. By collecting baseline data, the individual who is teaching the skill will be able to
identify which steps of the task analysis that the person already knows how to perform without
prompts, error correction, or reinforcement. Following instruction, baseline data is compared to
instructional data so that the person’s mastery of a particular skill or activity can be measured.
Rationale for Collecting Baseline Data
The rationale for collecting baseline data is to know if an instructional strategy is effective. If the
person who is teaching the skill does not know which steps of the task analysis the person
already knows how to perform prior to instruction (prompts, error correction, and
reinforcement), they will not know if their instructional strategies are effective or if the person
already knew the steps of the task analysis. Baseline data is a means for comparing progress
during the baseline and instructional phases of learning so that data-based decisions can be made
related to when a skill/activity has been mastered or whether instructional modifications are
necessary (if the person is not making any progress or performance has plateaued).
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Strategies for Collecting Baseline Data
There are two main strategies for collecting baseline data. These include:
• Single opportunity (also known as discontinuous) baseline
• Multiple opportunity (also known as continuous) baseline
The steps for implementing the single opportunity baseline system are provided in Table 22.
Table 22: Steps for Single Opportunity (Discontinuous) Baseline
Steps
1. Provide an initial verbal cue to begin the task analysis (e.g.,
“It’s time to stuff the envelopes”).
2. Without providing any additional prompts or reinforcement,
record a plus (+) for each step of the task analysis that the
person completes independently and correctly.
3. Record a minus (-) for the first step of the task analysis that
the person is unable to complete independently or correctly.
4. Discontinue the baseline as soon as the person receives his or
her first minus.
5. Record a minus for the remaining steps of the task analysis.
6. Thank the person for trying the skill.
The steps for implementing the multiple opportunity baseline system are provided in Table 23.
Table 23: Steps for Multiple Opportunity (Continuous) Baseline
Steps
1. Provide an initial verbal cue to begin the task analysis (e.g.,
“It’s time to stuff the envelopes”).
2. Without providing any additional prompts or reinforcement,
record a plus (+) for each step of the task analysis that the
person completes independently and correctly.
3. When the person makes his or her first error or does not
respond, the observer completes that step and positions the
person to complete the next step of the task analysis.
4. The observer records a minus (-) for each step of the task
analysis that the person is unable to complete independently
or correctly.
5. The baseline continues until each step of the task analysis has
been completed (either independently/correctly by the person
or by the observer).
6. Thank the person for trying the skill.
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The advantage of using the single opportunity system of baseline data collection is that it is faster
to implement. As soon as the person does not initiate a response or responds incorrectly, the
baseline trial/session is discontinued. A disadvantage of collecting baseline data using the single
opportunity system is that it does not provide information about the person’s true performance.
Even though the person is not able to complete the second step of the task analysis, it does not
mean that he or she cannot independently complete the remaining steps. The person conducting
the baseline data collection would not know this, however, because the baseline would be
discontinued after the person’s first error (i.e., after the second step in this example).
On the flip side, data collection for multiple opportunity baseline takes longer but it also provides
more accurate information about performance. Since the person has the opportunity to complete
every step of the task analysis during continuous baseline, the observer will know exactly which
steps the person is already able to perform prior to instruction.
Collecting Baseline Data on a Task Analysis
During baseline trials, the observer simply records a “+” for each step of the task analysis that
the person completes independently and correctly during baseline. For each step of the task
analysis that the person does not initiate or does not complete it correctly, a “-” is recorded.
Regardless of which whether a continuous or discontinuous is used, several guidelines should be
followed to ensure that baseline data is being collected effectively and reliably.
These include:
• Provide a generic verbal prompt to signal the beginning of the skill/activity (e.g., “It’s
time to X.”)
• Wait at least 3-5 seconds for the person to initiate the response.
• Based on the system being used (discontinuous or continuous), follow the steps outlined
in Tables 22 and 23 to complete baseline data collection. Record a + or – for each step of
the task analysis.
• With the exception of the initial generic verbal prompt at the beginning of the baseline
trial, do not provide any additional prompts. Similarly, no error correction or
reinforcement should be provided as the person progresses through the steps of the task
analysis.
• Complete a minimum of three baseline trials/sessions. This will help to ensure stable
data. If data is still variable after three trials/sessions, additional baseline data must be
collected.
A sample data collection sheet for continuous baseline is shown in Table 24.
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Table 24: Sample Continuous Baseline Data Collection
Learner: Mary Objective: Upon arrival at the grocery store, (condition), Mary
(learner) will shop for items at the grocery store (behavior) completing
100% of the steps of the task analysis independently for five
consecutive times (how well and how long criteria for acceptable
performance).
Phase Baseline Instruction
Steps/Trials 1 2 3
10 Leave + + +
9 Get items - + +
8 Pay - - -
7 Count money - - +
6 Go to check
out
- - -
5 Check off
items
- + -
4 Put items in
cart
- - -
3 Find items - - -
2 Get cart + - -
1 Go in store + + -
Total # of
independent/correct
steps (+’s)
% of
independent/correct
steps (# of +’s
divided by # of
steps)
To get a true representation of how many steps of the task analysis that a person can already
complete prior to instruction, baseline trials should be conducted until the data pattern is stable.
This usually occurs after three to five trials. If fewer trials are conducted and baseline is
discontinued prior to the data being stable, it is difficult to determine exactly how many steps
that the person can already complete prior to initiating instructional trials.
Calculating Baseline Data
The total number of steps on which the individual received a “+” is calculated and reported as a
percentage (by dividing the total number of steps that the person completed
independently/correctly by the total number of steps in the task analysis) as shown in Table 25.
For a visual representation, these percentages can be plotted on a line graph (as described in the
Graphing Section of this Module).
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Table 25: Sample Baseline Data Collection
Learner: Mary
Objective: Upon arrival at the grocery store (condition), Mary (learner)
will shop for items at the grocery store (behavior) completing 100% of
the steps of the task analysis independently for five consecutive times
(how well and how long criteria for acceptable performance).
Phase Baseline Instruction
Steps/Trials 1 2 3
10 Leave + + +
9 Get items - + +
8 Pay - - -
7 Count money - - +
6 Go to check
out
- - -
5 Check off
items
- + -
4 Put items in
cart
- - -
3 Find items - - -
2 Get cart + - -
1 Go in store + + -
Total # of
independent/correct
steps (+’s)
3 4 3
% of
independent/correct
steps (# of +’s
divided by # of
steps)
30 40 30
Collecting Instructional Data on a Task Analysis
When providing instruction on a new skill, sometimes people with disabilities require extra cues
or assistance from the person providing instruction to elicit a desired response. These are known
as response prompts. Provided in conjunction with natural antecedents (stimuli), response
prompts assist the individual in responding correctly so that errors are eliminated.
While entering the grocery store would prompt most adults who do not have disabilities to
complete the steps of grocery shopping, this may not be the case for people with disabilities.
Sometimes individuals with disabilities need the person who is teaching the new skill to provide
extra prompts or cues to signal the response that is desired. These are known as response
prompts.
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Types of Response Prompts
There are six main types of response prompts as shown in Table 26 .
Table 26: Prompting Hierarchy from Least to Most Intrusive
Prompting Hierarchy Description
Natural Cue/ Independence Learner completes the behavior without a
prompt
Visual Prompt A picture of the step to be completed
Verbal Prompt A spoken cue that tells the person what to do
Gestural Prompt
The use of body language (e.g., point, nod in
the direction of what to do, etc.) that signals
what to do
Modeling
Demonstrating or showing the person what to
do (e.g., “This is how you get a cart. Now you
do it.”)
