© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill Instrumentation Chapter...

© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

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InstrumentationInstrumentation

Chapter SevenChapter Seven


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InstrumentationInstrumentationChapter SevenChapter Seven

Instructions: Circle the choice that indicates your opinion.

1. Teachers’ unions should be abolished.Strongly Strongly

agree Agree Undecided Disagree disagree(5) (4) (3) (2) (1)

2. School administrators should be required by law to teach at least one class in a public school classroom every year.

Strongly Stronglyagree Agree Undecided Disagree disagree(5) (4) (3) (2) (1)

3. Classroom teachers should be able to choose the administrators in their schools.Strongly Strongly

agree Agree Undecided Disagree disagree(5) (4) (3) (2) (1)


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What are Data?What are Data?

DataData refers to the information researchers refers to the information researchers obtain on the subjects of their research.obtain on the subjects of their research.

Demographic information or scores from a Demographic information or scores from a test are examples of data collected.test are examples of data collected.

The researcher has to determine what kind The researcher has to determine what kind of data they need to collect.of data they need to collect.

The device the researcher uses to collect The device the researcher uses to collect data is called an data is called an instrumentinstrument..


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Key QuestionsKey Questions The instruments and procedures used in collecting The instruments and procedures used in collecting

data is called data is called instrumentationinstrumentation.. Questions arise regarding the procedures and Questions arise regarding the procedures and

conditions under which the instruments will be conditions under which the instruments will be administered:administered: Where will the data be collected?Where will the data be collected? When will the data be collected?When will the data be collected? How often are the data to be collected?How often are the data to be collected? Who is to collect the data?Who is to collect the data?

The most highly regarded types of instruments can The most highly regarded types of instruments can provide useless data if administered incorrectly, by provide useless data if administered incorrectly, by someone disliked by respondents, under noisy, someone disliked by respondents, under noisy, inhospitable conditions, or when subjects are inhospitable conditions, or when subjects are exhausted.exhausted.


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Validity, Reliability, and ObjectivityValidity, Reliability, and Objectivity

ValidityValidity is an important consideration in the choice of is an important consideration in the choice of an instrument to be used in a research investigationan instrument to be used in a research investigation It should measure what it is supposed to measureIt should measure what it is supposed to measure Researchers want instruments that will allow them to make Researchers want instruments that will allow them to make

warranted conclusions about the characteristics of the subjects warranted conclusions about the characteristics of the subjects they studythey study

ReliabilityReliability is another important consideration, since is another important consideration, since researchers want consistent results from researchers want consistent results from instrumentationinstrumentation Consistency gives researchers confidence that the results Consistency gives researchers confidence that the results

actually represent the achievement of the individuals involvedactually represent the achievement of the individuals involved ObjectivityObjectivity refers to the absence of subjective refers to the absence of subjective

judgmentsjudgments This should be eliminated with regards to achievement of the This should be eliminated with regards to achievement of the

subjects, even if its difficult to do sosubjects, even if its difficult to do so


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UsabilityUsability An important consideration for any researcher in choosing An important consideration for any researcher in choosing

or designing an instrument is how easy the instrument will or designing an instrument is how easy the instrument will actually be to use.actually be to use.

Some of the questions asked which assess usability are:Some of the questions asked which assess usability are: How long will it take to administer?How long will it take to administer? Are the directions clear?Are the directions clear? How easy is it to score?How easy is it to score? Do equivalent forms exist?Do equivalent forms exist? Have any problems been reported by others who used it?Have any problems been reported by others who used it?

Getting satisfactory answers can save a researcher a lot of Getting satisfactory answers can save a researcher a lot of time and energy.time and energy.


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Ways to Classify InstrumentsWays to Classify Instruments

Who Provides the Information?Who Provides the Information? Themselves: Self-report data Themselves: Self-report data Directly or indirectly: from the subjects of Directly or indirectly: from the subjects of

the study the study From informants (people who are From informants (people who are

knowledgeable about the subjects and knowledgeable about the subjects and provide this information)provide this information)


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Types of Researcher-completed Types of Researcher-completed InstrumentsInstruments

Rating scalesRating scales Interview Interview

schedulesschedules Tally sheetsTally sheets FlowchartsFlowcharts

Performance Performance checklistschecklists

Anecdotal recordsAnecdotal records Time-and-motion Time-and-motion

logslogs Observation formsObservation forms


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Excerpt from a Behavior Rating Scale for TeachersExcerpt from a Behavior Rating Scale for Teachers(Figure 7.4)(Figure 7.4)

Instructions: For each of the behaviors listedbelow, circle the appropriate number, using the following key: 5 = Excellent, 4 = Above Average, 3 = Average, 2 = Below Average,1 = Poor.

