Contents District wise Study Area: 18 0 Summary of Key Findings 19 1 Background and Context 24 2 Objectives, Methodology and Scope of Study 27 3 Review of literature 30 4 Social and Economic Conditions of Muslims in Study Area 34 5 Muslim Women in Study Areas 38 6 Muslim Women in Panchayats in West Bengal 49 7 Muslim Women in Self-help Groups 57 8 Innovations in Strengthening Decentralisation 62 9 Summary of findings, observations and conclusion 67 10 Policy Implications and Recommendations 69 11 Statistical Tables 71 a. Table 1 – 43: Distribution of Muslim women population by poverty indicator 53 - 100 b. Table 44 – 76: Distribution of Muslim women (Nadia) by poverty indicator 101 - 111 c. Table 77 – 109: Distribution of Muslim women (Howrah) by poverty indicator 112 - 123 d. Table 110 – 142: Distribution of Muslim women (Murshidabad) by poverty indicator 123 - 134 e. Table 143 – 175: Distribution of Muslim women (Murshidabad) by poverty indicator 134 - 145
Transcript
Contents
District wise Study Area: 18
0 Summary of Key Findings 19
1 Background and Context 24
2 Objectives, Methodology and Scope of Study 27
3 Review of literature 30
4 Social and Economic Conditions of Muslims in Study Area 34
5 Muslim Women in Study Areas 38
6 Muslim Women in Panchayats in West Bengal 49
7 Muslim Women in Self-help Groups 57
8 Innovations in Strengthening Decentralisation 62
9 Summary of findings, observations and conclusion 67
10 Policy Implications and Recommendations 69
11 Statistical Tables 71
a. Table 1 – 43: Distribution of Muslim women population by poverty indicator 53 - 100
b. Table 44 – 76: Distribution of Muslim women (Nadia) by poverty indicator 101 - 111
c. Table 77 – 109: Distribution of Muslim women (Howrah) by poverty indicator 112 - 123
d. Table 110 – 142: Distribution of Muslim women (Murshidabad) by poverty indicator 123 - 134
e. Table 143 – 175: Distribution of Muslim women (Murshidabad) by poverty indicator 134 - 145
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Preface
The human development indicators of rural women, particularly of those belonging to socially disadvantaged groups like Muslims are abysmally poor.
Nari - o - Sishu Kalyan Kendra has been working for more than a decade amongst the Muslim women in the district of Howrah towards changing the socio-economic status of Muslim women by mobilizing them into Self-help groups and building their skills and capacities. This gave us an opportunity and courage to approach the Ministry of Panchayat, Government of India for undertaking a study on the changing status of Muslim women under Panchayati Raj. The idea was to find out whether there was a change in the status of Muslim women following the regime of land reforms and strong decentralization initiatives for the last three decades in West Bengal.
When our proposal was accepted, we sought collaboration with Loka Kalyan Parishad which has a Panchayati Raj Resource Centre to strengthen local government institutions and civil society organisations. They readily agreed and collaborative research studies were undertaken in thirty two Gram Panchayats with high concentration of Muslim population in four districts of West Bengal. An expert group was constituted to finalize the design and methodology of the study.
Field studies were conducted by a research team under the direct supervision and guidance of Dr. Manab Sen, Advisor, Loka Kalyan Parishad to whom I am grateful. The draft report based on analysis of field data was presented on 28th May, 2008 before larger expert group comprising academic experts, government officials and representatives of civil society organisations. The workshop for sharing the draft report with a larger group was supported by PRIA under West Bengal Civil Society Support Programme.
The Sachar Report has already brought into sharp focus the realities of Muslim Women’s lives which also get reflected in this document.
We expect innovative policies to emerge out of this document that will help the emergence of a developmental state in active partnership with the civil society organisations.
I express my sincere gratitude to Shri Mani Sankar Ayer, Minister - in - charge of the Ministry of Panchayati Raj, Government of India and to Dr. Surya Kanta Minister - in - charge of Panchayat and Rural Development Department, Health and Family welfare Department, Government of West Bengal for their inspiration and encouragement. I owe my gratitude to the District Magistrates, the Block Development Officers, EWRs of Gram Panchayats, development functionaries of state and civil society and not last but the least more than a thousand Muslim women who always remain invisible but whose voice forms the basic foundation of this document.
August, 2008
Rahima Khatun (Secretary)
Nari – O – Sishu Kalyan Kendra Howrah
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FOREWORD Muslims in India generally and Muslim Women, in particular are a serious subject for research and in-depth analysis. However, despite their importance from the research point of view, what is published till now about them is often impressionistic or rhetorical, aimed at purveying a standpoint whose reinforcement is demanded by the terms of conventional discourse on Muslims. Unlike Hindus, Muslims are substantially the hewers of wood and drawers of water. Except for a sizable presence in the traditional artisans and handicrafts sectors, they are underrepresented in the trade, industrial sectors of the economy. One can deduce a general proposition that Muslims are conspicuous by their absence as one moves from domestic or home based production to industrial production. Worker population ratios are lower for Muslims than any other socio-religious community and this is more so in the rural areas. This research study on Muslim Women in West Bengal was carried out by Nari-O-Sishu-Kalyan Kendra (NSKK), Howrah, in close collaboration with Loka Kalyan Parishad, a civil society organization in 4 densely populated muslim districts of West Bengal. The whole field research was pioneered by Dr.Manab Sen, an erudite researcher with the help of his research staff of Loka Kalyan Parishad and NSKK. Dr. Sen has touched the problem in its proper perspective. The entire Report has condensed a remarkable amount of information, unexplored till date and presented it in a coherent and readable manner. Its emphasis on the basic issues is right and quite thought provoking.One of the striking features of the report is that they have studied the problem at the Panchayat level incorporating self-help groups and capacity creation issues involving and motivating unattached, neglected Muslim women in their economic functions. They have rightly pointed out that Muslims should be fit in the mainstream of the economy and do the rightful job in the system. My heartfelt thanks to them for this novel venture. The recent report of the High-level committee on the social-economic and educational status of the Muslims in India, also known as the Sachar Committee, is the first attempt to provide information on conditions in this community using large scale empirical data. It provides the basis for an informal debate, from an equity perspective, on the conditions of the Muslims. And I am happy to note that this research study has been scanned in the background of the Sachar Committee Report.
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Coming to the Muslim working women, it is true that women worker population ratios are lower for Muslims than any other socio religious community and this is so in the rural belt. Most interesting part of it is that Muslim women are disadvantaged not by religion alone but by complex forces including the interplay of class and gender. As suggested by SCR, traditional barriers to women’s mobility as well as child care and household responsibilities may play a crucial role in keeping Muslim women within the confines of their homes and closed to the neighbourhood. On the whole we agree with the report that Muslims suffer from deprivation on most every front. While they are doing somewhat better in certain pockets in some states, they are generally extremely backward and live in the shadow of vulnerability and poverty. And I hope and sincerely believe that this study is just a beginning and much more in depth studies should be taken by them to follow it further. A much more serious thinking is needed after the multivariate statistical analysis of the Sachar Committee data. Durga Das Roy Kolkata, 26th August , 2008
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Acknowledgement
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Selected Bibliography
Reports Towards Equality, Report of the Committee on status of women in India, 1974, Govt. of India
Social Economic and Educational Status of the Muslim Community in India: Report of the committee (Sachar Committee), Nov. 2006, Govt. of India.
Panchayat and Rural: Development Department Report of the rural Family Survey, 2006
Level and Pattern of Consumer Expenditure, 2004-05 (NSS 61st Round): National Sample Survey Organisation.
Report on Enterprises in the Unorganized Sector (2007): Arjun Sen Gupta: Government of India.
Family Health Survey (2003) : Department of Health and Family Planning, Government of India.
Books Agarwal Bina: A Field of One’s Own: Gender and Land Rights in South Asia: Cambridge University Press, New Delhi - 1994
Hossain, Zaya and Menon Ritu: Muslim Women in India: 2000-01: Oxford University Press.
Agnihotri S.B: Sex Ratio patterns in the Indian Population: Sage publication, New Delhi - 2000
Nilanjana: Status of Women and Family Welfare: Kanishka, New Delhi-2000
Parikh. S. Kirit (Ed): India Development Report, 1999-2000, Oxford University Press, New Delhi.
Development and Planning Department, Govt. of West Bengal: Human Development Report-2004
Journal Articles
Sen Amartya: Many Faces of Gender Inequality, Frontline, October-November, 2001.
G. Christopher and S. Irudaya Rajan: District Level Estimates of Fertility from India’s 2001 census: EPW: 2001.
Steven Wilkinson: A comment on the analysis in Sachar Report, EPW, March, 2001.
Rowena Robinson: Indian Muslims: The varied dimensions of marginality, EPW, March, 2001
M.A. Kalam: Conditioned Lives, EPW, March, 2001.
Javed Alam: Muslim Situation in India, EPW, January, 2008.
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Glossary of Terms
SHG: A Self-Help Group (SHG) is a registered or unregistered group of the poor having homogenous social and economic background voluntarily, coming together to save small amounts regularly, to mutually agree to contribute to a common fund and to meet their emergency needs on mutual help basis. The group members use collective wisdom and peer pressure to ensure proper end-use of credit and timely repayment thereof. In fact, peer pressure has been recognized as an effective substitute for collaterals. The groups, besides thrift and credit activities, are engaged in social and economic activities and participate in local governance and development.
SGSY: The objective of the Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY) is to bring the assisted poor families (Swarozgaries) above the Poverty Line by ensuring appreciable sustained level of income over a period of time. This objective is to be achieved by inter alia organizing the rural poor into Self Help Groups (SHGs) through the process of social mobilization, their training and capacity building and provision of income generating assets.
The National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA) also known as National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme, NREGS) is Indian legislation enacted on August 25, 2005. The NREGA provides a legal guarantee for one hundred days of employment in every financial year to adult members of any rural household willing to do public work-related unskilled manual work at the statutory minimum wage.
Gram Sabha: Gram Sabha is a body consisting of persons registered in the electoral rolls of a village or a group of villages which elect a Panchayat. Balika Samriddhi Yojana: This Yojana has been enacted to change negative family and community attitudes towards the girl child at birth and towards her mother, to improve enrolment and retention of girl children in schools, to rise the age at marriage of girls, to assist the girl to undertake income generating activities.
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Abbreviations
HDI : Human Development Index
GDI : Gender Development Index
TFR : Total Fertility Rate
EWR : Elected Women Representatives
SHG : Self Help Group
GP : Gram Panchayat
ZP : Zilla Parishad
NREGA : National Rural Employment Guarantee Act
NGO : Non Government Organization
PRI : Panchayati Raj Institution
CSO : Civil Society Organization
SGSY : Swarnajayanti Gram Swarojgar Yogona
GUS : Gram Unnayan Samity
SRSWOR : Simple Random Sampling without Replacement
MP : Member of Parliament
MLA : Member of Legislative Assembly
BPL : Below Poverty Line
SIPRD : State Institute of Panchayat & Rural Development
BDO : Block Development Officer
CCA : Community Convergent Action
SRD : Strengthening Rural Decentralization
LKP : Loka Kalyan Parishad
CBDP : Community Based Disaste Management Programme
A. Distinctive features of Muslim population in West Bengal
• Of the 8 districts where Muslim population is high, six are identified to be backward in terms of HDI and GDI.
• Distinctive culture in West Bengal indicates the characteristics of ‘popular Islam’ as a contrast to, upper India’s Muslim identity.
• 83% of Muslims live in rural areas and depend largely on agriculture as the major source of livelihood.
• Muslim women of poor and low-income families are invisible and reluctant to participate in the process of modernity. They are mostly engaged in self-employment and home-based work.
• The social and economic status of Muslims in general and women in particular is the direct outcome of poverty. Field survey indicates very high rates of poverty (50% to 60%), of which conditions of the half (25% to 30%) are pitiable.
• Income inequality amongst Muslims is explicit and there is an economic hierarchy in Muslim society.
• Sex-ratios do not indicate discrimination of the Muslim girl child at the time of birth.
• Female illiteracy rates are getting proportionately reduced though ‘development deficit’ in higher education is very high.
• Decadal TFR is falling though more in relatively developed districts .
• Gross enrolment of girl children in schools is higher than that of boys.
• About 50% of Muslim children are born underweight and 68% of them are anemic as their mothers are.
• Out migration of male members is very high in backward districts in search of causal or wage employment and women suffer most in those families.
B. Findings of survey of Muslim families in study area
• Landlessness is very high (60% or more) in 13 out of 16 GPs studied. Those who have lost lands because of Ganga erosion or are otherwise displaced, are living under extreme conditions of poverty.
• More than 50% of Muslim families live in kutcha house with one living room in 14 out of 16 GPs studied. 21% of Muslim families in Madhurkul GP of Domkal Block are found to be houseless.
• More than 50% of the Muslim families do not have winter clothing in 14 out of 16 GPs studied. The conditions are distressing in Saralpur GP (Bhagawangola II Block) and Mahatpur GP (Chapra Block). In spite of high cropping intensity food insecurity is moderate to high in 14 out of 16GPs studied.
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• Analysis of households by possession of consumer durables indicates that except in Panchla and Uluberia I Blocks, more than 40% of Muslim households do not have consumer durable of value exceeding Rs. 2000.
• Analysis of households by family-based workers indicates that families without any regular earner vary between 0.75% in Panchla Block and 10.20% in Chapra Block (Nadia) and Goalpokhor I Block (Uttar Dinajpur).
• Except in Panchla and Uluberia I Blocks of Howrah district where 43% of households are self-employed artisans, majority of Muslim households depend on agriculture and allied activities as their major sources of livelihood.