Partial Physical Prompt
Partially assisting the person to complete the
step (e.g., nudge to elbow, guiding person’s
wrist, etc.)
Full Physical Prompt Fully assisting the person to complete the step
(e.g., hand-over-hand)
In a least-to-most prompting hierarchy, prompts progress from least to most intrusive. At the
beginning of instruction, the teacher provides a generic prompt to begin the task analysis. An
example of a generic prompt to begin grocery shopping would be “It’s time to shop for
groceries.” This prompt, combined with the natural antecedent of the entering the grocery store,
may be enough for the person to go through the steps of the task analysis to shop for groceries.
For some individuals with disabilities, the natural antecedents may not be strong enough to
prompt the individual to initiate the skill of grocery shopping. In such cases, the person
providing instruction would use the following prompts (in order from least to most intrusive) as
shown in Table 27.
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Table 27: Least-to-Most Prompting Hierarchy for Grocery Shopping
Prompt Learner Response Instructor Response
Natural antecedent (entering
the store) and generic prompt
(It’s time to go grocery
shopping)
Learner initiates steps of the
task analysis for grocery
shopping
Instructor delivers skill-
specific reinforcement (e.g.,
“Good job getting a cart.”)
Learner does not initiate the
step or begins to make an
error
Instructor moves to a visual
prompt (e.g., shows the
person a picture of a cart)
Visual Prompt Learner initiates steps of task
analysis
Instructor delivers skill-
specific reinforcement
Learner does not initiate or
begins to make an error
Instructor moves to a verbal
prompt (“Get a cart”)
Verbal Prompt Learner initiates steps of task
analysis
Instructor delivers skill-
specific reinforcement
Learner does not initiate or
begins to make an error
Instructor moves to a gestural
prompt (Points at cart while
saying, “Get a cart.”)
Gestural Prompt Learner initiates steps of task
analysis
Instructor delivers skill-
specific reinforcement
Learner does not initiate or
begins to make an error
Instructor moves to modeling
Modeling Learner initiates steps of task
analysis
Instructor delivers skill-
specific reinforcement
Learner does not initiate or
begins to make an error
Instructor moves to partial
physical assistance
Partial Physical Assistance Learner initiates steps of task
analysis
Instructor delivers skill-
specific reinforcement
Learner does not initiate or
begins to make an error
Instructor moves to full
physical assistance
Full Physical Assistance Learner initiates steps of task
analysis
Instructor provides skill-
specific and the
reinforcement that is natural
for the skill (items purchased
at grocery store)
The least-to-most intrusive prompting strategy is beneficial because error correction is naturally
built in. When the person does not respond or makes an error, the instructor immediately
provides the next level of prompt in the hierarchy. The intent of the least-to-most intrusive
prompting strategy is to provide opportunities for errorless learning. Because the instructor
interrupts errors or corrects them by providing the next level of prompt in the hierarchy, the
person ultimately completes each step of the task analysis correctly.
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Recording Response Prompt Data
During instructional phases, the person providing instruction records the prompt level that is
needed to elicit the correct response on each step of the task analysis. A code can be used to
record each prompt level as shown in Table 28.
Table 28: Codes for Instructional Data
Prompt Level Code
Independent/Correct I
Visual V
Verbal VP
Gestural G
Model M
Partial Physical PP
Full Physical FP
A sample of a completed data sheet with instructional prompts recorded is shown in Table 29.
Table 29: Sample Instructional Data Collection
Learner: Mary Objective: Upon arrival at the grocery store (condition), Mary
(learner) will shop for items at the grocery store (behavior)
completing 100% of the steps of the task analysis independently
for five consecutive times (how well and how long criteria for
acceptable performance).
Phase Baseline Instruction
Steps/Trials 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6
10 Leave + + + I I I I I I
9 Take items - + + I I I I I I
8 Pay - - - PP PP PP PP PP PP
7 Count money - - + G I I I I I
6 Go to check out - - - I V I I I I
5 Check off items - + - FP FP FP FP FP FP
4 Put items in cart - - - M I V I I I
3 Find items - - - I G I I I I
2 Get cart + - - G I I I I I
1 Go in store + + - V I I I I I
# of independent/correct
steps (# of +’s or I’s)
% of independent/correct
steps (# of +’s or I’s
divided by # of steps)
Using a self-graphing task analysis sheet for both baseline and instruction (as shown in Table
30), the number that corresponds to the number of independent/correct steps that Mary received
for each trial (there will be one circled number for each trial) is circled. For example, Mary
completed 3 out of 10 steps correctly and independently for the first trial of baseline so the third
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step would be circled for that trial (regardless of whether that step received a + or -). The
percentage of independent/correct steps for each trial is also calculated and recorded at the
bottom of the data sheet. These percentages can be transferred to plots on a line graph for a
visual representation of the data.
Table 30: Sample Self-Graphing Data Sheet with Calculated Data
Learner: Mary Objective: Upon arrival at the grocery store (condition), Mary
(learner) will shop for items at the grocery store (behavior)
completing 100% of the steps of the task analysis independently
for five consecutive times (how well and how long criteria for
acceptable performance).
Phase Baseline Instruction
Steps/Trials 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6
10 Leave + + + I I I I I I
9 Take items - + + I I I I I I
8 Pay - - - PP PP PP PP PP PP
7 Count money - - + G I I I I I
6 Go to check out - - - I V I I I I
5 Check off items - + - FP FP FP FP FP FP
4 Put items in cart - - - M I V I I I
3 Find items - - - I G I I I I
2 Get cart + - - G I I I I I
1 Go in store + + - V I I I I I
# of independent/correct
steps (# of +’s or I’s)
3 2 3 4 6 7 8 8 8
% of independent/correct
steps (# of +’s or I’s
divided by # of steps)
30
40
30
40
60
70
80
80
80
Feedback Exercise 13 – Calculating Baseline/Instructional Data
Given the data for baseline and instruction on the data collection form below, calculate and
record the total number of independent/correct steps that the learner completed on each trial. For
each trial, circle the number that represents how many independent/correct steps that the learner
completed for that trial. There will be one number circled/trial. Use that number to calculate the
percentage of independent/correct steps that the learner completed on the task analysis for each
phase of baseline and instruction (number of steps that were completed independently/correctly
divided by the total number of steps). The boxes that you need to fill in on the data sheet below
are highlighted. In the next lesson, you will graph this data as part of Feedback Exercise 16.
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Feedback Exercise 13
Learner’s Name: Baseline Instruction
Steps/Trials 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5
10 Leave - + + I I I I I
9 Say good-bye to coworkers - - - V V V V I
8 Clock out - - - PP PP PP PP PP
7 Take boxes to compactor - - - G G G G G
6 Remove empty boxes - - - G V V V I
5 Stock items - - - M M G V I
4 Get items to stock - - - G I I I I
3 Greet co-workers - - - V V I I I
2 Clock in - - - FP PP PP G G
1 Enter store - + + I I I I I
Total # of independent/correct steps (#
of +’s or I’s)
% of independent/correct steps (total
number of +’s divided by total number
of steps)
See the answer key for Feedback Exercise 13 at the end of the Module.
Unit III: Lesson 4 – Points for Review
Some individuals with disabilities may need to learn new skills. To identify skills for
instruction, a behavior checklist can be used. Once a behavior is targeted, it can be broken
down into smaller steps. This is known as a task analysis. By collecting baseline on each step
of the task analysis, the observer can determine how many steps the learner can independently
and correctly complete prior to instruction. Using response prompts as part of a systematic
program that also includes error correction and reinforcement, task analytic instruction is an
effective strategy for teaching new skills. Data on the steps of the task analysis can be
collected, converted into percentages, and graphed to provide a visual representation of the
learner’s performance.