A. Explains course material clearly.1 2 3 4 5

B. Establishes rapport with students.1 2 3 4 5

C. Asks high-level questions.1 2 3 4 5

D. Varies class activities.1 2 3 4 5


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Excerpt from a Graphic Rating Scale Excerpt from a Graphic Rating Scale (Figure 7.5)(Figure 7.5)

Instructions: Indicate the quality of the student’s participationin the following class activities by placing an X anywhere alongeach line.

AlwaysFrequently Occasionally Seldom Never

1. Listens to teacher’s instructions.

Always Frequently Occasionally Seldom Never

2. Listens to the opinions of other students.

Always Frequently Occasionally Seldom Never

3. Offers own opinions in class discussions.


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Example of a Product Rating Scale Example of a Product Rating Scale (Figure 7.6)(Figure 7.6)


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Interview Schedule Interview Schedule (Figure 7.7)(Figure 7.7)


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Sample Observation FormSample Observation Form(Figure 7.8)(Figure 7.8)


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Discussion Analysis Tally Sheet Discussion Analysis Tally Sheet (Figure 7.9)(Figure 7.9)


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Participation Flowchart Participation Flowchart (Figure 7.10)(Figure 7.10)


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Performance Checklist Noting Student Actions (Figure 7.11)Performance Checklist Noting Student Actions (Figure 7.11)


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Time-and-Motion Log Time-and-Motion Log (Figure 7.12)(Figure 7.12)


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Types of Subject-completed Types of Subject-completed InstrumentsInstruments

QuestionnairesQuestionnaires Self-checklistsSelf-checklists Attitude scalesAttitude scales Personality Personality

inventoriesinventories

Achievement/Achievement/aptitude testsaptitude tests

Performance testsPerformance tests Projective devicesProjective devices Sociometric Sociometric

devicesdevices


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Example of a Self-Checklist Example of a Self-Checklist (Figure 7.13)(Figure 7.13)


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Example of Items from a Likert Scale Example of Items from a Likert Scale (Figure 7.14)(Figure 7.14)


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Example of the Semantic Differential Example of the Semantic Differential (Figure 7.15)(Figure 7.15)


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Pictorial Attitude Scale for Use with Pictorial Attitude Scale for Use with Young Children Young Children (Figure 7.16)(Figure 7.16)


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Sample Items from a Personality Sample Items from a Personality Inventory Inventory (Figure 7.17)(Figure 7.17)


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Sample Items from an Achievement Test Sample Items from an Achievement Test (Figure 7.18)(Figure 7.18)


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Sample Item from an Aptitude Test Sample Item from an Aptitude Test (Figure 7.19)(Figure 7.19)


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Sample Items from an Intelligence TestSample Items from an Intelligence Test (Figure 7.20)(Figure 7.20)


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Example from the Blum Sewing Machine TestExample from the Blum Sewing Machine Test (Figure 7.21)(Figure 7.21)


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Sample Items from the Picture Sample Items from the Picture Situation Inventory Situation Inventory (Figure 7.22)(Figure 7.22)


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Example of a Sociogram Example of a Sociogram (Figure 7.23)(Figure 7.23)


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Example of a Group Play Example of a Group Play (Figure 7.24)(Figure 7.24)


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Item FormatsItem Formats

Questions used in a subject-completed Questions used in a subject-completed instrument can take many forms but are instrument can take many forms but are classified as either classified as either selectionselection or or supply itemssupply items..

Examples of selection items are:Examples of selection items are: True-false itemsTrue-false items Matching itemsMatching items Multiple choice itemsMultiple choice items Interpretive exercisesInterpretive exercises

Examples of supply items are:Examples of supply items are: Short answer itemsShort answer items Essay questionsEssay questions


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Unobtrusive MeasuresUnobtrusive Measures Many instruments require the cooperation of the Many instruments require the cooperation of the

respondent in one way or another.respondent in one way or another. An intrusion into an ongoing activity could be involved An intrusion into an ongoing activity could be involved

which causes a form of negativity within the respondent. which causes a form of negativity within the respondent. To eliminate this, researchers use To eliminate this, researchers use unobtrusive measuresunobtrusive measures, ,

data collection procedure that involve data collection procedure that involve no intrusionno intrusion into into the naturally occurring course of events.the naturally occurring course of events.

In most cases, no instrument is used, however, good record In most cases, no instrument is used, however, good record keeping is necessary.keeping is necessary.

They are valuable as supplements to the use of interviews They are valuable as supplements to the use of interviews and questionnaires, often providing a useful way to and questionnaires, often providing a useful way to corroborate what more traditional data sources reveal.corroborate what more traditional data sources reveal.