• Analysis of households by literacy status of 9-14 children indicates that the numbers of children never going to school are staggering-varying between 17.5% in Panchla Block and 36% in Goalpokhor Block.
• Analysis of households indicates that access to institutional credit is very low- ranging between 2% in Panchla Block and 8% in Goalpokhor I Block.
• In six out of 8 Blocks studied, out migration is noticed in more 70% of the Muslim families.
• In six out of 8 Blocks studied, female illiteracy is as high as that of scheduled caste. School drop-outs rates vary between 3% in Nasipur GP and 58% in Madhukul GP.
• Families with special disability causing vulnerability varies between 1.4% in Panchla Block and 7.34% in Karimpur II Block.
C. Status of Muslim women in study area
• Incidence of ‘talaq’ or remarriage is insignificant in Muslim women studied (0%-.2%).
• The proportionate numbers of girl children (0-5) are found to be almost equal.
• The share of children completing high level of education (10+) is found to be varying between 2% in Uttar Dinajpur district and 23% in Howrah.
• In spite of perceptions of Muslim women that public health services are available, their access is limited.
• Income inequality amongst the Muslim families studied is found to be high with a skewed distribution and a large concentration at the bottom level. Women contribute to about one-fourth of the family income.
• About one fourth of Muslim women interviewed have joined self-help group and their access to micro-credit is limited within a range of Rs. 1000.
• Association of Muslim women in village-level committees/institutions is insignificant (between 2% and 3%).
• Between 50% in Murshidabad district and 71% Uttar Dinajpur of Muslim women interviewed feel that the elected panchayat representatives are attentive to them.
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• The level of awareness of Muslim women about government programmes and services is found to be moderate but their access continues to be largely restrictive.
• In terms of entitlements, Muslim families do not seem to be deprived as more than 90% of the families studied have voter identity card and ration card.
• In terms of personal health and hygiene, Muslim women are mostly found to be using tubewell water for drinking and the sanitation coverage is found to have significantly increased.
• It is interesting to note that around 80% of Muslim women interviewed are married before 18 years of age.
D. Muslim women in Panchayats
• Except Murshidabad and Dakshin Dinajpur, the representation of Muslims is found to be disproportionate to their share of population. There is no representation of Muslim women in 8 Zilla Parishads. Around 6% of Muslim women are in Panchayat Samitis and 7% are in Gram Panchayats. Distribution of Muslim women in three-tier panchayats is skewed – more at the GP level and the least at the ZP level.
• The distribution of Muslim women in standing committees of three-tier panchayats indicates that women in general and Muslim women in particular are preferred to hold offices in areas concerning women, children and social welfare.
• The mean age of Muslim EWR is found to be 38 and 98% of them are married.
• Only 20% of Muslim EWR are found to have completed secondary education and 60% of them have come from low income families.
• Most of the Muslim EWR have expressed difficulties of performing their functions efficiently because of their lack of understanding of law, intricacies of administration and financial management compelling them to depend either on bureaucracy or on political leadership. About 80% of Muslim EWR are housewives and first-time entrants to political arena.
• About 70% of Muslim EWR have joined SHG and about 20% of them are engaged as anganwadi workers or Sahayikas of Sishu Siksha Kendra or field workers of voluntary organizations.
• 60% of Muslim EWR have received short training but they are not happy with the quality of training.
• The Muslim EWR are largely involved in facilitation of self-help groups, motivating women to construct sanitary toilets, helping women to access benefits of Janani Suraksha Yojana and of national social assistance programmes.
• Most of the Muslim EWR considers reservation to have created a positive impact on Muslim women to participate in public activities.
• A few women members of SHGs have attended meetings of gram sansad in spite of the interest of Muslim women in the activities of GP.
• Muslim women did not get wage employment under the NREGA in the study area in spite of special allocation to women.
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• There is a perceptible increase of girl children in primary schools in Muslim areas and their attendance is found to be high. Still, the drop-outs of girl children are found to be high after completion of primary education reported to be caused by perceived sense of insecurity and parental desire for early marriage.
• There is no significant variation between immunization coverage of Hindu and Muslim children but access to public health services is still found to be highly restrictive to Muslim women.
E. Muslim women in self-help groups
• The coverage of Muslim women in SHGs varies between 7% in Howrah district and 29% in Nadia district (Uttar Dinajpur 17% and Murshidabad 26%).
• NGOs took the lead in group formation (55%) followed by panchayat (28%) and co-operative (27%).
• Savings motivation is very strong in Muslim women but only 46% of the Muslim women in SHGs could access small amounts of credit (around Rs. 1000) from the group.
• 80% of Muslim women have used micro-credit for productive purposes – livestock (21%), agriculture (21%), small business (20%) and household industry (16%).
• 45% of SHGs are reported to have received some kind of assistance from GP
• 58% of SHG members are found to be involved in child education, immunization, sanitation and in social action.
• By joining SHG, Muslim women are found to be gaining in self-confidence and self esteem.
F. Implications and Recommendation
• Community–based organizations are to be developed and capacitated to act as catalysts of social change.
• Collaboration between civil society organizations (CSOs) and PRIs should be considered as an instrument of policy in local governance.
• Empowerment of excluded Muslim women through formation of self-help groups after intensive social mobilization will help to build up collective action for social and economic development.
• A process-based linkage of all SHGs with the Gram Panchayat through Gram Unnyan Samitis can help strengthening of decentralization and inclusion of Muslim women in mainstream development.
• Capacity-building of Muslim women should be adequate enabling them to articulate their needs in the meetings of gram sansad / and participate in the process of decentralized planning.
• Functional responsibilities of panchayats should be supported by adequate devolution of funds, functionaries and freedom.
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• Capacity building of Elected Muslim women representatives to panchayats can enable EWR to provide support and services to Muslim women.
• Affirmative public policy and action is need for retention of Muslim girls in school, reaching out public health services, increasing opportunities of self-employment and adequate provisions of social security.
Education and Development of Muslim Women
o General household survey shows that 15 % of illiterate women had hospital delivery whereas 50% of school passed women and 57% of high school passed women availed this facility.
o 21.2% illiterate women practice modern method of family planning, on the other end 57% of high secondary passed and above adopted the same.
o Average age at marriage is below 18 years for 80% illiterate women while it is 29% for higher secondary passed women.71% of educated women got married at or above 18years.
o Survey indicates that children of 26% illiterate women got 100% immunization coverage whereas it is 59% for Madhyamik passed women.
The data generated in the household survey is fairly indicative of higher degree of human development related to higher level of education. The primary focus of development for Muslim families in general and Muslim women in particular should be centered around their access to higher level of education.
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1 Background and Context
1.01 West Bengal has nearly 25% Muslim population which is comparable only to Assam (30.9%) and Kerala (24.7%). It has substantially high share of population in Murshidabad (63.67%), Malda (49.72%), Birbhum (35.08%), Nadia (25.41%), Uttar Dinajpur (47.36%), Dakshin 24 Parganas (47.36%), Uttar 24 Parganas (24.22%), Dakshin Dinajpur (24.02%). Of the 8 districts where Muslim population is high, six districts are identified to be backward in terms of education, health, income/consumption and physical quality of life. West Bengal has the unique characteristic of 83.22% of Muslims living in rural areas with agriculture as the principal source of livelihood.
1.02 Historically, Bengal stood apart in the context of Islamisation of the entire country, a region where Muslims were the majority but distinctly aloof. There were clear indications of mixed culture. 'Popular Islam' was considered as apt term to describe the religious rituals followed by the Muslims in rural Bengal. Dominated by an agrarian economy, they responded very little to the questions of upper India's Muslim identity. The Faraizi and Wahabi movements in which local Muslim Women were equally involved, were intrinsically related to the Muslim peasant identity. Common cultural practices of seeking blessings of the Pir Sahebs and intermingling during religious festivals particularly amongst the sub-alterns built up a strong secular tradition in Bengal
1.03 The Muslim society is heterogeneous and divided into the elite and the commoners. There is a clear rural-urban divide though outmigration for employment has exposed them to urban culture and the milieu. Even amongst the peasantry, there is class differential between the land-owning class and the landless. Partition of Bengal has affected the Muslim population because of migration of particularly the elite class to East Pakistan (now Bangladesh). Cross-cultural exchanges amongst the Muslim community between West Bengal and Bangladesh also have an influence over the lives of Muslims in West Bengal. Cross-country migration still continues and is a factor to be reckoned with. Similarly, Islampur Sub-division which is a transferred territory from Bihar has a distinct cultural mix-up.
1.04 Women in general are victims of multiple deprivation, Muslim women are in double jeopardy-being women and being Muslim. As Sachar Committee has observed, a gender-based fear of the 'public' is experienced to some degree by all women, it is magnified manifold in the case of Muslim women. Too many Muslim women particularly in rural areas feel safe within the boundaries of their home and community. Many of them (particularly those who are low-income) are sometimes reluctant to participate in the process of 'modernity' and thus withdraw into the safety of familiar orthodoxies. Hopefully with the enrollment of Muslim girls in schools and with membership of self-help groups, they have shown keen interest in joining the process of mainstream development and coming out in public spaces and raising their voice. A large number of them are, however, still remaining invisible.
1.05 Muslim women in West Bengal, as in other parts of the country, are overwhelmingly self-employed and engaged in homework. Dairy, poultry, livestock raising, sewing, embroidery, 'Zari' work, 'chikan' work, ready-made garments, 'agarbati' rolling, 'beedi' rolling are some of the occupations in which Muslim women workers are concentrated. The work conditions are characterized by low income, low wages and inter-locked market. The restriction of mobility leads to seclusion of home-based work. With the exponential growth of SHGs in West Bengal, their participation in Government programmes like SGSY is increasing though it is not uniformly the same
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everywhere. The Muslim women still have restricted access to institutional credit though most of them are in self-employment.
1.06 Women in general are the torchbearers of the community and education of Muslim women ought to be the serious concern of the community. Sachar committee has observed that in about 1161 villages where the Muslim population in West Bengal is between 1000 and 2000, there is no primary school. The 'development deficit' has, to some extent, been made up by opening sishu sikhsa kendras. Yet the problems of school drop out and quality of education remain to be very acute amongst Muslim women. Empirical observations indicate there has been a change in the mindset amongst the Muslim women and all of them want their children to go to school. Deprivation in education entitlement is still very high as in Kerala, 84.8% of the children have completed secondary education as compared to 26% in West Bengal.
1.07 Generally, women's status in terms of health is characterized by inequality based on gender. Muslim women are no exceptions in West Bengal. Anaemia, urinary tract infections, malnutrition, repeated child births, adolescent marriage and overwork take a heavy toll on Muslim women's lives. Though disaggregated data are not available, health surveys indicate that 50% of Muslim children (0-71 months) are born underweight and 68.3% of them are anaemic. Anaemic conditions of Muslim women (15-44 years) are about 68%. All these deprivations lead to dismal state of gender development amongst the Muslim community in general and particularly Muslim women in West Bengal.
1.08 West Bengal's performance in land reforms has been highly lauded in academic discourse. Since the Muslim community is largely dependent on agriculture, it is presumed that they have been directly or indirectly benefited by land reforms particularly those who are landless or share croppers. Agricultural growth between 1981 and 1991 has also been high in West Bengal. There is reason to believe that the benefit of agricultural growth has percolated to the Muslim peasantry too.
1.09 Many scholars have observed that institutionalization of panchayats and land reforms are the major factors for agricultural growth and consequent poverty reduction in West Bengal. The members in all the three tiers of panchayats are directly elected and West Bengal has historical record of holding elections in regularity. Panchayats in West Bengal played an important role in land reforms and are entrusted with the responsibilities of implementing poverty alleviation programs.
The outcome of these developments ought to positively influence the economic and social status of Muslim community in general and Muslim women in particular. More so, one third of elected representatives are women. Of late, the policy of the State government is to strengthen the process of decentralization and several changes in law for strengthening grass-roots democracy and people-centered development have been done. Institutional changes and democratic processes of local governance should also influence Muslim women to participate in democratic decentralization and participatory development.
1.10 Formation of self-help groups (mostly women groups) is a significant process of women empowerment and the growth is found to be exponential in the current decade. Studies reveal that all these women groups are involved in micro-finance activities. The scope of social intermediation is high through these grass-roots level institutions of the poor women. Panchayats have helped in facilitating self-help groups under SGSY. The present policy of the State government is to organize gram
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unnyan samity (GUS) including the women and the poorer sections of the community to plan and implement micro-level interventions which should also influence the life and livelihood of Muslim women in the rural areas of West Bengal. This is in short, the context in which the study has been designed.
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2 Objectives, Methodology and Scope of Study
2.01 In the context of the decentralization and development initiatives in West Bengal, the following outcomes are expected:
a) The benefits of land reforms should have impacted the livelihood of Muslim women who are largely dependent on agrarian economy;
b) The Panchayati Raj Institutions which are democratically elected institutions and mandated to plan for and prepare schemes of economic development and social justice should be inclusive of poor Muslim women as partners in the process of participatory development;
c) Self-help groups of poor women which are exponentially growing in West Bengal should have influenced the poor Muslim women to be mobilized into self-help groups as their own self-managed and self-governed grass-roots level organizations.
In the pilot phase, the data generated in rural family survey (2006) from 21 GPs of Murshidabad, Nadia and Uttar Dinajpur districts where Muslim population was very high were tested and based on analysis of the data, the study design was framed. (Table 36.1 to Table 36.12)
2.02 The primary objective of the study is to find out the present socio-economic ststus of Muslim women in the selected districts and to capture the changes that are observed in their lives and livelihoods. The secondary objective of the study is to find out how the changes, if any, have been influenced by the process of democratic decentralization and developmental interventions of the local government institutions.