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Unit IV
Lesson 1: Graphing Behavior Measurement Data
• Trainee will state required components of a line graph.
• Given data collected from a variety of measurement strategies, trainee will correctly graph
data.
• Trainee will describe data patterns and instructional modifications.
Introduction to Graphing
In the previous lessons you learned several methods for observing and recording behavior.
The next step is to learn how to show the results of these measurement procedures by using
graphs. Graphing the results of your measurement procedures usually provides a better picture
of what the person is doing. Following a brief review of graphing, several examples of
graphed behavioral data (based on a variety of data collection approaches) are provided.
Graphing Baseline and Instructional Data
Information on a data sheet provides important details about performance during baseline and
instructional trials (e.g., steps performed independently and correctly or missed on a task
analysis). If data are left in raw form, however, the usefulness of the data is limited. It is difficult
to analyze information from a data sheet alone, especially if data have been collected for several
weeks. Data can be most effectively interpreted and analyzed when they are graphed (Snell,
2011). If data is graphed soon after the baseline or instructional session, the person who is
collecting the data will have immediate feedback about the learner’s performance rather than
waiting and missing opportunities to make modifications if needed. Graphs provide a visual
means for detecting trends in a person’s progress and lead to more effective program decisions.
When trends are positive, graphs can be very reinforcing to the learner and the person providing
instruction because they are a source of ongoing feedback. Although some disability support
professionals may feel intimidated by graphs, they usually discover that graphs are actually
simple to create and easy to read.
Graphs provide a way for baseline and instructional data to be presented in a way that can be
easily visualized and interpreted. Line graphs are the most common way to present data and have
four main purposes. They allow whomever is providing instruction to organize data, complete
formative and summative evaluations, make data-based decisions, and to share progress with
others.
Line Graphs
As one of the most common way to display data, line graphs allow for ongoing monitoring of
learner progress and evaluation of the effectiveness of instruction. Data can be plotted using
graph paper or a commercial computer program.
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Components of Line Graphs
Line graphs include an X (horizontal) axis and a Y (vertical) axis. Each data point on a graph
represents progress on the target behavior or skill during a specific time period.
The X axis (shown in Figure 1) is the measure of time during which instruction was provided. It
can be labeled by date, session, observation period, or trial.
Figure 1: Sample X Axis of a Line Graph
The Y axis (presented in Figure 2) is the measure of learner performance on the target behavior.
It should be labeled based on the measure on which data was collected (e.g., % of
independent/correct steps, frequency, duration, etc.)
Figure 2: Sample Y Axis of a Line Graph
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Figure 3 shows the data points that were plotted at the intersection of the X and Y axes.
Figure 3: Sample Data Points at Intersection of X and Y Axes
Phase Change Lines
Phase Change Lines
Phase Change Lines
A title should be included at the top of the graph that specifies the skill and name of the learner.
Labels for the phase represented by the data (i.e. baseline or instruction) should also be included
at the top of the graph.
To indicate whether the learner is in the baseline or instructional stage of learning, phase change
lines are used. By drawing a vertical line between phases of data points in the graph, the stage of
learning is readily apparent. Phase change lines are also used to indicate when instructional
revisions are made and/or adaptations/accommodations are added.
Graphs for Data Collected Using a Variety of Measurement Systems
This section provides examples of graphs for data that was collected using a variety of recording
methods.
Graphing Frequency Data
When Mary is frustrated at work, she frequently yells at her job coach or supervisor. To address
this behavior, Mary and her team developed a positive behavior support plan. Before initiating
their plan, they measured the frequency of her yelling behavior for five days using a simple
frequency record. Once they determined that the baseline data was stable, they introduced their
intervention plan and continued collecting data. The form in Table 31 shows their recording from
the five-day pre-training period (baseline) and the first five days of the program (intervention).
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
0 1 2 3 4 5
Freq
uen
cy
Trials
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Table 31: Frequency Data for Yelling
Date Frequency of Target Behavior (Baseline) Frequency
5/17 Yelling 10
//// ////
5/18 Yelling 8
//// ///
5/19 Yelling 9
//// ////
5/20 Yelling 10
//// ////
5/21 Yelling 10
//// ////
Date Frequency of Target Behavior (Intervention) Frequency
5/24 Yelling 8
//// ///
5/25 Yelling 7
//// //
5/26 Yelling 7
//// //
5/27 Yelling 5
////
5/28 Yelling 5
////
If Mary’s team was interested in whether the intervention that the implemented was effective in
decreasing the frequency of Mary’s yelling, they could look at the total column on the right of
the data sheet. It does look as though the total number of yelling incidents per day is decreasing
during the training program. These results can also be portrayed as a graph to more clearly show
the results of the intervention and to share progress with others. In this example, data should also
be collected on the frequency of the replacement behavior that was targeted for Mary (i.e., using
words or gestures to request assistance rather than yelling).
A sample line graph showing Mary’s frequency data is shown in Figure 4.
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Figure 4: Sample Frequency Graph for Yelling Behavior at Work
Each of the baseline and intervention trials is plotted on the graph. The first five data points on
the graph (to the left of the phase change line and under the label “Baseline”) represent the daily
totals that were recorded during the baseline phase. The last five data points (to the right of the
phase change line and under the label “Intervention” show the daily totals that were recorded
during the training program. It is important to note that the length of the trials should be
consistent when recording data. If they are not the same length of time, the frequency data would
need to be reported as rate.
A quick glance at the graph clearly shows that the frequency of Mary’s yelling episodes was
decreasing over the first five days of the intervention plan being implemented. Because this
challenging behavior is steadily decreasing, the plan seems to be effective and should be
continued until the number of Mary’s yelling episodes reaches the criteria specified in her
behavioral objective.
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Graphing Duration Data
In addition to frequency data, sometimes a person’s support team also needs information about
how long a target behavior is occurring (i.e., duration). When graphing duration data, a bar graph
is usually the best choice for showing a measure of time (rather than plotting individual data
points). Using the information from the data collection form below (Table 32), two days of
baseline duration data are shown on Figure 5.
Table 32: Duration Data for Stuffing Envelopes at Work
Date Activity/Time of
Observation
Time when
behavior begins
Time when
behavior stops
Duration of
behavior
Comments
5/17 Stuffing
Envelopes
9-11am
9:11am 9:24am 13 minutes Yelling behavior
started after cue
to start working
10:03am 10:18am 17 minutes Yelling started
during transition
back to work after
bathroom break
Observation Summary Total
Duration
Average Duration
30 minutes 15 minutes
5/18 Stuffing
Envelopes
9-11am
9:03am 9:11am 7 minutes Yelling behavior
started after cue
to start working
10:03am 10:16am 13 minutes Yelling behavior
started after timer
went off to signal
returning to work
after bathroom
break
Observation Summary Total
Duration
Average Duration
20 minutes 10 minutes
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Figure 5: Sample Duration Graph for Yelling Behavior While
Stuffing Envelopes at Work
For this graph, the total number of minutes that the yelling behavior occurred during two
observation periods (two hours each) is shown. In this example, the length of the observation
periods was the same. If the length of the observation periods had varied, the data would need to
be reported as rate. Because this is baseline data, the observer would need to collect data during
at least one more observation period before implementing the behavior support plan for Mary.
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Graphing Behavioral Checklist Data
The following behavioral checklist (Table 33) shows data for four grooming tasks.
