. . . a damp dreary place where all. . . a damp dreary place where allmanner of wild beasts dash about uncooked.manner of wild beasts dash about uncooked.

Anonymous, 19th CenturyAnonymous, 19th Century

Wilderness is . . .Wilderness is . . .

Jeff Marion, Unit LeaderJeff Marion, Unit LeaderVirginia Tech Field UnitVirginia Tech Field UnitPatuxent WL Res CenterPatuxent WL Res Center jmarion@vt.edujmarion@vt.edu

Managing Visitor Use ImpactsManaging Visitor Use Impacts

Presentation ObjectivesPresentation Objectives

1. Describe trail management strategies, including: Trail system assessments Trail design strategies Construct resistant trails Maintain trails to reduce impacts Manage visitors to reduce impacts

2. Describe campsite management strategies, including:

Select resistant sites Construct resistant sites Provide facilities that reduce impacts Maintain sites to contain impacts Manage visitors to reduce impacts

2. Review alternative camping management strategies.

If recreation If recreation visitationvisitationis permitted …is permitted …

. . . some degree of resource. . . some degree of resourceimpact is inevitable.impact is inevitable.

Prevent avoidable resource and social impacts

Minimize unavoidable impacts

Preserve the quality of resources and recreation experiences

The Wilderness The Wilderness ManagementManagementChallengeChallenge

Trail System AssessmentTrail System Assessment

Existing Inventory of Trails: Evaluate the suitability of what you have in light of trail system objectives.

Are all the trails in the inventory needed?

Do they follow the most resistant alignments, are relocations needed?

Are any new segments needed to fulfill administrative or recreation purposes?

Are the desired types of uses suitable and sustainable?

Trail Design StrategiesTrail Design Strategies

Select resistant alignments – most important factor (trail alignment relative to topography and trail grade)

Design in rolling grade dips

Construct resistant trails (apply the most sustainable construction practices)

Trail Alignment Angle to the Prevailing Slope

Resistant Resistant AlignmentsAlignments

Low Alignment angle

Direct-ascent or “fall-line” alignment

High Alignmentangle

Side-hill alignment

Non-Sidehill Trails Sidehill-Constructed Trails

Post-construction surface outsloped 3-5%

Original land surface

Post-construction surface

Original land surface

Berm develops over time

Trail Profiles with Different Topographic Trail Profiles with Different Topographic Positions and Trail Alignment AnglesPositions and Trail Alignment Angles

Trail Profiles

Upper Slope

Upper Slope

Mid-slope

Lower Slope

Trail GradeTrail Grade

Trail Grade

Remarks Drainage Spacing

0-2 Avoid – difficult to drain Not possible

3-6% Ideal for general uses 500 ft

7-10% OK in places if maintained 300 ft

11-15%OK for short segments if well-maintained or in rocky soils

100

>15% Avoid unless steps are constructed <50

Horse & Motorized Use Trails – Grades should not exceed 10% due to their higher potential for erosion. Gravel is also recommended unless soils are rocky.

0-22 23-45 46-68 69-90

Trail Slope Alignment Angle (degrees)

100

200

300

400

Est

imat

ed M

arg

inal

Mea

ns

Trail Grade

0-6%

7-15%

16-48%

Cross Sectional Area (in2)

Big South Fork

Some Research Results: Some Research Results: Grade vs. Alignment AngleGrade vs. Alignment Angle

Tread design

Construct Construct Resistant TrailsResistant Trails

Rolling Grade DipRolling Grade Dip

Rolling grade dips or “grade-reversal” features should be designed into ALL new trails. They can be added to existing trail alignments but require substantial work. Advantages:

Sustainable drainage w/no maintenance

More effective than water bars, drainage dips, or out-sloping over the long term

Rocks to Slow erosion

Gravel

Relocations vs. Maintenance Nightmare

Maintain Trails to Maintain Trails to Reduce ImpactsReduce Impacts

Steep grade and low alignment angle

Maintenance Features:Stream Crossing Impacts

Maintain Trails to Maintain Trails to Reduce ImpactsReduce Impacts

• Remove water from treads well before stream crossings

• Outsloped treads are better than water bars: sheet flow vs. concentrated flow

• Armor steeper embankments with rock or gravel

Tread Drainage

Maintain Trails to Maintain Trails to Reduce ImpactsReduce Impacts

Water bars

Outsloped tread

Manage Visitors to Reduce ImpactsManage Visitors to Reduce Impacts

Educate Visitors

Regulate Visitors

Visitor RegulationsVisitor Regulations

Regulate the Type,

Amount, &

Behavior of

Visitation

Visitor EducationVisitor EducationLeave No Trace: Travel & Camp on Durable SurfacesLeave No Trace: Travel & Camp on Durable Surfaces

Stay on formal trails when possible, walk single file in the

center of the tread. Don’t create new trails.

Campsite Design & Management Campsite Design & Management StrategiesStrategies

Select resistant sites Construct resistant sites Provide facilities that reduce impacts Maintain sites to contain impacts Manage visitors to reduce impacts

Select resistant sites Construct resistant sites Provide facilities that reduce impacts Maintain sites to contain impacts Manage visitors to reduce impacts

Select Resistant SitesSelect Resistant Sites

Organic litter

Rock

Sand/gravel

Grasses

Select Resistant SitesSelect Resistant Sites

Select campsites that resist expansion due to:

Topography

Dense Vegetation

Rockiness

Construct Resistant Sites Construct Resistant Sites

Create raised tent pads

Use site engineering to contain site expansion in high use problem areas:

Place fill in rocky terrain

Cut and fill work on slopes

Campsite Construction – Flat TerrainCampsite Construction – Flat Terrain

Campsite Signpost Ice-berg Rocks

Campsite Construction – Sloping TerrainCampsite Construction – Sloping Terrain

• Are these practices appropriate in Wilderness?

• Only in certain zones? • Are they the “minimum tool”

when other actions fail to resolve problems of site proliferation or expansion?

Provide Facilities ThatProvide Facilities ThatReduce ImpactsReduce Impacts

Campfire Rings

Toilets

Shelters

Maintain Sites ToMaintain Sites ToContain ImpactsContain Impacts

Improve Tent Pad Sites

Reinforce Eroding Spots

Restore Unnecessary Areas

Manage Visitors to Reduce ImpactsManage Visitors to Reduce Impacts

Promote Leave No Trace Practices Establish Regulations

Leave No Trace Center for Outdoor EthicsLeave No Trace Center for Outdoor Ethics

The Center partners with federal land agencies, outdoor product manufacturers, retailers, outfitters, user groups.

A non-profit organization whose mission is to promote and inspire responsible outdoor recreation through education, research and partnerships.

Bureau of Land Management

U.S. Fish &Wildlife Service

National ParkService

U.S. ForestService

Promote Promote Leave No Leave No TraceTrace Practices Practices

Avoid Campfires - Use Stoves

Use Durable Surfaces

Promote Promote Leave No Leave No TraceTrace Practices Practices

Use Established Sites in High-Use Areas Concentrate activities

within disturbed areasConcentrate activitieswithin disturbed areas

Use Pristine Sites in Remote Areas

Disperse activitiesDisperse activities Avoid permanent disturbanceAvoid permanent disturbance

Establish RegulationsEstablish Regulations

Prohibit Axes, Saws, or Campfires

Designate Campsites

Require Permits or Reservations

Camping Management StrategiesCamping Management Strategies

Area Closure to Camping

At-Large (Unregulated) Camping

Dispersed Camping

Established/Designated Site Camping (Containment)

Four Standard Strategies:

Rationale for Dispersal & Containment StrategiesRationale for Dispersal & Containment StrategiesUse/Impact Relationship

45 sites, eachw/1 night/yr

.

Dis

pers

al

Containmentb

45

1 campsite45 nights/yr

Close 2 campsites

Impact is minimized by closing two campsites and tripling use on the third.Impact increases on third site from “a” to “b”but aggregate impact is reduced from (3 x a) to (1 x b)..

.

15

a

3 campsiteseach w/15 nights/yr.