2.03 For the purpose of the study, multi-stage sampling design was followed:
a) In the first stage, two districts from the backward areas and two districts from the relatively developed areas were selected based on human development index of the Development and Planning Development, Government of West Bengal. The districts were selected by a second parameter which is the concentration of Muslim population.
b) In the second stage, two Blocks were selected for each district totaling eight Blocks strictly on the highest concentration of Muslim population.
c) In the third stage, four Gram Panchayats in each Block totaling thirty-two Gram Panchayats were selected strictly on the basis of Muslim concentration of population.
d) In the fourth stage, two gram sansads (basic constituency of a GP) from each GP totaling 32 gram sansads were selected on the basis of highest and lowest concentration of Muslim population.
e) In the fifth stage, proportionate number of households were randomly selected from three strata of Muslim population based on socio-economic status (low, medium, high) by SRSWOR method.
2.04 In the survey design, besides sample survey of households, the following instruments were used:
a) Interview of the elected women representatives of Gram Panchayat, school teachers, anganwadi workers, health workers, opinion leaders in the survey areas;
b) Focus group discussions with self-help groups currently functional in the survey areas;
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c) Collection of secondary information from the Gram Panchayats; d) Case studies from Muslim-dominated areas in the districts where good practices
are reported.
2.05 The field survey was undertaken in the following areas of selected districts:
Sl. No. District Blocks Gram
Panchayats Sansads Households
1. Murshidabad 2 8 16 295
2. Uttar Dinajpur 2 8 16 332
3. Howrah 2 8 16 200
4. Nadia 2 8 16 259
Total 8 32 64 1086
2.06 Research Questions:
The questionnaire of household survey, focus group discussions with SHGs, interviews with elected women representatives, school teachers, anganwadi workers etc. centred around the following issues;
a) Status of Muslim women and their households in terms of elementary education, health, employment, food security and other physical aspects of life and livelihood.
b) Participation of Muslim women in self-help groups and related activities leading to change in their socio-economic status.
c) Participation in the meetings of gram sansad and gram sabha and linkages with local government institutions.
d) Access to government programmes and services. e) Empowerment of Muslim women in controlling their lives and livelihood.
2.07 The study was undertaken by Nari-o-Sishu Kalyan Kendra, Howrah in association with Loka Kalyan Parishad which is a credible organization in West Bengal collaborating with the Panchayat and Rural Development Department, Government of West Bengals to strengthen the process of decentralization and democratic governance. It was guided by Dr. Manab Sen who had been a senior faculty member of the State Institute of Panchayats and Rural Development, Kalyani. The team of investigators were trained by and worked under Dr. Sen. A consultative group was formed to seek academic advice from experts in the field.
2.08 The present study is primarily empirical. It is based on observations of quite a large number of women in the setting of their daily life and living. Furthermore, the women were not purposively selected in order to obtain unbiased representation of the universe. It rather aims at drawing valid inferences about women's status from experiences of their daily life. The central query around which the study veers is that, in spite of persisting gender inequalities and strains, how the Muslim society and for that matter, the key units at the grass-roots, such as households and families, tend to cope. The study attempts to reflect the status of Muslim women from their point of view and not always on the vies of outsiders to her life and livelihood.
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2.09 Disaggregated data on the basis of religious groupings are not available either from the panchayats or from the line departments who do not always maintain village-level data on many programmes implemented by them. Moreover, because of limited functional, financial and functionary devolution in West Bengal, it will be unfair to ascribe the results to panchayats in each case of lapse or failure.
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3 Review of literature
3.01 Literature on Muslim women is as scarce as their visibility in public space. The Muslim women are largely confined in the precincts of 'choola, chadar and chardeewari'. India Human Development Report (1999) reflects inequality of percapita income and relative deprivation of Muslim community. Compared to women of other religions, Muslim women's participation in the workforce is much less. According to the Report of the Committee of Governors on the Welfare of Minorities submitted to the President of India (1977), Muslims are educationally backward and female illiteracy among minorities is even more dismal. It admits that the progress and well being of the Muslim community is closely linked up with the literacy of Muslim women. This initial disadvantage means that Muslims are unable to enter institutions of higher education. Muslim women, generally deprived of the opportunities of higher education, lose out in the employment opportunities. They also have least access to government provided health care services. The higher crude birth rate, according to the India Human Development Report, is a direct response to the high degree of insecurity faced by the poor Muslim women. The National Commission for Women too expressed concern on the slow rate of change in Muslim women compared to women of other socio-religious groups as also to women in other parts of the Islamic World.
3.02 Sachar Committee Report states that the problems faced by the Muslim community broadly relate to issues of identity, security and equity. Apparently, the social, cultural and public interactive spaces in India can be very daunting for Indian Muslims. Markers of Muslim identity- the 'burqua' and the 'purdah' make it difficult for them to get equal opportunities in the job market Muslim women complain of iniquitous treatment in the market, in hospitals, in schools and in accessing public facilities. Gender issues in the community are also given a Muslim slant. To the exclusion of all other aspects of a Muslim women's life (income, education, food security), the rules of marriage, right to divorce and maintenance have become the benchmarks of a gender-just existence.
3.03 As reported to Sachar Committee, education of the Muslim women is one of the most serious concerns of the Muslim community in India. Muslims, especially women have little access to government development schemes. The district pattern of Muslim women's employment in home-based work is due to vicious cycle of poverty, lack of education and technical skills leading to low-skilled, low-income work and back again to poverty. Muslim women have also insignificant access to formal credit market. The 'development deficit' in Muslim-dominated areas has had deleterious impact on the quality of life of Muslim women. The health of Muslim women is reported to be directly linked to poverty and the absence of basic services-leading to malnutrition, anaemia, a variety of diseases and poor life expectancy.
3.04 The nationwide survey undertaken by Zoya Hassan and Ritu Menon (2000-01) generated a national profile of Muslim women in all their heterogeneity. The major findings are, therefore, relevant in any study of Muslim women. These are:
a) At the all-India level, around 34 per cent of Muslims belong to low and lower
categories of socio-economic status according to the standard of living index based on ten variables used in the study;
b) Although there are variations in the status of Muslims across zones, the unmistakable fact is that they are generally poor and disadvantaged. They are at the bottom of the economic hierarchy.
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c) Muslims themselves are highly differentiated by standard of living as well as by status.
d) Close to 67 per cent of all Muslims are in socio-economic status categories of lower, lower middle and middle.
e) The extent of inequality varies significantly and the disparity between Muslims and Hindus was greater than among Muslims themselves.
f) The bulk of Muslims are absent from the wealth ranking occupations. They are mostly self-employed in low-paying, often semi-skilled works, which are unable to generate income that would significantly improve their standard of living.
g) Less than 17 percent Muslim women (ever enrolled in schools) completed eight years of schooling and 10 percent completed higher secondary, which is below the national average.
h) For all regions, children of low, lower middle and middle socio-economic categories overwhelmingly report financial constraints as the principal obstacle to continuing their studies.
i) A general devaluation of continuing education for girls is also linked to the desirability of early marriage for them, as indicated by the mean age at first marriage which is low at 15.6;
j) There is a linear progression across the age-scale of women in favour of girls being sent to co-ed schools as indicated by a gap of over 20 percentage points between the young and the old;
k) The three important reasons cited by respondents for high school drop-out rates are: financial constraints followed by family objections and marriage;
l) The rural work participation rate is only 20% for Muslim women and most of them are self-employed;
m) Where the level of poverty is high, simple survival need compels women to productive economic work and activity;
n) Most government schemes, which over the years have been made specific to target women beneficiaries, are not known and no benefit has accrued to them;
o) Overall, 89% of Muslim women voted in the elections but around 69% of them seem to be unaware of reservation of women in Panchayat elections. Only about 4% of women respondents reported to have participated in political campaign;
p) The incidence of divorce, desertion and separation is also very low (less than one percent) and remarriage (not more than 2%) amongst Muslim women contrary to popular belief;
q) Though the fact that joint decision making is slightly higher than unilateral decisions taken by husbands of Muslim women is a positive indicator but it does not necessarily follow that women are equal partners in decision-making;
r) A co-relation between education levels and mobility suggests a downward trend with higher education both with Muslim and Hindu women;
s) The cluster of four indices-marriages, mobility, decision-making and violence-developed in the study highlights the reality of women's lives lived in an environment of deprivation, exclusion/seclusion, economic dependence and overall violence in marital domestic arena.
3.05 The Sachar Committee has observed that the socio-economic status of Muslim in West Bengal is quite dismal (see tables in the annexure). West Bengal has a rich tradition of communal harmony as 'Popular Islam' has been distinct from orthodoxy. It has for long encouraged cultural intermixing. West Bengal's Muslim population is
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predominantly rural (83%) as a contrast to concentration of urban Muslim population in other parts of the country. The majority of Muslims depend on agriculture as their livelihood. Muslim population in West Bengal is heterogeneous and there are sharp class divisions in the community. Because of increasing landlessness and marginalization of land holdings, poverty amongst Muslims is also higher than Hindus in West Bengal. In the rural areas of West Bengal, the per capita monthly consumption expenditure of a Muslim family is Rs. 501 while it is Rs. 610 for a Hindu family. The literacy rate of Muslims is 57.5 percent while that of Hindus is 72.4%. Inverse relationship is seen in Karnataka, Maharastra, Andhra Pradesh, Gujrat, Madhya Pradesh, Tamilnadu and Chattisgarh. Only 12% of Muslim boys and girls passed secondary examination in West Bengal. The rate is lower in comparison to even Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Jharkhand. Out of 10 districts in West Bengal where Muslim population is more than 20% according to 2001 census (Birbhum, Dakshin Dinajpur, Howrah, Cooch Behar, Malda, Murshidabad, Nadia, Uttar 24 Parganas, Dakshin 24 Parganas and Uttar Dinajpur), 7 districts are lagging behind in the human development index. This is indicative of backwardness of Muslim community living in rural areas of West Bengal. The inequality in human development comes sharp when we compare HDI of West Bengal with HDI of Kerala which has also almost the same share of Muslim population.
3.06 It is recognized that the Muslim community is educationally backward in West Bengal though historically educational opportunities were equal and there is a general awareness amongst the Muslim community to send their children (including girls) to school. Sachar Committee has observed that there is no primary school in 1161 villages of West Bengal where the Muslim population is between 1000 and 2000. West Bengal Madrasa Board is one of the oldest Muslim educational institutions in the country. It is not yet been recognized as a minority educational institution. About 500 Madrasas are under control of the Board. There is also acute shortage of high and higher secondary schools. The shortage figures out to more than 5000 of which, about 4000 are needed in Muslim-dominated areas. Of the 507 Madrasas recognized by the Board, 75 are recognized as higher secondary schools – only-one of them has a science stream. Muslim children (more particularly girls) seem to be deprived of the school infrastructure enabling them to step up the ladder of higher education. The consequences are high rates of drop outs and overcrowding in the existing schools. Only one Muslim child gets opportunity of higher education out of 904 as against 205 for scheduled castes, 319 for scheduled tribe and 61 for others including Hindus. Those who can afford, send their children to private schools which are proliferating even in rural areas, In the 7th All India Education Survey – 2002 (published in the annual report of Department of School Education – 2005-06), it is found that out of 24.07% of Muslim girls enrolled in the primary school, less than a half (11.84%) are in class IX-X and only 7.40% are in class XI-XII. It is evident that Muslim girls are deprived of high education though they are keenly interested to pursue higher studies.
3.07 The indicators of reproductive child health reveal that deprivation is higher in case of Muslim community in West Bengal as follows:
a) As against 43% of Hindu children (0-71 months) who are underweight, 50% of Muslim children are underweight;
b) 68.6% of Muslim children are anaemic as against 66.8% of Hindu children; c) 68.6% of Muslim pregnant women suffer from anaemia against 66.4% of Hindu
women; Secondary data also reveal that in about 3000 Muslim majority villages of West Bengal, there is no health centre. In Muslim villages, 80% of deliveries are non-
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institutional or without help of a trained midwife. Yet, TFR of Muslim women is less than 3 contrast to popular belief. It is also interesting to find that except Uttar 24 Parganas and Howrah, sex ratio is higher than average in all the districts where Muslim population is more than 20 percent. It is indicative that girl-child is not unwanted or uncared for in a Muslim family. The health of Muslim women is directly linked to poverty and the absence of basic services. Apart from malnutrition and anemia, Muslim women are also victims of occupational health hazards ('bidi' workers for example where incidence of TB is high) and unhygienic conditions of work.
3.08 The distinct pattern of Muslim women's employment in West Bengal is home-based due to discrimination in formal employment. Poor Muslim women in rural areas of West Bengal are also engaged in agriculture and allied activities like dairy, poultry and agro-processing. Muslim women are mostly self-employed. They are engaged in sewing, embroidery, 'zari' work, 'chikan' work, ready-made garments etc. Their work conditions are characterized by low income, poor work environment, absence of toilet and other facilities and lack of social security benefits like health insurance. They have no bargaining power and often subjected to exploitation of middlemen. They do not have independent access to credit facilities, opportunities for skill upgradation or access to markets. The poor women feel helpless and insecured when the male members of the family migrate in search of employment outside. Outmigration of Muslim adult male members is increasing in backward districts. Poor Muslim women do not get equal wages when they are employed in agriculture. Field research in Murshidabad district (2005-06) indicates that 70% of the families in the rural areas of Murshidabad district have at least one male adult member migrating out in search of wage employment. The migrant male workers work hard for long hours under trying conditions. Their earnings are low, they are subjected to health risks and often duped by agents. This burden ultimately falls on Muslim women, which is an additional jeopardy to them.