Table 33: Behavioral Checklist for Four Grooming Tasks Date Dressing Combing
Hair
Bathing Brushing
Teeth Totals
+ - / %
6/10 + + - + 3 1 0 75%
6/11 + + + - 3 1 0 75%
6/12 + - - + 2 2 0 50%
6/13 + / - + 2 1 1 66%
6/14 + + + + 4 0 0 100%
Totals
+ 5 3 2 4
- 0 1 3 1
/ 0 1 0 0
% 100% 75% 40% 80%
Data from checklists can be graphed in two basic ways. If the person’s support team is concerned
with the person’s daily success in completing the target behaviors, the percentages in the far-
right column of the checklist would be graphed as shown in Figure 6.
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Figure 6: Sample Behavioral Checklist Graph for Four Grooming Tasks
If the person’s support team is more interested in displaying the person’s success over time in
completing a specific behavior from the checklist (e.g., bathing because this is the grooming task
that the person completes the least), the percentage for bathing in the bottom row of the checklist
would be graphed (as shown in Figure 7). If the person’s behavior was recorded during
subsequent weeks, each weekly percentage for bathing would be added to the graph.
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Figure 7: Sample Behavioral Checklist Graph for Bathing
In Feedback Exercise 14, you will have the opportunity to calculate and graph data from a
behavior checklist for completion of household chores.
Feedback Exercise 14
Use the information below to add the total number of + and – (as well as /) on Kate’s behavior
checklist for household chores. The boxes that you need to fill in are highlighted. Using the
numbers in the boxes that you filled in, calculate Kate’s percentage of task completion by date
and chore for three trials of baseline and five trials of instruction. Using the blank graph in
Appendix I, graph the percentages for baseline and instructional trials (by dates). After
comparing your graph with the answer key, you can refer back to the lesson to correct any
errors.
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Date of
Baseline
Making
Bed
Cleaning
Room
Washing
Dinner
Dishes
Totals
+ - / %
6/10 - - -
6/11 - - +
6/12 + - -
Totals
+
-
/
%
Date 0f
Instruction
Making
Bed
Cleaning
Room
Washing
Dinner
Dishes
Totals
+ - / %
6/13 - - +
6/15 + / +
6/15 + + +
6/16 + / +
6/17 + + +
Totals
+
-
/
%
See the answer key for Feedback Exercise 14 at the end of the Module.
Graphing Interval Data
The data collection form in Table 34 shows one observational session for whole interval data that
was collected on a person’s on-task behavior (e.g., which was defined as working on his assigned
task). The observation period was broken down into 10-minute increments. The observer
recorded whether the person was on-task for the entire 10-minute interval. If the learner was on-
task during the whole interval, a plus (+) was recorded. For intervals during which the person
was not on task the entire time, a minus (-) was recorded. The person was on task for 12/19
intervals which translates into 63 percent. The observer would need to collect data during
additional observation sessions in order to analyze the person’s patterns of on-task behavior.
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Table 34: Interval Data for On-Task Behavior
Time + or - Comments Time + or - Comments
8:00-
8:09
+ 10:00-
10:09
- Refused to get back
to work after prompt
8:10-
8:29
+ 10:10-
10:29
- Refused to get back
to work after prompt
8:30-
8:39
+ 10:30-
10:39
+
8:40-
8:49
+ 10:40-
10:49
+
8:50-
8:59
- Was off-task waiting for
bathroom break
10:50-
10:59
+
9:00-
9:09
NA Bathroom break 11:00-
11:09
+
9:10-
9:29
+ 11:10-
11:29
+
9:30-
9:39
+ 11:30-
11:39
- Complaining about
being hungry
9:40-
9:49
+ 11:40-
11:49
- Complaining about
being hungry
9:50-
9:59
- Distracted by loud noise 11:50-
11:59
- Complaining about
being hungry
Total number of intervals in which a + was recorded 12
Total number of intervals 19
% of intervals in which the behavior occurred 63%
A graph of this interval data is provided in Figure 8.
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Figure 8: Interval Data for On-Task Behavior
While the data collection form above only records data from one observational session as an
example, the graph reflects several data points. By reviewing the graph, it is apparent that the
person’s baseline data is quite stable. In order to increase the person’s on-task behavior during
his work sessions, the support team could develop an interventional support plan.
Feedback Exercise 15
Use the partial interval data collection form below to add the frequencies, calculate the
percentages, and construct a graph which shows the percent of time that Gus was observed
interacting with others (as defined by his support team as greeting another person, asking a
question, answering a question, or talking to someone). Complete this exercise without
referring back to the lesson. Use this blank graph in Appendix I to complete this exercise.
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Date Observation Periods - Baseline Total %
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
6/10 + - - - - + + - - -
6/11 - + + + - - - - - -
6/12 - - - - + - - + - +
Date Observation Periods - Instruction Total %
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
6/13 - + + + + + - - - -
6/14 - - + + + + + + + _-
6/15 + + + + - + + + + +
See the answer key for Feedback Exercise 15 at the end of the Module. After comparing your
graph with the one at the end of the module, you can refer back to the lesson to correct any
errors.
Graphing Task Analysis Data
Using the information from Mary’s baseline and instructional data sheet (i.e. the percentage of
task analysis steps that the person completed independently/correctly) the data points are plotted
on a line graph that includes the required labels so that the learner’s progress can be easily
visualized
A sample line graph for Mary’s grocery shopping data is shown in Figure 9 on the next page.
Please note that this is a continuation of the baseline data graph that was presented in Table 25
with instructional data added.
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Figure 9: Sample Grocery Shopping Graph
123
Feedback Exercise 16 – Graphing Baseline and Instructional Data
Part A
Complete the data sheet below for Michael who is working at a grocery store. Enter the
information in each of the highlighted boxes for baseline and instructional data (i.e. total
number of +’s and percentages). For each trial, circle the number that corresponds to the
number of independent/correct steps that the person performed. Add a phase change line.
Learner’s Name: Michael Baseline Instruction
Steps/Trials 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5
10 Leave - + + I I I I I
9 Say good-bye to coworkers - - - V V V V I
8 Clock out - - - PP PP PP PP PP
7 Take boxes to compactor - - - G G G G G
6 Remove empty boxes - - - G V V V I
5 Stock items - - - M M G V I
4 Get items to stock - - - G I I I I
3 Greet co-workers - - - V V I I I
2 Clock in - - - FP PP PP G G
1 Enter store - + + I I I I I
Total # of independent/correct steps (#
of +’s or I’s)
% of independent/correct steps (total
number of +’s divided by total number
of steps)
Part B
Using the percentages that you recorded on the data collection form, use a copy of the blank
graph (in Appendix I) to plot Michael’s data points. Please make sure that you label all of the
components of the graph correctly (i.e. axes, percentages and trial numbers, phases, and title).
Add a phase change line and connect the data points within each phase.
See the answer key for Feedback Exercise 16 A and B at the end of the Module.
Data-Based Decision Making
In all of the examples provided in Lesson 1 of Unit IV, the person for whom data was being
collected was making steady progress toward meeting his or her behavioral objectives. As we
all know, however, this is not always the case. Some individuals with disabilities have varying
levels of success related to the behavioral objectives on which they are working. A variety of
possible data patterns are shown below with guidelines for making instructional modifications
as needed.
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Data Patterns
After a person’s progress has been summarized on a graph, the data pattern can be analyzed so
that data-based decisions can be made. Data-based decisions are designed to help an individual’s
support team to understand what the data actually says and to support decisions about what to do
next.