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Types of ScoresTypes of Scores

Quantitative data is reported in the form of scoresQuantitative data is reported in the form of scores Scores are reported as either Scores are reported as either raw or derivedraw or derived scores scores

Raw score is the initial score obtainedRaw score is the initial score obtained Taken by itself, a raw score is difficult to interpret, since it has little Taken by itself, a raw score is difficult to interpret, since it has little

meaningmeaning Derived score are scores that have been taken from raw scores Derived score are scores that have been taken from raw scores

and standardizedand standardized They enable researchers to say how well the individual performed They enable researchers to say how well the individual performed

compared to others taking the same testcompared to others taking the same test Examples include:Examples include:

Age and Grade-level EquivalentsAge and Grade-level Equivalents Percentile RanksPercentile Ranks

Standard scores are mathematically derived scores having Standard scores are mathematically derived scores having comparable meaning on different instrumentscomparable meaning on different instruments


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Examples of Raw Scores and Examples of Raw Scores and Percentile Ranks Percentile Ranks (Table 7.1)(Table 7.1)

95 1 25 100

93 1 24 96

88 2 23 92

85 3 21 84

79 1 18 72

75 4 17 68

70 6 13 52

65 2 7 28

62 1 5 20

58 1 4 16

54 2 3 12

50 1 1 4

N = 25

Raw Cumulative PercentileScore Frequency Frequency Rank


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Norm-Referenced vs. Criterion-Norm-Referenced vs. Criterion-Referenced InstrumentsReferenced Instruments

All derived scores give meaning to individual scores by All derived scores give meaning to individual scores by comparing them to the scores of a group.comparing them to the scores of a group.

The group used to determine derived scores is called the The group used to determine derived scores is called the norm groupnorm group and the instruments that provide such and the instruments that provide such scores are referred to as scores are referred to as norm-referenced instrumentsnorm-referenced instruments..

An alternative to the use of achievement or performance An alternative to the use of achievement or performance instruments is to use a instruments is to use a criterion-referenced testcriterion-referenced test..

This is based on a specific goal or target (criterion) for This is based on a specific goal or target (criterion) for each learner to achieve.each learner to achieve.

The difference between the two tests is that the criterion The difference between the two tests is that the criterion referenced tests focus more directly on referenced tests focus more directly on instructioninstruction..


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Measurement ScalesMeasurement Scales

There are four types of measurement There are four types of measurement scalesscales Nominal ScalesNominal Scales Ordinal ScalesOrdinal Scales Interval ScalesInterval Scales Ratio ScalesRatio Scales


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Four Types of Measurement Scales Four Types of Measurement Scales (Figure 7.25)(Figure 7.25)


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Four Types of Measurement Scales Four Types of Measurement Scales (Table 7.2)(Table 7.2)

MeasurementScale Characteristics

Nominal Groups and labels data only;reports frequencies or percentages.

Ordinal Ranks data; uses numbers only to indicate ranking.

Interval Assumes that equal differences between scores really mean equal differences in the variable used.

Ratio All of the above, plus true zero point.


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Nominal ScalesNominal Scales

Considered the simplest form of Considered the simplest form of measurement.measurement.

Researchers assign numbers to different Researchers assign numbers to different categories.categories.

An example would be to assign a “1” to An example would be to assign a “1” to men, a “2” to women.men, a “2” to women.

The advantage to assigning numbers to The advantage to assigning numbers to the categories is to facilitate computer the categories is to facilitate computer analysis.analysis.

Involves groups and labels data only.Involves groups and labels data only.


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A Nominal Scale of Measurement A Nominal Scale of Measurement (Figure 7.26)(Figure 7.26)


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Ordinal ScalesOrdinal Scales Involves the use of numbers to rank or order Involves the use of numbers to rank or order

scores from high to low.scores from high to low. An example would be the ranking of high to low An example would be the ranking of high to low

scores on an examination.scores on an examination. Differences in rankings would not necessarily be Differences in rankings would not necessarily be

the same with certain scores.the same with certain scores. Ordinal scales indicate relative standing among Ordinal scales indicate relative standing among

individuals.individuals.


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An Ordinal Scale: The Winner of a An Ordinal Scale: The Winner of a Horse Race Horse Race (Figure 7.27)(Figure 7.27)


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Interval ScalesInterval Scales

Involves the use of numbers to represent Involves the use of numbers to represent equal intervals in different segments on a equal intervals in different segments on a continuum.continuum.

Very similar to an ordinal scale with the Very similar to an ordinal scale with the exception of the equal intervals of points.exception of the equal intervals of points.

Assumes that equal differences between Assumes that equal differences between scores really mean equal differences in the scores really mean equal differences in the variable measured.variable measured.


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Ratio ScalesRatio Scales

A ratio scale involves the use of A ratio scale involves the use of numbers to represent equal distances numbers to represent equal distances from a known “zero point”.from a known “zero point”.

A scale designed to measure height A scale designed to measure height would be a ratio scale since the zero would be a ratio scale since the zero point represents the absence of height.point represents the absence of height.

Ratio scales are almost never Ratio scales are almost never encountered in Educational Research.encountered in Educational Research.

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