3.09 In political participation, the Muslims do not have proportionate representation. West Bengal has elected 15 MPs to Rajya Sabha of which two are Muslims (13.33%) Out of 42 MPs directly elected to Loka Sabha, there are 5 Muslim MPs (11.9%). Out of 294 MLAs in the West Bengal Legislative Assembly, 44 are Muslims (15%). In Kolkata Municipal Corporation, out of 141 councilors, 17 are Muslims (15%). In the PRIs too, there is no proportionate representation of Muslims. Distribution of EWRS to PRIs in West Bengal is skewed – more in GP and ZP. There seems to be a lack pf political will in giving political space to Muslims in general and Muslim women in particular.
3.10 Muslims, especially women, have virtually no access to government development schemes. Many of them have reported maltreatment at the hands of the officials. In the context of increasing ghettoisation, the absence of social services (health, schooling, ration) impacts women the most because they are reluctant to venture beyond the confines of their safe neighborhoods. Muslim women have almost no presence in decision-making positions from gram panchayats to the parliament. They even fail to find a place in minority welfare institutions set up by the government.
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4 Social and Economic Conditions of Muslims in Study Area
4.01 The distinctive features of Muslim population in West Bengal are: (see Tables 40 and 43)
a) 83% of Muslims live in rural areas of West Bengal and are largely dependent on agriculture as the principal livelihood
b) The social and economic problems faced by the poor are strongly related to poverty as the majority of them are poor and marginalized.
c) Internal differentiation amongst Muslims is explicitly recognized and the conditions of the poorest section are pitiable.
d) Gender injustice is visible from gender gap in literacy, employment and access to basic health services (See Table 37)
e) Murshidabad and Malda – the two districts having significantly large population of Muslims (63.67% and 49.72% respectively according to 2001 (census) are identified to be backward and rank very low in terms of Human Development Index as well as Gender Development Index (See Table 37)
f) The positive features of human development aspects are: i) Sex ratios are higher than the average in all the districts where the Muslims have
a significantly high population except Howrah (this has been observed by Sachar Committee too)
ii) Female illiteracy rates are getting proportionately reduced (See Table 42) iii) Decadal TFR is falling though more in relatively developed districts like Howrah
and Nadia iv) Gross enrolment of girl-children in schools is higher than that of boys (Table 42)
4.02 Analysis of household data of the eight Blocks (Tables 24-35) where the Muslim population is highest indicates that:
a) Landlessness amongst the Muslim households is very high except Islampur and Goalpokhor I which are transferred territory from the erstwhile Bihar. This is directly co-related to conditions of poverty amongst the Muslim peasantry (Table 24)
b) The conditions of housing of Muslim families living in the eight Blocks studied indicate that except Uluberia I and Panchla Blocks of Howrah District which are extensions of industrial area, more or less 50% of the Muslim families live in kutcha house with one living room (Table 25)
c) In terms of clothing, the conditions of Muslim families in Karimpur II and Chapra Blocks of Nadia district which are relatively developed in terms of HDI are appalling as more than 50% of the families do not have winter cloth to protect then against cold. These are border areas with Bangladesh and many families have been affected by the erosion of the Padma river (a tributary of the Ganges) (Table 26)
d) In spite of high cropping intensity, food insecurity does exist in large number of Muslim families (3272 in Karimpur II Block, 2499 in Chapra Block, 3822 in Domkal Block and 4308 in Goalpokhor I Block) (Table 27)
e) Analysis of households by possession of consumer durables indicates that except in Panchla Block which are extensions of industrial area, about 40% of the Muslim households do not have a consumer durable of a value more then Rs. 2000. This is indicative of their extremely low purchasing capacity. (Table 28)
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f) Analysis of households by the literacy status of the highest literate in the family indicates that drop out rates are high and this seems to go up significantly after middle school. This contributes to large deficits in higher education. Now that school enrolment rates amongst Muslims in general and Muslim girls in particular, are fast increasing, education ought to be the key concern of the community. (Table 32)
g) Analysis of households by family-based workers indicates that families without
any regular earner vary between 0.75% in Panchla Block (Howrah) and 10.20% in Goalpokhar I Block (Uttar Dinajpur). The proportionate share is high in Karimpur II (Nadia) (9.31%), Chapra (Nadia) (10.04%) and Goalpokhor I Block (Uttar Dinajpur) (10.20%) This indicates that incidence of families without any regular earner is high irrespective of the scale of general human development in the district. A significantly large number of families in Goalpokhor I Block depend on women and child labour. (Table 30)
h) Analysis of households by status of employment (Tables 31) indicates that: i) In Karimpur II, Chapra, Bhagawangola II, Domkal, Goalpokhor I and Uluberia I
Blocks, majority of the Muslim households depend on wage employment in agriculture (52.68% to 66.49%) followed by self-employment in agriculture (12.30% to 32.99%). In Panchla Block of Howrah, 43.23% of the households are self-employed artisans. (Table 31)
ii) In Uluberia I and Panchla Blocks of Howrah district, many of the Muslim women are employed as artisans (home-based workers) in unorganized sector
iii) Analysis of households by literacy status of 9-14 children indicates that the number of children (9-14) never going to school are staggering – Karimpur II (29.02%), Chapra (30.17%), Bhagawangola II (22.50%), Goalpokhor I (36.07%) and Islampur (30.40%). Drop-out rates are also high in these blocks. The drop-out rates are low in Panchla Block (17.57%), Panchla Block is extension of industrials areas. It is observed that most of the school drop-outs are either working outside or supporting the family in home-based work. (Table 32)
iv) Analysis of households by nature of household debt (See Table 33) indicates that their access to institutional debt is very low (ranging between 2.04% in Panchla
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Block and 8.11% I Goalpokhor I Block). The major sources of household debt are friends and relatives. A small share of credit needs (between 1.03% in Panchla Block and 7.29% in Karimpur II Block) is met by self-help groups or micro-finance institutions
j) Analysis of households by outmigration indicates that outmigration for casual or seasonal employment is very high in Karimpur II Block (55.49%), Chapra Block (64.5%), Domkal (51.76%), Bhagawangola (54.73%), Goalpokhor I (48.99%), Islampur (36.85%), Uluberia I (41.90%) and Panchla (24.48%). Outmigration is a direct outcome of unemployment. It is low in Panchla Block which is an extension of industrial area and Islampur Block which is close to Siliguri, growing town in North Bengal. Migration is a real life phenomenon with all its ramifications on the life, livelihood and security of women who are generally left behind. (Table 34)
k) Special disability causes more vulnerability to the poor especially women and can even cause contingent poverty. Families having a member with physical disability amongst the eight Blocks studied varies between 1.41% in Panchla Block and 7.34% in Karimpur. Families of old destitutes vary between 1.02% in Panchla Block and 4.13% in Domkal Block. Women headed households who are in double jeopardy vary between 0.89% in Panchla Block and 2.77% in Bhagawangola II Block. Chronic illness in the family adds vulnerability to the poor especially women. Families having chronic illness varies between 1.70% in Islampur Block and 10.50% in Chapra Block. All these families can not cope with such vulnerabilities without social assistance and the poor suffer the most (Table 35)
4.03 GP – Level Analysis of household data where Muslim population is 80% or more in the pipeline indicates (See Table 36.1 to Table 36.12).
a) Landlessness is very high (60% or more) in 13 out of 21 GPs studied in the first phase. In Chapra II, Mahatpur (Chapra Block), Dhulauri (Domkal Block), landlessness is found to be associated with more than 80% of the families. (Table 36.1)
b) In 13 out of 21 GPs studied, 50% or more Muslim families are living in Kutcha house with one living room. In Madhurkul GP (Domkal Block), 21% of the families are houseless. (Table 36.2)
c) In 13 out of 21 GPs studied, 50% or more families are not having adequate winter clothing. The condition is pitiable in Mahatpur GP (Chapra Block), Hridaypur GP (Chapra Block) and Saralpur GP (Bhagawangola II Block).
d) In one-thirds of 21 GPs studied, food insecurity is moderate to severe.
e) In one-third of 21 GPs studied, more than 50% of the families do not have any consumer durable of Rs. 2000/- in value.
f) In the 21 GPs studied, distribution of Muslim families by literacy status of the highest literate indicates that development deficit in higher level of education is significantly large. There is no post-graduate in eight out of twenty-one GPs studied.
g) Except in nine out of 21 GPs studied, 10% or more families are either having no regular earner or having only women and child labour. The proportion is very high in Mahua GP (Goalpokhor I Block), Ramajganj 2 GP (Islampur Block), Brittihuda GP (Chapra Block), Dhula GP (Domkal Block), and Saralpur GP (Bhagwangola II GP).
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h) In ten out of 21 GPs studied, the proportion of Muslim families dependent on daily wage employment in agriculture is more than 60%. In Hridaypur (Chapra Block), Mahatpur GP (Chapra Block), and Dhuauri (Domkal Block), the proportion is 80% or more.
i) Within the age group of 9-14 children more than 40% have never gone to school in six of 21 GPs studied. The ratio is starkingly high in Brittihuda GP (Chapra Block), Mahatpur GP (Chapra Block) and Dhulauri Block (62%).
j) In 12 out of 21 GPs studied, access to institutional credit is highly restrictive (not exceeding 4%). Access is insignificant (not exceeding 2%) in all 4 GPs (Amdahara, Kharibona, Nasipur and Saralpur of Bhagwangola II block).
k) Out migration in search of casual employment is found to be very high in 12 GPs studied. 85% of Muslim families in Saralpur GP (Bhagawangola II Block) and 69% in Dhulauri GP (Domkal Block) have one or more members as out migrants in search of casual employment.
l) Special disability makes poor families vulnerable. In one-third of 21 GPs studied, around 10% or more of the families are found to be vulnerable because of special disability. The situation is worrisome in Chapra II (Chapra Block).
To sum up, analysis of household data of the eight Blocks and 21 GPs studied reveals very high rates of landlessness, poor housing conditions, food insecurity, high drop-out rates, high rates of female illiteracy, high rates of self-employment or wage-employment, near-absence of access to institutional credit, high rates of out migration and special cases of disability Score-based ranking of these families in the eight Blocks studied indicates very high rates of poverty (50% to 60%) interims of capability, of which almost half (25%to 30%) are extremely poor. The incidence of poverty is higher in Blocks with significantly higher share of Muslim population. Women in the poor Muslim households are worst sufferers being torch bearers of the community but victims of multiple deprivations.
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5 Muslim Women in Study Areas
5.01 Field studies of 295 selected Muslim households in Murshidabad district (see Table 110 - 142) indicate that:
a) The incidence of ‘Talaq’ is minimal contrary to popular belief. A very insignificant percentage of women are either left behind by their husbands (1%) or remarried (2%).
b) In almost all the families, there are as many male children as are female children indicating that girl child is not discriminated in Muslim families.
5.02 Only 10% of Muslim women studied have passed Madhyamik (class X) examination and only 2% of women have studied beyond class X. This indicates that there is large gap in Muslim girls completing high school level education. Even in the families studied, only 16% of family members (including males) have completed high school level education.
5.03 About 38% of Muslim women do not have assets and only 23% of them have some land.
5.04 The occupational distribution of Muslim women studied indicates that 51% of them are unemployed and 40% are engaged in rearing livestock to supplement income. Only 5% of Muslim women are employed in household industry. The status of unemployment of Muslim women is a concern as it is positively linked to their economic development.
5.05 Analysis of occupational distribution of the members of Muslim households indicates that agriculture is the principal means of livelihood (65%) followed by livestock husbandry (39%), small business (19%) and households industry (9%). Thus, all the families studied are working in the unorganized sector and they depend on traditional livelihood options.
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5.06 40% of Muslim women interviewed have reported to be earning income up to Rs. 500 P.M. None of them is able to earn more than Rs. 2000 P.M. 50% women have no income.
5.07 51% of the Muslim families are having monthly income of Rs. 2000 or less and could be reckoned as poor from income point view. Based on income, 34% of them could be classified as middle class. Only 3% of the families studied are having monthly income of more than Rs. 10,000. Inequity amongst income classes is very high. Income distribution of the Muslim families is highly skewed – the bottom of the pyramid is quite large.
5.08 Analysis of Muslim households by status of food security indicates that 76% of the families studied are reported to be secured of two square meals every day but only 40% of them can afford to take protein food regularly. The survey indicates that about 30% of the families suffer from nutritional deficiency.
5.09 Analysis of women respondents by access to public health services indicates that:
(a) Only 22% of mothers had access to institutional delivery of a child and only 41% of mothers did access pre-natal health examination by the public health personnel. 69% of the mothers did receive anti-tetanus injection and 42% of the women studied got iron tablets from the health centre. Only 27% of the mothers were provided with supplementary food in pre-natal and post-natal period. 56% of the Muslim women did not practice any family planning method. One-third of Muslim women studied have adopted family planning measures.
(b) The survey indicates that children of only 32% Muslim women in villages studied had full immunization coverage, 33% partial coverage and 15% had no immunization.
(c) It is interesting to find that 86% of the Muslim women visited the health centre or the hospital though 63% of Muslim women consulted unqualified rural medical practitioner for common illness. Yet, almost 70% of them feel that there has been an increase in public health care facilities and a qualified doctor is available now.
(d) 98% of the women have reported tubewell as the source of drinking water but 49% of them did have a sanitary toilet. Drainage facility exists in 22% of the houses but only 5% of the houses are provided with a smokeless chullah.
Overall, the survey indicates that there is a growing awareness of Muslim women about public health care services but early marriage (80% of the Muslim women studied were married before 18 years of age), has its toll on health of Muslim women and their children.