There are several possible data patterns that a person’s support team must analyze so that data-
based decisions can be made. Each of these data patterns are represented in the graphs below. A
description of each data pattern as well as its corresponding data-based decision is also provided.
1. Mastery: When a person reaches the criterion set in the learning objective, it is said that he or
she has mastered the skill/activity. Figure 10 illustrates a person who has mastered the
skill/activity because the last three data points are at the mastery level established in the
learning objective (100% independent/correct for three consecutive sessions).
Figure 10: Mastery Data Pattern
Data-Based Decision for Mastery: When the individual masters the learning objective, a new
learning objective should be written. The mastered objective would switch to the maintenance
phase of learning.
2. Steady Progress: The person is making sufficient progress when the data is above the
baseline and is improving. The individual is making steady progress by increasing the number
of independent/correct responses over the course of the review timeframe. While the person is
not yet at the mastery level, the trend is accelerating steadily, and progress is adequate (as
shown in Figure 11).
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Figure 11: Steady Progress Data Pattern
Data-Based Decision for Steady Progress: When the person is making steady progress,
instruction should continue in the same way that it has been previously implemented. The
individual is on their way to mastering the learning objective.
3. Slow Progress: The person is making slow progress as he or she is only making a few
independent/correct responses in spite of several weeks of instruction. While the trend of the
progress line is moving, it is not in a consistently upward direction for reaching mastery (as
shown in Figure 12).
Figure 12: Slow Progress Data Pattern
Data-Based Decision for Slow Progress: Nonspecific prompts (e.g., “What do you do first?” or
“What’s next?”) should be used. Prompts should be faded eventually. Because some people may
126
need longer time to respond without help, a longer time delay between prompts may be
necessary. Assistive technology could be introduced for steps that are difficult for the person.
Only independent/correct responses should be reinforced.
4. Variable Progress: When the person’s progress is variable, his or her performance data is up
and down (as shown in Figure 13). The individual can make independent/correct responses
some days but not others.
Figure 13: Variable Progress Data Pattern
Data-Based Decision for Variable Progress: If a person’s progress is variable, an overall change
in health, medications, or behavior must be ruled out first. If these are not factors, it is important
to improve the individual’s motivation (reinforcement) for doing his/her best each time. Only
independent/correct responses should be reinforced. The type of reinforcement that is being used
should be varied so that satiation does not occur and to ensure that reinforcers remain powerful.
Also, the schedule of reinforcement should be changed periodically so that the person will want
to do his or her best all of the time (since he or she does not know when the reinforcer will be
delivered). Using natural consequences (e.g., allowing the person to work alongside a favorite
co-worker), the use of media or technology, or allowing the individual to chart his or her own
progress are also effective strategies for variable performance.
5. No Progress: When no progress has been made, data remains very similar to baseline results
despite ongoing instruction (Figure 14). The person’s performance shows little or no
improvement during instruction (compared to baseline).
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Figure 14: No Progress Data Pattern
Data-Based Decisions for No Progress: When little or no progress is being made, it usually
means that the skill/activity is too hard. Responses need to be simplified (i.e. broken down into
smaller components in the task analysis) into more discrete steps. Assistive technology can also
be used to promote opportunities for more consistent responses.
Occasionally, there may be some instances when you would not apply data-based decisions. For
example, if the person demonstrates a lack of progress that is not related to instruction such as
the regression of performance across all skills, there may be medical or behavioral interventions
that are necessary before data can be collected on skill performance. Another instance in which it
would be erroneous to apply data-based decisions is when data collection is inconsistent such as
when the criteria within the data collection system is not clear to instructors, there are too few
data collection sessions, or there is too long of a time period between data collection sessions.
Practice Exercise
Read each statement about data patterns on the left side. Match the correct data pattern
with the corresponding statement of learner performance (from the list on the right).
_____1. Data points are variable. a. Learner has mastered the skill.
_____2. Data points have reached criteria. b. Learner is making no progress.
_____3. Data points are flat. c. Learner is making steady progress
_____4. Data points are all at zero. d. Learner is stalled.
_____5. Data points are accelerating e. Learner is no longer motivated;
reinforcement is no longer effective
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Answer Key
1-e, 2-a, 3-d, 4-b, 5-c
Feedback Exercise 17
Review each of the data collection forms and graphs that are presented below. After you analyze
the data patterns that are represented in each graph, you will answer a series of questions related
to the learner’s progress. In this feedback exercise, you will also have the opportunity to apply
data rules to determine if instructional modifications are necessary.
Part A
Student Name: Baseline Instruction
Steps/Trials 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6
20 Leave store + + + I I I I I I 19 Put cart away - + - V V I I I I 18 Get bagged items + + + I I I I I I 17 Say “thank you” - - - M V I I I I 16 Put money away + + + I I I I I I 15 Pay for items - - - G I I I I I 14 Count money - - - V V I I I I 13 Unload cart + + + I I I I I I 12 Go to check out - - - G I I I I I 11 Check off item - - - PP PP G I I I 10 Put item in cart + + + I I I I I I 9 Locate 3rd item - - - G G G I I I 8 Check off item - - - PP V I I I I 7 Put item in cart + + + I I I I I I 6 Locate 2nd item - - - V I I I I I 5 Check off item + + + I I I I I I 4 Put item in cart + + + I I I I I I 3 Locate 1st item - - - G G V I I I 2 Get cart + + + I I I I I I 1 Go in store + + + I I I I I I
Total # of +’s 10 11 10 10 13 17 20 20 20
% of independent/correct
steps (# of +’s or I’s
divided by # of steps)
50
55
50
50
65
85
100
100
100
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1. Which data pattern is reflected in this graph?
2. Based on this data pattern, what instructional modification would you make to support the
learner’s progress?
Part B
Student Name: Baseline Instruction
Trials/Date 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6
5 Leave + + + I I I I I I 4 Pay - - - FP FP FP FP FP FP 3 Go to check out - - - I I I I I I 2 Find items on list - - - G G G G G G 1 Get Cart + + + I I I I I I
Total # of +’s 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3
% of independent/correct
steps (# of +’s or I’s
divided by # of steps)
40
40
40
60
60
60
60
60
60
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3. Which data pattern is reflected in this graph?
4. Based on this data pattern, what instructional modification would you make to support the
learner’s progress?
Part C
Student Name: Baseline Instruction
Trials/Date 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6
10 Leave + + + V I V I I I 9 Get items - + + G G I G I G 8 Pay - - - PP PP PP PP PP PP 7 Count money - - + G I I G G G 6 Go to check out - - - I V I I V V 5 Check off items - + - FP FP FP FP FP FP 4 Put items in cart - - - M I V I V I 3 Find items - - - I I I V V G 2 Get cart + - - G I G I G G 1 Go in store + + - V I G I V I
Total # of +’s 3 4 3 2 6 4 5 2 3
% of independent/correct
steps (# of +’s or I’s
divided by # of steps)
30
40
30
20
60
40
50
20
30
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5. Which data pattern is reflected in this graph?
6. Based on this data pattern, what instructional modification would you make to support the
learner’s progress?
See the answer key for Feedback Exercise 17 A, B, and C at the end of the Module.
Making a Plan
Understanding what the data represents related to performance and carefully considering the
person’s needs and preferences allow the person who is teaching the skill to plan for the next
instructional sequence. Based on the patterns described above, this instructional plan will be
guided by data-based decisions and team input. A phase-change line on the learner’s graph will
indicate modifications to the instructional plan.