.Unregulated

Camping

Nights/Year (#)

To

tal

Ch

ang

e (%

)

ClosuresClosures

Cultural sites

Sensitive wildlifehabitats

R,T&E species

Camping Management StrategiesCamping Management StrategiesAt-Large (Unregulated) Camping

Camping is unregulated: visitors may camp in any location they choose.

Advantages: Maximizes visitor freedom in site selection.

Disadvantages: Jeopardizes visitor solitude and resource protection at higher use levels.

At-Large (Unregulated) CampingAt-Large (Unregulated) Camping

Problems:Problems:

Poor site selectionPoor site selectionSocial - too close to other sitesSocial - too close to other sitesResource - fragile rather than resistantResource - fragile rather than resistantCampsite expansionCampsite expansionCampsite proliferationCampsite proliferation

Camping Management StrategiesCamping Management StrategiesDispersed Camping

Visitors are instructed to camp on the most resistant surfaces available that show no obvious signs of previous camping use. Dispersal from popular areas may also be promoted to reduce problems with crowding or conflicts.

Point Dispersal Lineal Dispersal Total Dispersal

Camping Management StrategiesCamping Management StrategiesDispersed Camping

Advantages: Provides greater visitor freedom in site selection and

promotes solitude. When successful, avoids impact by dispersing

use to a level that prevents formation of permanent campsites.

Disadvantages: Visitors tend to resist dispersing very far. Considerable off-trail searching may be necessary to locate an appropriate site. Selecting, using, and renaturalizing a pristine site requires greater knowledge and effort.

Camping Management StrategiesCamping Management StrategiesDispersed Camping

Why Resource Dispersal Is Often Ineffective:

Park Environment - Limited flat land or resistant surfaces.

Park Management - Restrictions on camping close to trails or water

resources may prevent use of the most available flat land. Visitors

not instructed to use only pristine sites or Leave No Trace camping

practices. Insufficient visitor education.

Park Visitors - Visitors may not want to disperse far from trails, water, or other groups. Visitors may lack or fail to apply LNT knowledge.

Camping Management StrategiesCamping Management StrategiesCamping Containment

Visitors are encouraged or required to camp on existing sites or within designated areas. Sites or areas may be selected for their environmental resistance and/or to promote visitor solitude.

Existing Sites Designated Areas

Camping ContainmentCamping Containment

Problems:Problems:

Loss of visitor freedomLoss of visitor freedomAvailability of open campsitesAvailability of open campsites

Problems:Problems:

Loss of visitor freedomLoss of visitor freedomAvailability of open campsitesAvailability of open campsites

Camping Management StrategiesCamping Management StrategiesCamping Containment

Options:

Established Sites - Visitors are required to use existing “established” campsites. Managers close and rehabilitate sites that fail to meet minimum criteria for environmental resistance and/or distance to trails, water, other sites, etc.

Advantages: Retains some visitor freedom in site selection and ensures solitude. Minimizes area of disturbance and aggregate impact more than an “at-large” camping strategy.

Disadvantages: Permits more sites and greater impact than under designated site camping. Visitors may create new sites or camp on closed sites.

Camping Management StrategiesCamping Management StrategiesCamping Containment

Options:

Designated Sites - Visitors are required to use only designated

campsites. The minimum number of sites needed for a specified

level of overnight visitation are selected, based on their

environmental resistance and solitude potential. Sites that fail to

meet criteria or are unnecessary are closed to use.

Advantages: Minimizes resource impacts while maximizing visitor solitude.

Disadvantages: Restricts freedom in campsite selection, sites will become highly altered.

Camping Management StrategiesCamping Management StrategiesMulti-Strategy Examples

Shenandoah National Park (New)

Dispersal and closure within designated areas

Designated campsites

Existing campsites

Camping Management StrategiesCamping Management StrategiesA Comparison

Management StrategyCampsite

Occupancy

Resource

Protection

Visitor

Freedom

At-Large Camping Low Low High

Dispersed Camping LowLow –

HighMod.

Established Site Camping Mod. Mod. Mod.

Designated Site Camping High High Low

The EndThe End

Carrying Capacity:Carrying Capacity:

The Art of Avoiding The Art of Avoiding Undesirable Future Undesirable Future

ConditionsConditions