5.10 26% of Muslim women studied have joined self-help group but their participation in public committees is still low- gram unnyan samity (5%), anganwadi centre (7%), mother-teacher committee (3%), 15% of the women joining self-help group could access credit and 66% of them had reported increase in income. The members have expressed various needs such as assistance of GP (88%), training (88%) bank assistance (90%) and marketing assistance (72%).
5.11 Awareness level of Muslim women about government programmes and services varies between high to very low – Indira Awas Yojana (47%), NREGA (80%),Janani Suraksha Yojana (54%), Widow Pension (42%), SGSY (75%), Balika Samriddi Yojana (9%). Those who are at the bottom of the pyramid (14%) are completely ignorant of government programmes and services.
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Analysis of Muslim women by their entitlement to public services indicates moderate to high access – 94% have ration cards, 95% voter identity card, 65% job card and 26% BPL card.
5.12 Response of Muslim women by their association with elected panchayat representatives indicates that about half of the elected representatives are responsive while the other half are either indifferent or helpless. Only about one-fourth of village-level government employees are empathetic and helpful but the rest are either not known or not visible to Muslim women. More than half of the women studied know that the panchayat’s activities include supply of drinking water and construction of roads.
5.13 The survey indicates moderate awareness of Muslim women about ‘sariat’ and laws of the country concerning women – 48% reporting knowledge of ‘sariat’ and 45% reporting knowledge of laws of marriage registration and 38% reporting knowledge about right to property of Muslim women, 47% about ‘talaq’, 45% about maintenance and 45% about domestic violence.
5.14 Field studies of 259 selected Muslim households in Nadia district (see Table 44 - 76) indicate that:
a) None of the women studied has been subjected to ‘talaq’ contrary to popular belief about Muslim identity.
b) There is a small gap between the number of male and female children in the families studied but the differential gets reduced in terms of adult membership.
5.15 16% of the Muslim women in the families studied have completed levels of high education and 13% of them have completed higher education. The educational status of Muslim women in Nadia district is comparable to their counterparts in the village community. Their deprivation of educational entitlements is minimal in Nadia district. It may be worthwhile to mention that Nadia ranks very high in the HDI compared to other districts. Over the years, the educational status of Muslim women in Nadia district is showing an increasing trend.
5.16 61% of Muslim women do not have any asset other than their own savings (34%). Only 7% of Muslim women have land and 2% of then have a house of their own.
5.17 The occupational distribution of Muslim women indicates that 71% of them are unemployed and 20% of them rear livestock to supplement income. Only 3% of Muslim women studied are employed in household industry and 2% are employed in agriculture and small business respectively. In spite of higher educational status, only 1% of women studied are in service.
5.18 Analysis of occupational distribution of the members of Muslim households indicates that agriculture is the principal means of livelihood (76%) followed by livestock rearing (24%) and small business (2%) This is indicative of little diversification in rural economy. The survey also indicates that the scope of employment is getting gradually reduced.
5.19 Distribution of Muslim women households by the range of monthly family income indicates that 64% of the households are having monthly income of Rs. 2000 or less. Only 29% of the families have monthly income upto Rs. 5000. Income distribution of Muslim families is highly skewed and income poverty is found to be very high. 27% of Muslim women studied contributed not more than Rs. 500 to the family income.
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5.20 Analysis of Muslim households by status of food security indicates that 90% of the families can secure two square meals but 47% of them can take protein food regularly. It is worthwhile to mention that Nadia has very high cropping intensity and agriculture is relatively developed.
5.21 Analysis of Muslim households by access to public health services indicates that.
(i) Only 25% of Muslim women reported institutional delivery indicating that home delivery is very high (75%). The survey indicates that facilities of institutional delivery are still not quite developed.
(ii) The pre-natal and post-natal services are also inadequate – 42% of women have had health examination, 50% of women got tetanus injection and 44% iron tablets from the public health care system. Only 14% of women interviewed reported to have received supplementary food during pregnancy.
(iii) The survey indicates that children of only 44% Muslim women in villages studied had full immunization coverage, 19% partial coverage and 14% had no immunization.
(iv) It is interesting to find that 75% of Muslim women had visited hospital and 52% had gone to the health centre. While 58% of Muslim women could consult a qualified doctor, 66% of Muslim women had to consult unqualified rural medical practioner for common illness. Access to public health services and qualified doctors is higher in Nadia and over 60% of Muslim women feel that the outreach of public health services has increased.
(v) 98% of Muslim women interviewed have reported tubewell as the source of drinking water and 61% of them have reported having a sanitary toilet in their house. Drainage facility exists in 21% of the houses but only 5% of the houses have smokeless chullah.
Overall, the survey indicates that there is a growing awareness of Muslim women about public health services but their access is still limited. It ought to be a major concern that 87% of Muslim women are married before completing 18 years of age. The health situation of Muslim women is, to some extent, better than that of Muslim women in other district. This explains why Nadia is high in human development index.
5.22 72% of Muslim women interviewed have joined self-help group and they have savings upto Rs. 1000 in the group. 28% of women in self-help groups have access to credit facilities upto Rs. 1000 from the group. 70% of Muslim women interviewed have reported marginal increase in income after joining self-help group. The participation of Muslim women is still very low- 4% of them associated with gram unnayan samity, 3% with anganwadi centre, and 2% with mother-teacher committee. About 28% of Muslim women feel that the GP should help them in training, bank assistance and marketing.
5.23 Analysis of Muslim women by their entitlement to public services indicates very high access – 93% have ration cards, 98% voter identity cards, 85% job card and 48% BPL card.
5.24 Analysis of Muslim women by their awareness about government programmes indicates moderate to high level of awareness – Indira Awas Yojana (55%), NREGA (90%), Janani Suraksha Yojana (59%), Widow Pension (27%), SGSY (74%) and Balika Samriddhi Yojana (14%). Yet, 28% of Muslim women have reported total ignorance about government programmes and services. They are at the bottom of the pyramid.
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5.25 Response analysis of Muslim women by their association with elected panchayat representatives indicates that 65% of the elected representatives are responsive to the needs of Muslim women – the rest are indifferent or helpless. 33% of the gram panchayat level government employees are empathetic. Overall, the response of the elected representatives and the local government functionaries seems to be positive to the needs of Muslim women. More than half of the Muslim women interviewed feel that the panchayats have the responsibility of providing drinking water (61%) and maintaining roads (69%).
5.26 Analysis of Muslim women by their awareness about ‘sariat’ and other laws of the country concerning women indicates moderate to high level of awareness, sariat (46%), marriage registration (41%), domestic violence (23%), maintenance (33%) and right to property (44%).
5.27 Field studies of 332 selected Muslim households in Uttar Dinajpur district (see Tables 143 - 175) indicate that:
a) Only 1% of Muslim women interviewed have been subjected to ‘talaq’ contrary to popular belief.
b) None of them is found separated, left behind or remarried. c) Distribution of children in the families studied indicates that girl child is not
discriminated as their ratio is higher.
5.28 While 86% of Muslim women interviewed are literate, only 2% of them have completed secondary level of education (8% up to primary and 4% upto upper primary). The educational status of Muslim women remains to be at a very low level and drop-out rates are very high. In the families studied, increasing trends of school enrolment are observed but comparatively lower increase in higher level of school education.
5.29 Distribution of Muslim women interviewed indicate that while 18% of them have some savings only; 5% have some land of their own.
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5.30 The rate of unemployment amongst Muslim women has been found to be very high (80%). Only livestock rearing (11%) is done by them to supplement family income.
5.31 68% of Muslim households are engaged in agriculture which is the principal means of livelihood followed by livestock rearing (9%), household industry (6%), small business (6%) and services (5%). There has been very little change in employment status in the last decade.
5.32 Only 17% of Muslim women studied have reported contribution upto Rs. 500 per month to family income.
5.33 Income distribution of Muslim families studied indicates highly skewed pattern, only 5% families earn Rs. 5000/- and more whereas 46% families are upto Rs. 2000 p.m. There is strong empirical evidence to show that between 46% and 50% of Muslim families in North Dinajpur district are living below poverty line. While 32% of the families reported increase of monthly income by Rs. 500, almost equal number (32%) have reported no increase in monthly income.
5.34 In terms of food security, while 78% of the respondents have reported to be able to secure two square meals daily, only one-third of the families could afford to eat protein.
5.35 The health status of Muslim women studied indicates that:
a) 88% of deliveries are at home and 23% of deliveries are done by trained ‘dais’ b) 54% of the families have not adopted any family planning measure c) Though 62% of Muslim women had visited hospital and 35% a health centre,
68% would consult an unqualified rural medical practioner for common illness
Access to public health services during pregnancy is very low – 29% of Muslim women got their health examined, 36% got anti-tetanus injection and 24% got iron tablets. Only 5% of Muslim women could get supplementary food during pregnancy. The survey indicates that children of only 25% of Muslim women in villages studied had full immunization coverage and 20% partial coverage. Surprisingly, 57% of the Muslim women interviewed feel that there has been an increase in facilities and services now. 97% of the families use tubewell water for drinking but 11% have sanitary toilets.
5.36 Analysis of Muslim women by their social association indicates that 17% of them have joined self-help group but their association with other public bodies is very low- gram unnayan samity (3%), anganwadi centre (2%) and mother-teacher committee (2%). 84% of women in self-help groups have reported savings upto Rs. 1000 in the groups while 22% could access credit facilities upto Rs. 1000/-. Training, bank credit and marketing assistance are considered to be felt needs 46% of the Muslim women have heard of gram sabha but their participation is insignificant.
Health and sanitation in Uttar Dinajpur District
North Dinajpur has very poor access in sanitary and drainage facilities.
District wise distribution of Muslim families shows rare use of smokeless chulla.
Percentage of child birth at home in Uttar Dinajpur is very high.
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5.37 Distribution of Muslim women by awareness of government programmes indicates moderate to high level of awareness – Indira Awas Yojana (46%), NREGA (89%), Janani Suraksha Yojana (54%), Widow Pension (33%), SGSY (66%), Balika Samriddhi Yojana (11%).
5.38 Analysis of Muslim women by their entitlement to public services by possession of cards indicates high level of access – ration card (91%), voter identity card (95%), Job card (75%) and BPL card (57%).
5.39 Analysis of responses of Muslim women by their perception of the elected panchayat representative indicates that 65% of them have found their panchayat representative to be attentive and 71% of local government employees to be empathetic.
5.40 Analysis of Muslim women by their legal awareness indicates moderate to high level of awareness – ‘sariat’ (54%), marriage registration (50%), domestic violence (43%), ‘talaq’ (68%), maintenance (36%), right to property (35%), Yet, 85% of Muslim girls are married below 18 years of age.
5.41 Response analysis of Muslim women by activities of GP indicate that the major activities of GP as perceived by them ae provision of drinking water (58%), construction of roads (43%), electricity (40%) and drainage (6%).
5.42 Field studies of 200 selected Muslim holds in Howrah district (see Tables 77 - 109) indicate that:
a) None of the Muslim women interviewed has been subjected to talaq though one is remarried. 13% of women interviewed are widows.
b) In the age group of 0-5, female children are found to be almost equal.
5.43 Analysis of educational status of Muslim children indicates a triangular distribution-literate (47%), up to primary (20%), secondary (27%) and 7% continued higher education. The decadal trend indicates growing trends of Muslim children continuing higher studies. Howrah has a high HDI in West Bengal.
5.44 Analysis of Muslim women by their asset-holding indicates that 65% of Muslim women studied have no asset while 24% have their own savings. 7% of women interviewed have some land of their own and 4% have a house in their own name.
5.45 Analysis of Muslim women by employment indicates that 15% are engaged in Household Industry most of them in are involved in Jari (embroidery). It may be worthwhile to mention that a large number of Muslim women are engaged in embroidery work in Howrah district. Agriculture is not the principal occupation in the study area. Only 4% of the Muslim women studied rear livestock to supplement family income. Occupational distribution of Muslim families studied indicate that 57% of the families studied are engaged in household industry while 13% are employed in agriculture. There has not been any perceptible change in the status of employment in the past decade amongst Muslim households.
5.46 In the study area of Howrah district 11% of Muslim women contribute up to Rs. 500 p.m., 6% contribute more than Rs. 500/-, only 5% women contribute Rs. 2000/- or more. As embroidery work is a major activity of Muslim women, a large number of them could contribute to family income. While 50% of Muslim households studied did not report any increase in family income. 26% of others reported increase of Rs. 500 p.m., 18% upto Rs. 1000 p.m, 4% upto Rs. 2000 p.m and 3% by more than Rs. 2000 p.m.
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5.47 In terms of food security, 92% of Muslim women reported to be secured of two square meals daily though 50% of the families could get protein in their daily diet.
5.48 Analysis of Muslim women by access to public health services indicates that:
a) 64% of deliveries take place at home of which 31% with the help of a trained ‘Dai’. b) It is interesting to find that 65% of Muslim women visited a hospital, 43% a health
centre, 95% consulted qualified doctor, Yet, 79% of them reported that they did generally fall back upon unqualified medical practitioners for common illness.
c) Access to public health services seems to be limited – 26% of them reported to have health examination done thrice during pregnancy, 65% got anti-tetanus injection, 27% got iron tablets. Only 22% of them got some supplementary food during pregnancy.
d) The survey indicate that the children of only 27% Muslim Women in villages studied had full immunization coverage, 10% partial and 14% none.
e) Response analysis of Muslim women indicates that most of them are aware of increase in public health services and qualified doctors. Yet, the access is rather limited. No perceptible change in social awareness is observed as 84% of Muslim girls are married before 18 years of age.
f) There has, however, been perceptible change in awareness of personal health are hygiene – 99% use tubewell water for drinking and 74% of the families have sanitary toilets.