Referring back to Mary’s grocery shopping skill, it is apparent from the data that two of the task
analysis steps (i.e., checking items off of her list and paying) are difficult for Mary. To support
Mary in completing these steps, her team would need to meet to identify an adaptation that Mary
could use for checking items off and paying. Once these adaptations were introduced, a phase
change line would be added to her graph to show that there was a modification to the instruction
and the new phase would be labeled Instruction 2 (as shown in Figure 15). As a result of these
modifications, hopefully Mary would be able to complete these steps without partial or full
physical assistance.
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Figure 15: Sample Graph with Instruction 2 Labeled
Unit III: Lesson 5 – Points for Review
Measures of behavior can be graphed to provide a visual representation of a learner’s
performance. Line graphs are the most common way to portray data and include several
required components. Once a learner’s performance data is graphed, it can be analyzed for a
variety of patterns (i.e. mastery, steady progress, slow progress, or no progress) and
appropriate modifications to the instruction that is being provided can be made in response to
the person’s progress.
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References
Alberto, P. & Troutman, A. (2017). Applied Behavior Analysis for Teachers. Boston: Pearson.
National Professional Development Center on Autism Spectrum Disorder
http://autismpdc.fpg.unc.edu/evidence-based-practices
Snell, M. & Brown, F. (2016). Instruction of Students with Severe Disabilities. Boston: Pearson.
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Answer Keys for Feedback Exercises
Feedback Exercise 1
D 1. Jenn stays in her room during her spare time.
E 2. Jenn is withdrawn
E 3. Sam is untidy.
D 4. Sam throws his clothes on the floor by his bed every night
D 5. Joe frequently smiles.
E 6. Joe is happy.
D 7. Holly always says “please” and “thank you.”
E 8. Holly is a well-mannered person.
D 9. Mary does not speak.
E 10. Mary is shy.
Feedback Exercise 2
E 1. William is lazy.
D 2. Lee arrives at work 10 minutes early each day.
D 3. Josie can read all of the words on her grocery list.
E 4. Kayla is very dependent on others.
E 5. Tyler is well-adjusted.
D 6. Samantha can tie her shoes without help.
E 7. Nick acts silly when he’s with other teenagers.
D 8. Alexandra always finishes her work assignments.
E 9. Ingrid has poor self-care skills.
D 10. John always says “thank you” after he receives his order at the restaurant.
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Feedback Exercise 3
1. Jon is aggressive toward others
Jon hits and kicks others.
Jon sticks his foot out and trips people who pass him in the hall.
Jon shouts and swears at his roommate each morning.
Jon shakes his fist at others when they annoy him.
2. Faith is a productive employee.
Faith always arrives on time for work.
Faith works faster than 90% of her co-workers.
Faith always finishes her assigned work tasks.
Faith checks her work for errors before leaving.
3. Hannah communicates poorly.
Hannah cannot speak clearly.
Hannah talks too fast.
Hannah can say only a few words.
Hannah frequently stutters.
Hannah never answers emails.
Hannah often uses words that are unfamiliar to others.
4. Dominic was unhappy this morning.
Dominic did not smile at breakfast.
Dominic cried twice before going to work.
Dominic was frowning every time I saw him this morning.
Dominic closed his eyes and leaned his head on his hand at the breakfast table
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5. Liz is a very well- adjusted person.
Liz never gets into fights.
Liz works without complaining.
Liz ne received the “Miss Congeniality” award.
Liz uses her coping strategies (taking a few minutes alone to regroup) when she is upset
Feedback Exercise 4
B 1. Will pay for her items
L 2. The employee at the grocery store
C 3. Using her assistive communication device
C 4. Following a demonstration of how to drain pasta
CR 5. Without an error
CR 6. With 95 percent accuracy
B 7. Will set the oven temperature
L 8. Mary
C 9. During a two-hour work shift
C 10. With partial physical assistance
B 11. Will signal to get off the bus at the correct stop
CR 12. For five consecutive sessions
B 13. Will stuff 25 envelopes
C 14. In the kitchen
CR 15. For 10 minutes
C 16. When arriving at work
CR 17. With 80% independence on the task analysis
L 18. Sara
C 19. Given four possible dinner choices
C 20. Without assistance
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Feedback Exercise 5
1. Mary will recognize her stop for getting off the bus.
2. Mary will not have an emotional outburst.
3. Mary will understand how to use the Internet to find a recipe.
X 4. Mary will swim 10 laps at the YMCA
X 5. Mary will pay the correct amount for her groceries.
6. Mary will appreciate how to cook a three-course meal.
7. Mary will be aware of the weather.
X 8. Mary will use her communication device to order at a restaurant.
9. Mary will behave herself.
X 10. Mary will put her dirty lunch dishes in the dishwasher.
Feedback Exercise 6
1. Given 10 pieces of clean silverware, Mary will put the silverware in the correct spots of the
silverware tray in 9 out of 10 trials.
2. Without being reminded, Mary will wash her hair every third day for six consecutive
weeks.
3. After putting her dirty clothes in the washing machine, Mary will turn the dial to the
a. correct setting on the first try when tested on five consecutive days.
4. Given a single bed and a single fitted sheet, Mary will put the sheet on the bed, fitting all four
corners of the sheet to the appropriate corners of the mattress for five consecutive trials.
Feedback Exercise 7
1. Given 10 pieces of clean silverware, Mary will put the silverware in the correct spots of the
silverware tray in 9 out of 10 trials.
Cr-1: in the correct spots of the silverware tray
Cr-2: in 9 out of 10 trials
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2. Without being reminded, Mary will wash her hair every third day for six consecutive weeks.
Cr-1: every third day
Cr-2: for six consecutive weeks
3. After putting her dirty clothes in the washing machine, Mary will turn the dial to the
correct setting on the first try when tested on five consecutive days.
Cr-1: to the correct setting, on the first try
Cr-2: on five consecutive days
4. Given a single bed and a single fitted sheet, Mary will put the sheet on the bed, fitting all
four corners of the sheet to the appropriate corners of the mattress for five consecutive
trials.
Cr-1: fitting all four corners of the sheet to the appropriate corners of the mattress
Cr-2: for five consecutive trials
Feedback Exercise 8
1. Mary will staple five stacks of papers, using an electric stapler, during the first 15 minutes of
her work shift for 10 consecutive trials.
Condition(s): using an electric stapler
Behavior: staple five stacks of paper
Cr-1: during the first 15 minutes of her work shift
Cr-2: for 10 consecutive trials
2. Given a cell phone with pre-programmed phone numbers, Mary will find the telephone
number for her employer, within three minutes of being asked in five consecutive tests.
Condition(s): given a cell phone with pre-programmed phone numbers
Behavior: find the telephone number
Cr-1: for her employer, within three minutes
Cr-2: in five consecutive tests
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3. Before dinner, Mary will set the table with plates, cups, and silverware in the proper spots
within five seconds of being asked, 8 out of 10 times.
Condition(s): Before dinner
Behavior: set the table
Cr-1: with plates, cups, and silverware, in the proper spots, within five seconds of being
asked
Cr-2: 8 out of 10 times
4. When shown 5 articles of clothing including three that are appropriate for cold weather,
Mary will point to all three of the winter clothing items within 30 seconds of being asked in
four out of five trials.
Condition(s): when shown 5 articles of clothing
Behavior: point to
Cr-1: all three of the winter clothing items, within 30 seconds of being asked
Cr-2: four out of five trials
5. In the morning, Mary will brush her teeth on the top and bottom fronts and sides
for 60 seconds for 14 consecutive mornings.
Condition(s): in the morning
Behavior: brush her teeth
Cr-1: on the top and bottom fronts and sides, for 60 seconds
Cr-2: 14 consecutive mornings
6. At the end of each work shift, Mary will give her completed work to her supervisor
for five consecutive working days without being told.
