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. . . an Anthropological PerspectiveWARFARE . . .
WARFARE
A constant cannot explain a variable.
Proximate vs. Ultimate cause
Positive vs. Negative feedback systems
Resource Competition
* * * * *
Infrastructure Structure Superstructure
Resource Conflict Male Supremacy Competition Warfare Complex
and Alliances
Scale and Intensity of Warfare
Warfare
Conflict
Competition
Population / Resources
Chimpanzee Warfare
Chimpanzee Warfare
1. In 1968, Jane Goodall stopped feeding bananas to the Chimps at Gombe.
2. Chimps gradually split into two separate groups:
• the larger Kasakela Community to the north.
• the slightly smaller group of about a dozen chimps that moved south to the Kahama Valley.
3. By 1972, the Kahana group had become a completely separate community.
4. At about the same time, parties of Kasakela males began making repeated forays south.
Chimpanzee Warfare (cont.):
5. Early in 1974, a gang of 5 Kasakela chimps from the northern group killed a single male from the southern group.
--He was never seen again.
6. One month later, 3 Kasakela males caught one of the prime Kahana males and severely beat him.
--He was never seen again.
7. Later that year, 5 Kasakela males attacked Goliath (a Kahana male) and severely beat him.
--He was never found again.
Chimpanzee Warfare (cont.):
8. In 1975, 4 Kasakela males caught an old female, named Madam Bee and beat her until she was inert.
• She died 5 days after the attack.• Her daughter, Honey Bee, cared for her until she died.
9. Early in 1977, several males from the northern Kasakela group attacked and killed Charlie, a southern Kahanna male.
10. Late in 1977, 5 Kasakela males from the north pounced on Sniff, the sole remaining Kahanna male, and left him with a broken leg and bleeding from countless wounds.
Significant Features of Chimpanzee Warfare:
1. Gradual extermination of one community by another.
2. Raids occurred over a period of 6 years.
3. Northern males were not simply defendingterritory.
--most attacks were deep into the southern territory.
4. The entire Kasakela group now travels, feeds and sleeps freely throughout the southern area.
Ecological Context of Chimpanzee Warfare:
1. Cannibalism:
a. Passion and Pom (ate 5 of the 6 babies born in one year and
may have eaten as many as 10 babies over a 4-year period).
b. Bodies of at least 3 males never found.
2. Hunting:
a. Chimps are omnivorous and feed individually.
b. Cooperation occurs only during hunting.
--mostly baboons and small antelope.
c. Food sharing occurs only with meat
d. 30 chimps at Gombe made about 40 kills per year.
--about one kill every 9 days.
Ecological Context of Chimpanzee Warfare (cont.):
3. Tool Use:
a. termite sticks
• nutritional value of insects• made for future use
b. sponges
c. toilet paper
d. nests
Ecological Context of Chimpanzee Warfare (cont.):
4. Comparison of Gombe Chimps with Budongo Chimps.
a. Tool use found only at Gombe.
b. Hunting and food sharing found only at Gombe.
c. Cannibalism found only at Gombe.
d. Warfare found only at Gombe.
5. Population Pressure
a. 20 square miles needed to support 1 chimp at Gombe
b. Budongo rain forest supports 17 chimps in 1 square mile.
c. Budongo forest can support about 300 times as many chimps per square mile as Gombe.
“Well, well --another blonde hair. . . . Conducting more ‘research’ with that Jane Goodall Tramp?”
Segmentary Lineage Organization
Tribe
Clans
Maximal Lineages
Minimal Lineages
Lineage Membership
and Residence
ab
c
d
efgh
Segmentary Lineage and
Political Expansion
* * *
Systems expand, not necessarily
people
Somali Expansion in the Horn of Africa
Ethiopia
And
Somalia
Yanomamo Warfare
YANOMAMO WARFARE
A constant cannot explain a variable.
Proximate vs. Ultimate cause
Positive vs. Negative feedback systems
Resource Competition
Protein Scarcity vs. Protein Deficiancy
* * * * * Infrastructure Structure Superstructure
Resource Conflict Weiteri Complex Competition Warfare
and Alliances
Chagnon vs. Harris
Causes of Yanomamo Warfare
Chagnon: --Fighting over Women
--”We like meat, but we like women better.”
Harris: --Protein Scarcity
--Mechanism of Population Control
--Male Supremacy Complex
--female infanticide
Chagnon vs. HarrisProblems with Their Explanations
Chagnon: --Female shortage created by Yanomamo themselves.
--Only raid villages for women with which raiding already exists. (Warfare, therefore, not explained.)
--proximate explanation
-- emic explanation
Harris: --Protein Scarcity vs. Protein Deficiency (Big Mac)
--Yanomamo Shamatari population increase
-- from 200 to 2,000 people, 1900 – 1970-- 1,000% increase over 70 years = 14% increase per year
Evidence of Protein Scarcity
1. Five-day hunting expeditions with no success.
2. Primary game animal: Monkeys and other solitary animals
3. Lower protein consumption
a. less than other Amazonian Indians.
b. Less than the Dobe Ju/’hoansi
4. Reliance on insects for food. (cost/benefit)
5. Evidence of recent adaptation
a. Boil bananas only
b. Fish only with poison
c. Poorly constructed canoes
Amazonian IndiansProtein Consumption
Alliance Spiral Warfare Spiral
Nomohoni Genearalized ReciprocalReciprocity Woman Exchange Raid
The Feast
Spear FightsBalanced Mutual FeastingReciprocity Ax Fights
Club Fights
Side-Slapping Duels
Negative Sporadic and Chest-Pounding DuelsReciprocity Reciprocal
Trading
Yanomamo Politics: Alliance vs. Warfare
House Temperature
Decreases
Furnace Restores House Temperature
Negative Feedback System
Neutron Bomb
Positive Feedback System
M.I.R.V.