5.49 Distribution of Muslim women by their social association indicates that only around 8% of them have joined self-help group, 4% in gram unnyan samity and 3% in anganwadi centre.
5.50 Response analysis of Muslim women by awareness about government programmes and services indicates low to moderate level of awareness – Indira Awas Yojana (65%), Janani Suraksha Yojana(51%), Widow Pension (50%), NREGA (25%) [Not yet operational], SGSY (90%), Balika Samriddhi Yojana (8%), gram sabha (23%).
5.51 Analysis of Muslim families by entitlement to public services through possession of cards indicates high rate of coverage – ration card (92%), voter identity card (92%), BPL card (32%).
5.52 Response analysis of Muslim women by their opinion about the elected panchayat representative and the local government employees indicates that 57% of Muslim women interviewed consider their elected representative to be attentive while only 14% of local government employees are found to be empathetic.
5.53 Response analysis of Muslim women by their legal awareness indicates moderate to high level of awareness – sariat (52%), marriage registration (56%), domestic violence (47%), ‘talaq’ (40%), maintenance (28%), right to property (34%).
5.54 Response analysis of Muslim women by their awareness of GP activities indicates that GPs according to their opinion are responsible for roads, drinking water and electricity (78% - 81%).
5.55 The major findings of 1086 households studied in Howrah, Nadia, Murshidabad and Uttar Dinajpur districts indicates that:
a) Incidence of ‘talaq’ or remarriage is insignificant in all the districts studied contrary to popular belief.
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b) In Muslim families, the girl child is not discriminated as their proportionate share in the age group of 0-5 children is fair, equal and sometimes higher.
c) Through there is growing interest observed in Muslim women about education of their children, the share of children completing higher level of education is still very low varying between 2% in Uttar Dinajpur district and 27% in Howrah district. Only in Howrah district whisch is an extension of urban agglomeration, 23% of Muslim children completed elementary education and 7% of the children could pursue higher education. The development deficit in higher education of Muslim women has been observed.
d) Inspite of the perceptions of Muslim women that public health care services are
available, their access to the services is extremely limited.e.g. (a) Institutional deliveries vary between 16% in Uttar Dinajpur district and 25% in Nadia district (b) Health examination thrice during pregnancy has been found to be varying between 26% in Howrah district and 42% in Nadia district (c) full immunisation coverage of 0-6 yrs. children of Muslim women in study area are found to be varying between 25% in Uttar Dinajpur district and 44% in Nadia district.
The survey indicates a pressing need for public health care services to reach out to Muslim women for equitable gender development.
e) Income distribution in the Muslim families studied shows a highly skewed pattern with a large concentration at the bottom level – families with monthly income upto Rs. 2000 per month varying between 46% in Uttar Dinajpur and 64% in Nadia. This indicates that around 50% of the Muslim families are below income poverty line. The poverty conditions of Muslim families are very acute in the lowest stratum. Women who are worst victims of poverty contribute to about one –fourth of family income varying between 17% in Uttar Dinajpur district to 51% in Murshidabad district.
f) The occupational distribution of Muslim families studied indicates that except in Howrah district, the principal means of livelihood of Muslim families are agriculture varying between 65% in Murshidabad district and 76% in Nadia district. In Howrah district, 57% of the Muslim families are self-employed in
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household industry as there is a large concentration of embroidery workers in the study area. In other districts, between 24% in Uttar Dinajpur district and 19% in Murshidabad district are self-employed as ‘bidi’ (country cigar) workers. Between 7% of families in Howrah district and 19% in Murshidabad district are self-employed in small business and providing low-scale services. Most of the Muslim families are self-employed in the unorganized sector with no social security cover. Muslim women in middle and upper middle classes are mostly unemployed varying between 51% in Murshidabad district and 75% in Howrah district. Muslim women of the poor families are either rearing livestock to supplement family income or self-employed in tailoring, embroidery and ‘bidi’ making.
g) In terms of food security, 24% of Muslim women in Murshidabad district have
reported food insecurity in lean seasons or during natural calamities but between 33% of Muslim families in Uttar Dinajpur district and 50% in Howrah district can afford to secure protein in their daily food.
h) About one fourth of Muslim women interviewed have joined self-help group but their access to micro-credit is limited within a range of Rs. 1000. Thus, joining a self-help group has enabled them to increase their income marginally mostly within Rs. 500 per month. Their association with other village-level institutions like gram unnyan samity, village education committee or anganwadi centre is insignificant (between 2% and 3%). Women joining self-help groups have expressed needs for training, bank credit and marketing assistance from GP.
i) Response analysis of Muslim women interviewed indicates that between 48% in Murshidabad district and 65% in Uttar Dinajpur district feel that the elected panchayat representatives are attentive to them. About local government employees, the positive response varies between 14% in Howrah district and 71% in Uttar Dinajpur district.
j) The study indicates moderate awareness amongst Muslim women about government programmes and services but their access continues to remain largely restrictive. In terms of their entitlements, Muslim families do not seem to be deprived as more than 90% of the families have ration cards and voter identity
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cards, In terms of personal health and hygine, Muslim women are mostly using tubewell water for drinking and the sanitation coverage has significantly increased in the last five years.
The findings of households survey indicate that the Muslim women urgently need
public interventions in retaining girls in schools, reaching out public health services to Muslim families, social mobilization for formation of self-help groups, increasing opportunities for self-employment and increased provisions for social security.
Case Study of Haji Jahanara Begam
I am Jahanara Begam, wife of an agricultural labourer. I live in a village Shirampur, Dist. Nadia. 8-9 years ago it was very hard for me to maintain family expenses only with my husband’s income. At that moment I heard about Self-Help Group who are thinking about the development of our village. I thought it is very good for me to join because I also could be benefited if my village did progress. I talked to Banidi and she advised me to form a group. Secretly, I started talking to girls and women. They were asking many questions to me. I contacted all women members and decided to sit together with Banidi in my house. First we started savings with Rs. 2 per head and saved Rs. 150. Within this time one member got sick and she took a loan of Rs. 100 from the group. She repaid the money within 3 months. This encouraged other women to form group to benefit themselves. Many members started different small business like home gardening, small poultry farm etc. Even some of them took loan for personal purposes, although everybody repaid their loan in time. We, as a group took loan of Rs. 16,000/- from a Nationalised Bank, in the mean time we had mobilised savings of Rs. 8000/-. We repaid the loan within 10 months although we had 1 year time. We are in good status now. We are earning money, we have enough food in our family to eat, each and every family is using tubewell water, child mortality rate is going down, 100 % immunization coverage of children, all girl children are going to primary school. Two families were against us at first but we counselled them. We are trying to move forward with everybody in our village.
We struggled a lot at first within family, also in society. But, days have changed. We have won and earned respect from all – even my husband calls me as “Haji Jahanara”.
General perception about Government Programmes under Panchayati Raj
District wise distribution data says that knowledge about Balika Samriddhi Yojana is very poor in all districts (11% in North Dinajpur, 9% in Murshidabad, 8% in Howrah and 14% in Nadia).
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6 Muslim Women in Panchayats in West Bengal
6.01 The conceptual framework pf Panchayti Raj is built around three inter-related themes: democratic decentralization, participatory governance and social indusiveness. In the three-tier structure of Panchayats in West Bengal, Gram Panchayat (GP) is the grass-roots level institution and hence closest to the people. The GP is expected to assess the local needs, locally available resources and infrastructural requirements to prepare plans for and formulate schemes of economic development and social justice. Participative planning is intended to generate responsiveness of the GP to the needs of the poor and other disadvantaged social groups including Muslims in general and women in particular.
6.02 As defined in Art.243 G of the 73rd Amendment of the Constitution, a GP is an institution of self-government to achieve economic development and social justice. There is a scope for wider public participation in self- governance through the instrumentality of Gram Sabha. Through an amendment of the West Bengal Panchayat Act in 1994, the scope of people’s participation was enlarged by constituting Gram Sansad at the basic constituency level to ensure participatory planning, consultative selection and public accountability.
6.03 By an amendment of the Panchayat Act in 2003, the institution of Gram Sansad has been further strengthened by constituting a Gram Unnyan Samity (GUS). GUS in intended to aid and assist the GP in preparation of the plans and the budget. It is also mandatory that the outlines of the plans adopted by the Gram Sansad shall be the basis of the GP Plan. The present direction of the state policy is to create a system of more empowered, decentralized, accountable, participatory and pro-poor Panchayati Raj in West Bengal.
6.04 In the road map for Panchayats in West Bengal, it has been envisaged that the poor will be organized to participate in the activities of panchayats through:
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a) advocacy, facilitation and guidance for organizing the poor particularly women; b) special drive to create awareness amongst the groups particularly women
enabling them to participate in their own development and access services from panchayats and the government;
c) provision of access to credit from banks and financial institutions.
6.05 In a representative democracy in which political mobilization precedes representation and selection, the concern of political parties towards disadvantaged groups gets reflected in the socio-economic composition of elected panchayat representatives. Analysis of Muslim members elected to Zilla Parishads (see Table 21 - 23) indicates that the share of elected Muslim representatives in Zilla Parishads is disproportionate to their share of population. It is admitted that religious consideration should not prevail in a secular state but inadequate representation of disadvantaged social groups may be a disabling factor to create equitable social and economic opportunities. There is no Muslim representation to Zilla Parishad in three districts – Purba Medinipur where the share of Muslim population is 23.81%, Jalpaiguri (12.07%) and Purulia (6.76%). Except Murshidabad and Dakshin Dinajpur the representation of Muslims in Zilla Parishads is grossly disproportionate to their share of population. There is no representation of Muslim women in Zilla Parishads of eight districts namely Purba Medinipur, Paschim Medinipur, Howrah, Hooghly, Jalpaiguri, Cooch Behar and Purulia. Except Murshidabad, Malda and Birbhum, the representation of Muslim women in Zilla Parishads is insignificant. This implies that voices of Muslim women in Zilla Parishads are seldom heard.
6.06 Analysis of Muslim members of 329 Panchayat Samities in West Bengal indicates that the representation of Muslim elected members to Panchayat Samitis is around 18% where as the share of Muslim population is about 25% according to 2001 censure. Around 6% of Muslim women are in Panchayat Samitis. Representation of Muslim women in Panchayat Samitis is lower except in Murshidabad, Uttar Dinajpur, and Malda. This is a disabling factor to get the concerns of Muslim women getting properly reflected in Panchayat Samitis.
6.07 Analysis of Muslim members in 3220 GPs in West Bengal indicates that out of 49,094 elected members, 10,433 (21%) are from the Muslim community of which 3450 (around 7%) are Muslim women. The share of Muslim women in Gram Panchayats is also found to be less than their proportionate share in the population.
6.08 Analysis of the office-bearers in three-tier panchayats in West Bengal indicates that:
a) There is no female Chairperson of Panchayat Samity in 7 districts where the share of Muslim population is nearly 25% or more namely Birbhum, Howrah, South 24 Parganas, Nadia, Dakshin Dinajpur, Malda and Cooch behar.
b) Of the 9 women Chairpersons of Zilla Parishads, only Murshidabad is having a Muslim woman elected to become the Chairperson.
c) Analysis of the distribution of Chairpersons of Standing Committees of Panchayat Samitis in West Bengal indicates that out of 635 Muslim Chairpersons, 135 (21%) are Muslim women. Of the 135 Muslim women acting as Chairpersons of Standing Committees, 44 are Chairpersons of women, children and social welfare followed by 21 looking after food and civil supplies and 19 co-ordinating public health and environment. There is no Muslim woman as Chairperson of Public works and Transport. This indicates a trend to select women as office-bearers of the standing committees concerning issues of women and children as the other areas perhaps are deemed to be areas in the male domain.
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d) Analysis of distribution of 3220 Prodhans of Gram Panchayats in West Bengal indicates that 552 (17.14%) are held by Muslims of which 164 (29.71%) are held by Muslim women.
e) Overall, the distribution of Muslim EWR in three-tier panchayats in West Bengal indicates: (a) the distribution is factored to ensure conformity with constitutional compulsions rather than a deliberate choice and (b) women in general and Muslim women in particular are preferred to hold offices in areas concerning women, children and social welfare.
6.09 Focus group discussions with elected Muslim women in the study area indicates that:
a) The age of elected Muslim women varies between 36 and 40. The mean age of Muslim women is lower than the mean age of Muslim men in panchayats. Interestingly, younger women may not have been selected by political parties because of their lack of experience or because of their lack of interest in joining politics. 90% of elected Muslim women are married.
b) 20% of Muslim elected women interviewed are literate, 60% completed elementary education and only 20% have attained high school level education.
c) Distribution of Muslim elected women studied indicates that 40% of them have come from middle class families and 60% are from families of low income. They have expressed difficulties of performing their functions efficiently because of their lack of understanding of intricacies of law, administration and financial management compelling them to depend either on bureaucracy or on political leadership.
d) The study reveals that there is a major representation of housewives amongst ‘Muslim elected women and most of them have come from agricultural families. 70% of elected Muslim women have joined self-help group. About 20% of them are employed as anganwadi workers or sahayikas in sishu siksha kendras or as field workers of voluntary organizations. Field studies indicate that elected Muslim women are dependant either on their family members or political leaders for guidance in the functioning of panchayats.
e) 40% of elected Muslim women interviewed live in pucca house and 60% of them have some savings of their own. All of them use tubewell water for drinking but 30% of their families do not have any sanitary toilet. All of them are providing education to their children but about 30% of the children have not got full immunization coverage.
f) More than 70% of the Muslim elected women have reported access to hospital or health centre but 50% of them have not been able to adopt family planning measures. Interestingly 80% of them are reported to have been married below 18 years of age.
g) In the perceptions of elected Muslim women interviewed: a) there has been an increase in opportunities of Muslim girls to access elementary
education b) there has been an increase in access to public health services by Muslim women c) assistance of GP is needed by Muslim women to improve facilities of drinking
water, road and electricity connectivity d) self-hlp groups of Muslim women need continued facilitation, training, skill
building, bank credit and marketing.