Condition(s): at the end of each work shift
Behavior: give
Cr-1: completed work, without being told
Cr-2: five consecutive working days
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Feedback Exercise 9
1. While eating, Tom will use silverware, for foods which should not be eaten with fingers, for
12 consecutive meals.
Condition(s): while eating
Behavior: will use silverware – OK
Cr-1: for foods which should not be eaten with fingers – see below
Cr-2: for 12 consecutive meals – OK
The part one criterion, “for foods which should not be eaten with fingers, “does not really
specify how well Tom is expected to use silverware for this purpose. Is it okay if he spills?
What if he misses his mouth? Does it matter if he doesn’t cut his food into bite-sized chunks?
These may seem like silly or extreme examples. However, if Tom is not very adept with
silverware, there will almost certainly be some spilling of food. How much leeway does Tom
get? If there is a shared definition for proper use of silverware, then the part one criterion
could be improved by adding “properly” to it. Otherwise, a criterion needs to be set that
would give the limits on the kind and number of mistakes Tom can make and still meet the
criterion.
2. Linda will hang up her coat every day when she returns from work for 10 working days in a
row.
Condition(s): when she returns from work – OK
Behavior: will hang up her coat – OK
Cr-1: every day – see below
Cr-2: 10 working days in a row – OK
The part one criterion is insufficient. As we pointed out, regularity is not good as the only
criterion. It does not indicate a measurement for the performance of the actual behavior. The
way it is stated, Linda could hang up her coat sloppily, and she would still meet the criterion.
She could also hang it anywhere she pleases. An additional statement or two is needed. If
Linda learned a particular way to hang up her coat through an earlier teaching program, and
everyone agrees on how it should look when properly hung up, then the word “correctly” or
“properly” could just be added. Otherwise, the important requirements of proper coat
hanging would need to be specified.
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3. When asked to do so, Lucas will put on his pullover shirt within six seconds for six
consecutive trials.
Condition(s): when asked to do so, pullover shirt – OK
Behavior: will put on his shirt – OK
Cr-1: within six seconds – see below
Cr-2: for six consecutive trials – OK
Again, the part one criterion does not give a standard for the actual behavior other than the
time he takes to put on the shirt. This objective would allow Lucas to put the shirt on wrong
side out and backward, and still meet the criteria of the objective. It would be better to also
specify “right side out and front ward” as part of the Cr-1.
4. Brynn will wash and peel the carrots for the vegetable snack bowl every Thursday afternoon
for three consecutive weeks.
Condition(s): none
Behavior: will wash and scrape the carrots for the vegetable snack bowl – OK
Cr-1: every Thursday afternoon – see below
Cr-2: for three consecutive weeks- OK
Once again, the part one criterion is not appropriate. Brynn can do the job as well or as
poorly as she pleases, as long as she does it every Thursday afternoon, according to this
objective. She may also take the entire afternoon, if she wants to. More details are needed.
5. Jack will enjoy his food without being messy at the majority of his meals.
Condition(s): none
Behavior: will enjoy his food – Not acceptable. This is not an observable measurable
behavior.
Cr-1: without being messy – Not acceptable. What is meant by “messy”? It is evaluative,
not descriptive.
Cr-2: at the majority of his meals – Not acceptable. How many meals is the “majority”
Two out of three? Six out of ten? Fifty-one out of a hundred?
You probably recognized that everything is wrong with this behavioral objective. It is
impossible to measure the inner state of enjoyment. “Without being messy” can be
142
interpreted differently by different people. What is messy to one person may be acceptable to
another. The part two criterion does not specify a cut-off point at which the observer can stop
measuring and say that the objective has been achieved.
Feedback Exercise 10 Part A
1. The target behavior was asking unnecessary questions.
2. The observer collected data on the target behavior for four days.
3. Gary asked the most unnecessary questions on May 20th.
4. Gary asked the least unnecessary questions on May 19.
Feedback Exercise 10 Part B
Name: David Dates: 5/1 to 5/10
Observer: (Your Name)
Behavior Recorded: Hitting other people
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Feedback Exercise 11 Part A
Activity/
Start & End
Time
Antecedents Behavior Consequences Total
Req
ues
t/P
rom
pt
Bei
ng I
gnore
d
Tra
nsi
tion
Har
d T
ask
Oth
er
Hit
ting
Kic
kin
g
Scr
eam
ing
Runs
away
Oth
er
Att
enti
on
Tim
e out
Get
s out
of
task
Tea
cher
/aid
e y
ells
Oth
er
# o
f i
nci
den
ts o
f
chal
lengin
g
beh
avio
rs b
y
acti
vit
y
Arrival at
Campus
8:00 – 8:05
1
2
3
1
2
1
2
3 1
2
3
3
Independent
Living
8:05-9:00
4
5
6
4
5
6
4
5
6
4
5
6
3
Bathroom
Break/Snack
9:00-9:30
7 7 7 7 1
Job
9:30-11:30
8
9
10
11
12
8
9
10
11
12
8
9
10
11
12
8
9
10
11
12
8
10
11
12
9 5
Lunch
11:30-12:00
0
Total # of
incidents
per category
8 0 8 9 0 2 0 3 9 0 0 0 7 5 1
Feedback Exercise 11 Part B
1. What is the most frequent antecedent(s) for this learner’s challenging behavior(s)?
A hard task
2. What is the most frequent challenging behavior(s) that this learner exhibits?
Running away
3. What is the most frequent consequence(s) for this learner’s challenging behaviors?
The learner gets out of the task
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4. Based on the data, what do you believe is the function/purpose that the challenging
behavior(s) is serving for this learner?
Escape/Avoidance of a difficult task
5. What is one antecedent intervention that you could implement to support this learner?
Breaking down the difficult task (the school job) into smaller steps so that it’s not so
overwhelming for the learner.
6. What is one consequence intervention that you could implement to support this learner?
The consequence intervention must always include a replacement behavior that serves the
same function as the challenging behavior.
Reinforcing the learner after small increments when he completes his school job without
trying to run away and teaching the student a more appropriate way to request a break
instead of running away.
Feedback Exercise 12 Part A
1. List the four behaviors that were observed and recorded.
Dressing
Combing hair
Bathing
Brushing teeth
2. Who was the observer? Tessa O.
3. Did Alexis bathe on 6/10?
No - The minus (-) in the box indicates that she did not bathe.
4. Did Alexis brush her teeth on 6/12?
Yes – The plus (+) in the box indicates that she did brush her teeth.
5. On which day did Alexis complete the most grooming tasks?
6/14 – On 6/14, Alexis completed all four grooming tasks.
6. Which one of the four grooming skills did Alexis complete most often?
Dressing – Alexis completed dressing on all five days for which data were collected.
7. Which one of the four grooming skills did Alexis complete least often?
Bathing – Alexis only bathed on two of the five days.
8. On 6/13, a slash mark (/) is recorded for brushed teeth. What does this mean?
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The slash indicates that there was no opportunity for Alexis to brush her teeth for
whatever reason (e.g., lost tooth brush, didn’t have enough time, refused, etc.).
9. On which task did Alexis score 100%?
Dressing – Alexis dressed herself on all five of the days.
10. On what day did Alexis score 50% for tasks completed?
6/12 – Alexis completed only two of the four tasks.