I.C.B.M.
Hydrogen Bomb
Atomic Bomb
Yanomamo Positive-Feedback System
Population Pressure
Central Villages Peripheral Villages
Larger Villages Smaller Villages 40 – 250 25 - 100
Villages Closer Villages Dispersed higher density lower density
Warfare Constant Raiding less Frequent Patanowa-teri raided some villages not involved
25 times in one year in raids for over 5 years
Alliance System Alliance System elaborate absent
Population Pressure(cont.)
Central Villages Peripheral Villages
Headman Headman greater authority little authority during warfare
Cultivation Cultivation more important less important
Fighting Fighting more elaborate less elaborate
Weiteri Complex Weiteri Complex more pronounced less pronounced
Population Pressure(cont.)
Central Villages Peripheral Villages
Female Infanticide Female Infanticide greater less
M/F M/F 0-14: 157 / 100 0-14: 121 / 100all ages: 130 / 100 all ages: 115 / 100
Polyandry Polyandry absent practiced
sexual liaisons is polyandry and sexual primary source of liaisons institutionalized conflict in village
Yanomamo Village Expansion
Yanomamo Sociopolitical Evolution
Plains Indian Warfare
Explanation:
1. Plains Indian subsistence behavior, social
organization and warfare evolved as predictable outcomes of changes in demography, population-resource
relations and labor requirements, as well as
increasing resource competition.
2. The evolution of Plains Indian ecology and
warfare constituted a positive-feedback
system resulting from the infusion of new
subsistence technologies and a new productive relationship between
Indians and resources.
Impact of the Horse and Gun on Bison Hunting:
1. Changed the spatial relationship between
Indians and bison
2. Increased size of hunting territory
3. Increased the speed and effectiveness of the buffalo hunt
4. Increased reliability of hunting
5. Reduced per capita labor costs (cost/benefit)
6. Individualized bison hunting
7. Industrialized the hunt
Impact of the Hide Trade on Bison Hunting:
1. Changed Population/Resource (P/R) relationship
between Indians and bison
2. Shift from subsistence to commercial economy
3. Individual male Indians became self-employed
entrepreneurs
4. Producers on the margins of an expanding global
economy
Infrastructural Changes:
1. Increased immigration onto the
Plains
2. Dramatic increase in the size of the Plains Indian Population
3. Precipitous decline in the size of the bison
population.
Population/Resources
IndianImmigrati
on onto the Plains
Decline in Bison Population
BisonYear Population
1800 40,000,0001850 20,000,0001865 15,000,000
-- -----1870 14,000,0001880 395,0001889 1,091
1850: Comanche reported eating their horses and
raiding New Mexico settlements for food.
1853: Cheyenne and Arapaho reported spending
half the year in a state of starvation.
Early Reports of Indian Food Shortages:
Increasing hunting pressure on bison led to a
greater “massing” of bison herds and to increased local variation in bison
availability.
* * * * *
This resulted in reduced access to
bison for some Plains Indian
groups.
Size of Herd Sightings Increased with Time
Causes of Decline in Bison Numbers:
1. Overhunting
2. Grazing competition
3. Diseases
4. Predation
5. Climate
Structural Changes:
1. Evolution of independent family
2. Increase in polygyny
3. Brideprice inflation
4. Emerging class differentiation
5. Increasing warfare
6. Evolution of political-military alliances
7. Increasing importance of military societies
"There were many brave and successful warriors of the Cheyenne who never went on …(scalping expeditions)…, who on their war journeys tried to a void coming in close contact with enemies. Such men went to war for the sole purpose of increasing their possessions by capturing horses: that is, they carried on war as a business--for profit. Some of these men who possessed high reputation for courage, success, and general well-doing-- made it their boast that they never killed a man, and perhaps never counted coup.
--George Grinnell
"A Plains Indian with only one wife would always be poor, but it is a fine sight to see one of those big men among the Blackfeet, who has two or three lodges, five or six wives, twenty or thirty children, and fifty to a hundred head of horses; for his trade amounts to upward of $2,000 a year, and I assure you such a man has a great deal of dignity about him."
--Charles Larpenteur
Increase in Polygyny:
"In contrast to an ondei son, …(a lower rank son)… has had to think first of economic returns and secondarily of brave deeds, of coup counts. ... Given a situation in which an enemy has fallen from (his) horse, the young …(lower rank)… warrior is torn between counting coup and riding after the enemy's horse. The rich man's decision is much simpler; he counts coup."
--Mishkin (1940)
Emerging Class Differentiation:
"A man could not even court a girl unless he had proved his courage. That is one reason why so many were so anxious to win good war records. They were all afraid of what people, and especially the women, would say if they were cowardly. The women even had a song they would sing about a man whose courage had failed him. 'If you are afraid when you charge, turn back. The desert women will eat you.' It was hard to go into a fight, and they were often afraid, but it was worse to turn back and face the women."
--John Stands-in-Timber
Enculturation of Martial Values:
Plains Indians generally believed that buffalo were supernatural in origin and existed in limitless numbers underground. A Bison Calling Ceremony was performed each year to coax them from their underground shelters.
“In 1881, representatives of many tribes assembled on the North Fork of the Red River for the Kiowa Sun Dance where a Kiowa shaman named Buffalo Coming Out vowed to call on the herds to re-emerge from the ground. The Kiowa believed the bison had gone into hiding in the earth, and they still call a peak in the Wichita Mountains "Hiding Mountain."
Sioux
Plains IndianAlliances:
Blackfoot
Assiniboine- Cree
Mandan-Hidatsa
Sioux
I have to stop now!