6.10 Though there are about 4000 Muslim women members to the three-tier Panchayati Raj in West Bengal (see table below), their capacities to perform efficiently remain
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grossly underfulfilled because only one-third of them have opted to become panchayat leaders of their volition and two-third of them, influenced by their family members to contest elections, joined panchayats for the first time.
Table: 6.08 Muslim women as Panchayat Members in West Bengal
Sl. No.
Tier of Panchayats
Total No. of Members Muslim Membership
Male Female Total % of Muslim Women
1 Gram Panchayat 49,094 6983 3450 10,433 7
2 Panchayat Samity 8,496 1109 482 1591 6
3 Zilla Parishad 713 65 36 101 5
Source: SIPRD, Kalyani
7%
5%
6%Gram Panchayat Panchayat Samity Zilla Parishad
In spite of their presence in Panchayats, Muslim women remain mostly unheard in the decision –making process and their dependence on external agencies is found to be near total. Yet, they feel that their self-esteem has increased and Muslim women in general consider their elected representative to be attentive to their needs.
6.11 Analysis of responses of Muslim women members to what they could do for Muslim women indicates their involvement in facilitation of self-help groups, motivating women to construct sanitary toilets and informing women of the facilities of Janani Suraksha Yojana and benefits of national social security assistance. It is also evident from focus group discussions that Muslim women are consulted or given responsibilities by the panchayat bodies to mobilise women in self-help groups and in women development programmes. The management of other activities and programmes does not lie in their domain. Yet, most of elected Muslim women consider reservation to be creating a positive impact on Muslim women to participate
Muslim women as Panchayat Members in West Bengal
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in public activities. Muslim women in general feel that they can approach and freely talk to their representative when she is a Muslim woman.
6.12 Focus Group discussions with elected Msulim women to Panchayats indicate that their capacity building needs remain grossly unattended to. Though 60% of elected Muslim women reported to have received training but are not happy with the quality of training. They have also complained of delay in training and absence of follow up. Most of them have no exposure or opportunity to share experience. Policies, laws, orders, finance are little understood as none is available to explain. The reading materials are also scarcely available. As a result, the elected Muslim women are almost totally dependant on bureaucracy or political leadership in taking decisions.
6.13 The vision document for Panchayats in West Bengal emphasizes on strengthening the process of decentralization through gram sansad and gram sabha and by constituting gram unnyan samity to ensure people’s participation in development and participatory governance. Field surveys indicate that there is moderate awareness of Muslim women about gram sansad / gram sabha but their participation in meetings of gram sansad is dismally low. Response analysis indicates that their participation is low because they are seldom allowed to go out of their home or participate in public activities. Only a few women members of self-help groups have attended meetings of gram sansad and their participation is found to be declining as their voices are not reportedly heard. Participatory planning must therefore, precede intensive social mobilization if it intend to be inclusive of needs of Muslim women.
6.14 Decentralisation ought to follow the principles of subsidiarity and its success can only be measured by devolution of functions, functionaries, finance and freedom. Focus group discussions with the elected Muslim women members indicate that they only implement schemes which are entrusted upon them by the BDO. They are also found to be largely unaware of the roles and responsibilities of a Panchayat member and largely dependant on the panchayat employees for day to day work. In their perceptions as well as in the perceptions of Muslim women, activities pf Panchayats are limited to drinking water, drainage, electricity, poverty alleviation programmes and social security. Upa-samitis and Gram Unnyan Samitis newly constituted are not
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fully operational. Panchayats are found to be acting as the agencies of the state government and as extensions of bureaucracy. The activity mapping is restrictive to selection of sites and programme beneficiaries and in spite of legal provisioning to devolve community health and elementary education upon Gram Panchayats, the line departments are virtually in control of funds, functions and functionaries. The functions of elected representatives are limited to co-ordination as they do in Saturday meetings of Gram Panchayats and in the meetings of the standing committees. The capability of GPs studied to independently undertake activities according to the felt needs of Muslim women, is extremely limited as their own fund is too adequate to meet even a modicum of their needs. This limited capability is also reflected in failure to implement even rural employment guarantee scheme. The survey reveals that Muslim women did not get wage employment in the study area in spite of special allocation for them. No thought was given to create opportunities of wage employment by involving Muslim women in social forestry.
6.15 Focus group discussions with the village-level functionaries like school teachers, anganwadi workers, female health workers indicate that:
a) In Muslim areas, there is a perceptible increase of girl children in primary school and with the introduction of mid-day meal, the attendance of Muslim girls in primary schools is very high. The drop out of Muslim girls from schools after completing primary education is reported to be caused by a common concern of Muslim parents to get them married for perceived reasons of security.
The causes for drop-out of boys of poor families are reported to be caused by economic compulsion. The quality of education is reported to be low in case of Muslim children because of lack of follow up by parents. There is definite improvement in school buildings because of Sarba Siksha Abhijan but the teacher-pupil ratio remains to be low.
b) Anganwadi workers have reported that the attendance of Muslim children in AW centres is high and the food supply is now regular. The panchayats are helping them to enrich the food with contribution of supplementary nutrition. The number of children suffering from severe anemia are decreasing. Most of the centres, however, do not have their own building and space for cooking. The supply of teaching-learning materials is also irregular.
c) Analysis of responses of Muslim women in study area indicates that 40% of them have sanitary toilets in their house. Awareness about sanitation is found to be increasing.
d) Response analysis of Muslim women indicates that 98% of them use tubewell water for drinking but thay are unaware of the quality of water nor has panchayat tested quality of water.
e) Response analysis of Muslim women on total immunization coverage indicates that there is no significant variation in total immunization coverage between Hindus and Muslims.
f) Response analysis of Muslim women by use of family planning methods indicates lower rate of adoption than that of Hindu women but with the increase in income the trend seems to equalize.
Overall, the field survey reveals that there is hardly any compatibility between the mass education and public health related duties assigned to the GP and the powers and authority given to them to enforce compliance. The GPs studied still consider them as agencies to implement government schemes. Only by legislative provisioning or by favorable policy decisions of the department the field survey finds, the process of democratic decentralization will remain incomplete. There is along
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way to go before we can see empowered, participatory and pro-poor Panchayati Raj in West Bengal.
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Case Study
Women’s Group in Natural Resources and Enterprise Management in collaboration with Panchayati Raj System
This is a real life story of rural women of the village Kamalagangesujali, Block- Islampur, Dist. - Uttar Dinajpur. 5 SHGs consisting of 64 members with different socio-religious background (2 Christians, 4 Hindus and 58 Muslims) are working together. The 5 groups are Swarnajayanti Hindutola Mohila Dal, Dhuligaon Swarnajayanti Mohila Dal, Dhuligaon Mohila Dal No. 3, Dhuligaon School Para Mohila Dal and Talpara Mohila Dal. They are working very closely with Panchayat and taking active part in all Panchayat meetings. According to the Panchayat they have adopted different livelihood strategies viz. fish farming (they’ve been offered the pond through RSVY under 10 years’ lease), the groups possess 2 Jersey cows, 2 spray-machines and thresher-machine and received seeds and seedlings of seasonal flowers, fruits and vegetables from RSVY.
The members of the groups perform the activities in a team. The activities shared by the team members for the better economy and to ensure quality in maintaining livelihood are -feeding the fish, de-weeding the pond, watering the seedlings on the bank of the pond, taking care of the cows etc.
The members of the groups have decided to get access to whole sale market for selling the fishes to derive maximum gain. This profit money will be equally shared among the group members. Side by side they also have decided to run the small scale business. This idea is also to be followed in agricultural production. The groups have made as appeal to the Panchayat for extending time period of lease of the pond at least 10-15 yrs or more.
In their struggle they have got the active support from their counterparts and the members of the Panchayat & the community.
With consensus of the members of the groups they follow the common rules in terms of profit sharing, loan & to start the new business.
The members of the groups have a dream that their establishment will be the model with joint effort and others will follow them.
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7 Muslim Women in Self-help Groups
7.01 Though West Bengal is a late starter, mobilization of the poor in self-help groups, (SHG) particularly women have been phenomenal during the last six years in West Bengal. In the districts where the share of Muslim population is high, the growth in the number of women’s groups has been impressive. This indicates that Muslim women are no less interested in joining SHGs than their neighbours. Joining SHGs by Muslim women is a challenge as well as an opportunity to them This growth has been spearheaded by a number of government departments, public corporations, co-operatives, banks, financial institutions, micro-finance institutions and non-government organizations. Launching of Swarnajayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana, SHG-Bank Linkage Programme and social mobilization of NGOs triggered this growth spell. Of course a policy-driven strategy has accelerated the process. In course of time, NGOs often extended their periphery beyond social intermediation and focused on micro-finance which made the growth very much finance – focussed.
Since social capital could be built through group formation, the momentum could as well be directed towards pro-poor development and empowerment of women.
7.02 Plurality of approaches followed by promotional agencies created sometimes confusion and disintegrating tendencies. There has been a gradual change in perception of state government towards considering SHG as building block of development. This perception is being experimented through strengthening the process of decentralization. The shift in the policy is observed by the following decisions of the state government:
a) Determining the role of Gram Panchayats in promoting, nurturing and co-ordinating activities of self-help groups.
b) Building SHG-based organizations like clusters at the GP level and federation at PS level.
c) Extending training, marketing and infrastructure support to SHGs and SHG-based organizations.
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d) Co-option of SHGs to the Upa-Samity of Gram Panchayat and the Sthayee Samity of Panchayat Samity.
e) Inclusion of SHG members in the Gram Unnyan Samity constituted by the Gram Sansad to facilitate participatory planning and development
f) Preference to SHGs in leasing out government-owned lands and ponds for natural resource management.
g) Assigning various tasks to Gram Panchayats from preparation of data base to use of SHGs’ services in the programs of GPs.
h) Creation of a separate department of self-help groups and self-employment.
7.03 Field studies done earlier reveal many areas of strength such a strong savings motivation, small increase in income, increase in social capital, participation in development initiatives and in several aspects of women empowerment. Many areas of weakness such as little change in asset structure, weak credit linkage, lack of capacities and skills, drop out, weak group management, lack of extension services and economic opportunities, limited access to government programmes and services etc., have also been reflected. Quality assessment of sampled SHGs reveals that a larger share (about 60%) of them are still very weak. Mere quantitative growth may, therefore, be self-defeating unless it is consolidated, strengthened, co-ordinated and directed towards a vision of human development.
7.04 In course of household survey of selected Muslim households in 16 GPs where the Muslim population is more than 80% of total population, it seems that the coverage of Muslim women varies from 7% in Howrah district and 29% in Nadia district (Uttar Dinajpur 17% and Murshidabad 26%). It indicates that in the areas studied, exclusion of Muslim women is a factor to be reckoned with Social mobilization does not seem to be uniformly spread out.
7.05 Analysis of 67 SHGs studied (see Tables 1 - 20) indicates that NGOs took the lead in group formation (55%) followed by panchayat (28%) and co-operative (27%). 97% of the members were Muslim women and about 59% of them were from BPL families.
7.06 Age-wise distribution of SHGs studied indicates that about 75% of them did not complete three years and about 18% of them are functioning for more than 3 years.
7.07 Distribution of SHGs by the monthly rate of savings indicates that about 31% of the groups are saving @ Rs. 30 per month while the equal number are saving @ Rs. 10/- P.M. 19% of the SHGs are savings @ Rs. 50/- P.M. This indicates that Muslim women joining SHGs are drawn from different strata of economic class structure. About one-third of them seem to have come from very poor families. Older groups have already built up group corpus in the range of Rs. 5000 and Rs. 10,000 (34%) followed by group corpus in the range of Rs. 10,001 and Rs. 20,000 (31%). Field survey indicates that savings motivation is very strong in Muslim women.
7.08 Distribution of SHGs by access to credit indicates that 46% of members had access to credit of less than Rs. 1000. This indicates that access to credit is still restrictive and those who have access are inadequately provided with credit. This is indicative of a minimalist approach of banks. Intra-group distribution of credit is also inequitable.
7.09 Distribution of members by use of micro-credit indicates that the existing livelihood options are only available to Muslim women – livestock (21%), agriculture (21%),
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small business (20%) and household industry (16%). About one-fifth of Muslim women have used micro-credit to meet urgent family needs.
7.10 About one-third of SHGs studied reported repayment rate between 80% and 90% followed by recovery between 70% and 80% (29%) and recovery between 60% and 70% (17%). One-fifth of SHGs studied have reported repayment of less than 60%. It is indicative from the field survey that recovery of loans from members of SHGs is better than that of non – SHG loans of banks. Recovery discipline is however still to be inculcated. In spite of the minimalist approach of banks, the members do not seem to be dissatisfied with the services of banks or co-operatives. This may be because of exclusion of Muslim women from banking facilities earlier.
7.11 Distribution of SHGs by their response to the agency of external assistance indicates high degree of assistance from banks/co-operative (58%) followed by panchayat (34%), government (34%), village organization (12%), social workers (11%) and other SHG (11%). 53% of the SHGs reported to have received no external assistance. This indicates inequitable access to external assistance.
7.12 Response analysis of SHGs by assistance of GP indicates that while 55% of the SHGs did not receive any assistance from GP, 45% of SHGs studied have reported to have received varied types of assistance like wage employment under NREGA (23%), Mid-day-Meal (21%) and lease of land/pond (6%). It indicates that GPs are not yet providing equal opportunities to all the SHGs.