Feedback Exercise 12 Part B
Date Bed
Making
Dressing Arriving
at
Breakfast
Totals
+ - / %
8/4 + + + 3 0 0 100%
8/5 - - + 1 2 - 33%
8/6 + + - 2 1 0 67%
Totals
+ 2 2 2
- 1 1 1
/ 0 0 0
% 67% 67% 67%
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Answer Key for Feedback Exercise 13
Learner’s Name: Baseline Instruction
Steps/Trials 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5
10 Leave - + + I I I I I
9 Say good-bye to coworkers - - - V V V V I
8 Clock out - - - PP PP PP PP PP
7 Take boxes to compactor - - - G G G G G
6 Remove empty boxes - - - G V V V I
5 Stock items - - - M M G V I
4 Get items to stock - - - G I I I I
3 Greet co-workers - - - V V I I I
2 Clock in - - - FP PP PP G G
1 Enter store - + + I I I I I
Total # of independent/correct steps (#
of +’s or I’s)
0 2 2 2 3 4 4 7
% of independent/correct steps (total
number of +’s divided by total number
of steps)
0
20%
20%
20%
30%
40%
40%
70%
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Answer Key for Feedback Exercise 14
Date of
Baseline
Making
Bed
Cleaning
Room
Washing
Dinner
Dishes
Totals
+ - / %
6/10 - - - 0 3 0 0%
6/11 - - + 1 2 0 33%
6/12 + - - 1 2 0 33%
Totals
+ 1 - 1
- 0 - -
/ 0 - -
% 33% 0% 33%
Date of
Instruction
Making
Bed
Cleaning
Room
Washing
Dinner
Dishes
Totals
+ - / %
6/13 - - + 1 2 0 33%
6/15 + / + 1 1 1 50%
6/15 + + + 3 0 0 100%
6/16 + / + 2 0 1 100%
6/17 + + + 3 0 0 100%
Totals
+ 4 2 5
- 1 1 0
/ 0 2 0
% 80% 67% 100%
148
Answer Key for Feedback Exercise 15
Date Observation Periods - Baseline Total %
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
6/10 + - - - - + + - - - 3 30
6/11 - + + + - - - - - - 3 30
6/12 - - - - + - - + - + 3 30
Date Observation Periods - Instruction Total %
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
6/13 - + + + + + - - - - 5 50
6/14 - - + + + + + + + _- 7 70
6/15 + + + + - + + + + + 9 90
149
150
Feedback Exercise 16 Part A and B
Learner’s Name: Baseline Instruction
Steps/Trials 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5
10 Leave - + + I I I I I
9 Say good-bye to coworkers - - - V V V V I
8 Clock out - - - PP PP PP PP PP
7 Take boxes to compactor - - - G G G G G
6 Remove empty boxes - - - G V V V I
5 Stock items - - - M M G V I
4 Get items to stock - - - G I I I I
3 Greet co-workers - - - V V I I I
2 Clock in - - - FP PP PP G G
1 Enter store - + + I I I I I
Total # of independent/correct steps (#
of +’s or I’s)
0 2 2 2 3 4 4 7
% of independent/correct steps (total
number of +’s divided by total number
of steps)
0
20%
20%
20%
30%
40%
40%
70%
151
Feedback Exercise 17 Part A
Part A
1. Which data pattern is reflected in this graph?
Mastery
2. Based on this data pattern, what instructional modification would you make to support the
learner’s progress?
Implement strategies for maintenance and generalization. Introduce a new objective.
Feedback Exercise 17 Part B
3. Which data pattern is reflected in this graph?
No progress; data is very similar to baseline trials
4. Based on this data pattern, what instructional modification would you make to support
the learner’s progress?
Task may be too difficult. Break down steps even smaller responses.
Feedback Exercise 17 Part C
5. Which data pattern is reflected in this graph?
Variable
6. Based on this data pattern, what instructional modification would you make to support the
learner’s progress?
Check extenuating circumstances (e.g., health status, medication change, challenging
behaviors, change in family situation, fatigue, hunger, etc.). If none of these factors are
influencing the learner’s performance, it is important to strengthen the reinforcement that is
being delivered so that it motivates the learner to do his/her best every time.
152
Appendices:
A – Event/Frequency Data Recording Data Collection Form
B – Duration Data Collection Form
C – Latency Data Collection Form
D – Interval Recording Data Collection Form
E – Continuous Recording Data Collection Form
F – Scatter Plot Data Collection Form
G – Behavior Checklist Data Collection Form
H – Task Analysis Data Collection Form
I – Blank Graph
153
Appendix A: Sample Event/Frequency Recording Data Collection Form
Person’s Name: ___________________________ Observer’s Name: _________________
Target Behavior(s): ________________________
Steps for Collecting Frequency Data
9) Record the name of the person and observer
10) Record the target behavior
11) Indicate the date, activity, and time when the observation begins.
12) Make a tally each time the person exhibits the target behavior.
13) Note the time when the observation ends.
14) Record the length of the observation.
15) Calculate the rate of the target behavior by adding the total number of times the target
behavior occurred and dividing by the length of the observation.
Date Activity/Time Tally of Times Target
Behavior Occurred
Length of
Observation
Frequency Rate
154
Date Comments
155
Appendix B: Sample Duration Data Collection Form
Person’s Name: Observer’s Name:
Target Behavior:
Date Activity/Time of
Observation
Time when
behavior begins
Time when
behavior stops
Duration of
behavior
Comments
Observation Summary Total
Duration
Average Duration
Observation Summary Total
Duration
Average Duration
156
Appendix C: Sample Latency Data Collection Form
Person’s Name: ____________________ Observer’s Name: ____________________
Activity/Time: _____________________ Date: ____________________
Total Observation Time: ________________
Trial Time when
prompt was given
Time when the prompted
behavior began
Amount of time that lapsed
before the prompted
behavior began
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Comments;
157
Appendix D: Sample Interval Recording Data Collection Form
Person’s Name: Observer’s Name:
Activity/Time: Date:
Target Behavior: Type of Interval Recording:
Instructions for Interval Recording
Momentary Time Sampling = Whole = Record a (+) if Partial = Record a (+) if
Record a (+) only if behavior behavior is continuous in behavior occurs at least
occurs at moment when entire interval once in interval
interval ends
Time + or - Comments Time + or - Comments
8:00-
8:09
10:00-
10:09
8:10-
8:29
10:10-
10:29
8:30-
8:39
10:30-
10:39
8:40-
8:49
10:40-
10:49
8:50-
8:59
10:50-
10:59
9:00-
9:09
11:00-
11:09
9:10-
9:29
11:10-
11:29
9:30-
9:39
11:30-
11:39
9:40-
9:49
11:40-
11:49
9:50-
9:59
11:50-
11:59
Total number of intervals in which a + was recorded
Total number of intervals
% of intervals in which the behavior occurred
158
Appendix E: Sample Continuous Recording Data Collection Form
Name:______________________ Date:_______________________________
Setting:_____________________ Observation Time Frame:_______________
Observer:___________________
Antecedent (A) Behavior (B) Consequence (C)
159
Appendix F: Sample Scatter Plot Data Collection Form
Activity/
Start & End
Time
Antecedents Behavior Consequences Total
# o
f i
nci
den
ts o
f
chal
lengin
g
beh
avio
rs b
y
acti
vit
y
160
Appendix G: Sample Behavior Checklist Data Collection Form
Date Totals
+ - / %
Totals
+
-
/
%
161
Appendix H: Sample Task Analysis Data Collection Form
Learner: Objective:
Phase Baseline Instruction
Steps/Trials 1 2 3
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
Total # of
independent/correct
steps (+’s)
% of
independent/correct
steps (# of +’s
divided by # of
steps)
162
Appendix I: Blank Graph