7.13 Response analysis of SHGs by their involvement indicates high level of involvement in child education, immunization and total sanitation but moderate to low level of involvement in anganwadi centre, and in social action against domestic violence and girl trafficking. About 42% of the SHGs did not, however, participate in social action. This indicates that social intermediation is still inadequate and financial focus is very strong in SHGs studied.
7.14 Response analysis of SHGs studied by their awareness of government programmes indicates moderate to high level of awareness – Janani Suraksha Yojana (79%), NREGA (63%), SGSY (55%), Annapoorna (53%), Antyodaya (66%), RCH (46%). The level of awareness about Kishori Sakti Yojana, is low (24%).
7.15 Similarly, response analysis of SHGs studied by their legal awareness and Muslim personal laws indicates high level of awareness - “Talaq” (76%), “denmohar” (89%), marriage registration (77%), right to property (77%).
7.16 Focus group discussions with self-help groups studied reveal that the following changes in socio-economic status of Muslim women are perceived to be high in the present decade – education of girl child (46%), health (64%) nutrition (51%) and source of drinking water (54%). Changes in aspects of sanitation, income generation, family planning, participation in meetings of gram sabha, age at marriage are moderate. Muslim women in self-help groups studied do not find any perceptive change in social injustice to women in general and Muslim women in particular. Because of Muslim women getting elected to panchayats, the awareness of Muslim women groups has increased in child education, family health and income generation. Muslim women in self-help groups feel that family, religion and social customs are even now barriers to their socio-economic development. They also consider that the changes in Muslim women are slow in spite of Muslim women getting elected to panchayats.
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7.17 By joining self-help groups, Muslim women feel that though there has been marginal increase in income, there have been significantly high changes in self-confidence, self-esteem, and social status. This, in turn, has changed their awareness about education of children, health care of the family and their social responsibility towards widowed and disabled Muslim women. This indicates that Muslim women in self-help groups can be effective change agents if they are property facilitated. They also expressed felt needs for capacity building and credit assistance from banks.
7.18 On empowerment aspects, the response of Muslim women in self-help groups seems to be mixed. While their participation in the decision-making of families has increased, their freedom to join association or attend public meetings is still restrictive. While their access to information has increased, their abilities to raise their voices in the public or protest against social injustice are still restrictive. This indicates that for empowerment of Muslim women, they need strong community support.
7.19 In the context of SHG Panchayat linkage as an instrument of pro-poor development and participatory governance, the study of Muslim women in self-help groups indicates that:
a) A large number of Muslim women are still excluded from the process of group formation. Such exclusion generally of the extremely poor Muslim families calls for intensive social mobilization in the backward areas and amongst the very poor Muslim families.
b) Savings motivation being very strong amongst Muslim women, their capacities are to be built enabling them to access bank credit.
c) Since activities of Muslim women are limited to traditional livelihood activities the scope to scale up livelihood activities is to be explored.
d) In spite of positive policy environment, facilitation of panchayats is found to be inadequate. Field studies reveal that all SHGs formed in the area of the GP are not treated equally. This may be disintegrating to the building of SHG-based organizations.
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e) Field studies of Muslim women in self-help groups reflect rising levels of awareness about child education, preventive health care measures and government programmes of women development, yet their access to social and economic opportunities is still limited. The ability of Muslim women to raise their voices in meetings of Gram Sansad or to take joint action against social justice is remaining grossly undeveloped. Thus social mobilisation and capacity building are two essential pre-requisites for their development.
f) Muslim women feel that though there has been marginal increase in their income, there has been significantly high levels of changes in self-confidence, self-esteem and social awareness after joining self-help group. Field studies indicate that mobilization of poor Muslim women in self-help groups has a positive impact on their life and livelihood and the process may enable them to move on to the escalerator of development.
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8 Innovations in Strengthening Decentralisation
8.01 Innovations in the process of decentralized planning were first experimented through community involvement in panchayat planning known as Midnapore Experiment in mid-80s through the joint initiative of Midnapore Zilla Parishad and I.I.T, Kharagpur. The objective was to ensure productive utilization of unused natural resources through optimum utilization of labour power. This required matching of wage employment opportunities with the person-days of employment required for creation of nature-based resource endowments. The planning process was initiated through participatory surveys of families and mapping of local resources. The data collected through baseline surveys were maintained in a village register. The distinguished features of bottom up planning were:
a) Identification of what can be done primarily by the villagers themselves if they are organized around Gram Panchayat. This may be called ‘people’s sector’.
b) Assessment of what can be done in the village on a commercial basis with the help of external financial resources. This may be called ‘Banking Sector.’
c) An understanding of what can be done in the village exclusively with government grant. This may be called ‘Government Sector’ and finally.
d) An assessment of what can be done by combination of the above sectors namely the villagers, bank and the government. This may be designated as the ‘combined sector.’
Though Midnapore Experiment could not be built into the process of decentralized planning, yet the learning is still relevant if the disadvantaged social groups like Muslims are to be included in the ‘Panchayat Plan.’
8.02 In the late 90s , UNICEF supported an initiative called community convergent action (CCA) to synechronise panchayat’s planning with the community initiatives through participatory planning. CCA experimented with sansad based planning by panchayats involving the community in collection of base line data, identification of needs and critical gaps, selection of beneficiaries based on objective criteria and drawing up sectoral plans based on people’s felt needs, critical gaps and sharing of resources between the community and the panchayat. The planning activity was centred around gram sansad where the citizens could articulate their demands and raise their collective voice. CCA experiment could not be continued though the selected GPs understood the need for participation of people in the planning process.
8.03 At present, participatory planning is being experimented in 304 GPs of West Bengal under the programme of decentralized planning (SRD) with support of DFID Project for rural poverty alleviation through participatory and democratic governance. Two sets of participatory plans are prepared-(i) Gram Sansad plan of activities which can be implemented at the village level (ii) Gram Panchayat plan of activities which can be implemented by the Gram Panchayat.
The planning process passes through seven district phases from campaign to plan formulation including capacity building, undertaking micro-level community initiatives, physical and social mapping through participatory learning and action, preparation of data base on households and sector status through neighbourhood meetings, analysis of data collected and maps prepared for identification of problems, resources and potential, identification of activities with sectoral classification and preparation of draft village development plan for approval of Gram Sansad. The exercise finally leads to preparation of GP plan after analysis and collection of village
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development plans for approval of Gram Sabha. The new initiative has initially led to churning of the community and launching of micro-level community initiatives but sustainability of community initiatives will depend on a dynamic process of social mobilization.
8.04 If the panchayat plans are intended to be inclusive of Muslim women particularly from the poor Muslim families, planning should precede intensive social mobilization and convergent community action initiatives. It has been outlined in the vision document that civil society is to be encouraged to organize the people to meaningfully participate in the functioning of the Panchayats and create an ambience so that they mutually reinforce each other. To organize the poor for their participation in the activities of Panchayats, the document argues for advocacy, facilitation and guidance in mobilizing poor women in self-help groups. The vision document encourages collaboration between civil society organizations and panchayats as also strong Panchayat-SHG linkage.
8.05 Loka Kalyan Parishad, a civil society organization piloted a collaborative action research initiative with the selected Gram Panchayats of Birbhum, Dakshin and Uttar Dinajpur districts where Muslim population is high, to demonstrate how participatory natural resource management in the interplay between the poor participants, civil society organizations and panchayats can result in reduction of food insecurity and eventually reduction of poverty.
The salient features of LKP-PRI collaboration are:
• Facilitating all SHGs (irrespective of promotional agency) in the GP area including those formed by Muslim women as the grass-root level institutions of the poor to be linked with the plans and activities of GPs.
• Forming Gram Unnyan Samity (GUS) at Gram Sansad level to intermediate between the GP and the people through Gram Sansad.
• Building dynamic linkage of GUS with the SHGs, social mobilization and participation in the activities of Gram Panchayat.
• LKP routes all their assistance through GP fund to fill up critical gaps in decentralized natural resource management. Gradually, the initiative is owned by the GP.
• Establishing linkages with the line departments functioning at the GP and the PS levels to ensure continuity of technical support to the GP programmes.
• Demonstrating simple natural resource management techniques that are easily adoptable by the poor including Muslim women.
• At activating political engagement with the local political forces to create an enabling environment for pro-poor development through consensus.
8.06 CSO-PRI collaboration has helped to establish some good practices:
a) Plans are finalised in open meetings of GUS in presence of GP member and eventually approved by the Gram Sansad.
b) All GUS meetings are open, participatory and informal. c) Monthly one meeting of GUS with SHGs helps interacting with the local problems
and increasing scope of local development especially strengthening of livelihood base.
d) Monthly one meeting of GP with GUS helps GP to monitor progress of activities and solve local problems.
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e) Meeting of GUS in neighbourhooods by rotation helps the people to participate directly in their own development.
f) Monthly one meeting (last Saturday of the month) at the GP helps bridge the gap between health care services needed and those provided by the health workers.
8.07 CSO-PRI collaboration has helped the poor including Muslim women to secure their livelihood base. The process has led to evolution of some good practices like:
a) Use of SHGs as paymaster in wage employment programme. b) Leasing policy of panchayat-owned land and water bodies in favour of women’s
groups. c) Panchayat’s intermediation in leasing-out private lands and water bodies in
favour of women groups. d) Common property resources to be leased out to cluster of women’s groups for
food and nutrition security of the poor including Muslim women. e) Re-engineering of prototype schemes under various government programmes to
suit the needs of the poor including Muslim women.
Evaluation of CSO-PRI collaboration by external consultants indicates high probability of institutional sustainability but economic sustainability of poor women including Muslim women will be secure when they can secure greater control of resources and services.
8.08 Economic sustainability of SHGs and their role in governance can also be facilitated by their aggregation into SHG-Federations which are community-based, member-controlled, and member-owned organizations. The example of Bagnan I Mahila Bikash Co-operative Credit Society demonstrates how women including Muslim women can organize themselves through self-help and mutual aid.
When total literacy campaign was launched in 1993-94, the women chairperson of the standing committee of Bagnan I Panchayat Samity (Howrah) had to move from house to house inspiring and helping women to become literate. Soon the women including Muslims urged upon her to help them in self-employment. She used the facilities of TRYSEM to get them trained to form various skills with the help of DRDA. When DWCRA was launched, she started forming women’s groups including Muslim women with the active support of DRDA. Gradually, with the increase in the number of women groups, she had to take the initiative of forming an association including Muslim women known as DWCRA Samannaya Samity. This was the first social organization (formed at the initiative of an elected panchayat woman leader) that pooled their savings and undertook collective activities. At the request of the DRDA, the association was registered as a Mahila Bikash Credit Co-operative Sociaety.
The society has 760 SHGs including Muslim women’s groups working in 10 Gram Panchayats with 15,550 members. As on 31.12.2007, the society could provide loan facilities to 4,882 members with outstanding credit of Rs. 3.76 crore. The society has no external borrowing as its own savings amounted to Rs. 4.20 crore. It is now working as a multi-purpose federation with production, marketing and social functions being hived out of the credit society. The case of Bagnan I Mahila Bikash Co-operative Credit Society demonstrated how sensitive facilitation of a woman panchayat leader can bring about a socio-econimic change where Muslim women feel proud to be equal partners.
The case of Bagnan I Mahila Bikash Credit Co-operative Society indicates the potential of women panchayat linkage. To facilitate such linkage, several issues are to be addressed at the policy level namely (a) treating all SHGs equally and at par by
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the Panchayat as is done in SRD areas (b) integrated approach to form SHG-based organizations namely clusters and federations (c) to avoid giving undue preference to one type of women’s groups in government programmes and polices (d) departmental initiatives bye-passing panchayats (e) lack of access to information and (f) lack of capacities of SHGs as well as panchayats to plan collaborative action activities. These issues could be addressed through CSO-PRI collaboration. It is very true for Muslim women as they need very strong community support to participate in local governance.
8.09 Muslim women suffer from multiple deprivations in vulnerable situations like floods, erosion, displacement, closure, outmigration etc. Under Community-based Disaster Management Paoject (CBDP) supported by UNICEF from April, 2001, Muslim women with their neighbors demonstrated how they could effectively participate in the meetings of gram sansad and get their plans approved by gram sansad and gram sabha to form a part of GP plan.
The trajectory of relationships passed through several distinctive phases:
First Phase
• Gram Sansad almost unknown to the community and especially women. • Resistance of the Panchayats to get involved in CBDP as it was not a government
programme. • Indifference of GP and PS to happenings of CBDP. • Misleading information on Gram Sansad. • Little co-operation and more opposition to women’s activities. • Surprised to see-women enthusiasm but not taking it seriously.
Second Phase
• GPs getting acquainted with the processes. • Reluctant participation of GP members in CBDP processes. • Holding Sansad meetings by proper notice and campaign. • GPs allowing receipt of CBDP plans. • GPs allowing women to speak in GS meetings. • GPs tendency to byepass large gatherings in GS meetings and to conduct
adjourned meetings only. • Overwhelming attendance of women including Muslim women in GS Meetings.
Third Phase
• Allowing GP office to be used for CBDP training. • General acceptance of CBDP plans in GS meetings. • Enthusiastic participation by panchayat members in CBDP process. • Many cases of providing support to CBDP plan from panchayat funds. • Using these SHGs in other activities of Gram Panchayats. • Using SHGs in political campaign. • Providing financial support to SHGs from GP fund for their livelihood activities.
CBDP demonstrate that CBO-Panchayat linkage requires facilitation and process-based hand-holding support to women including Muslims in bringing about a transformation in the working of PRIs. Such transformation has primarily happened
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due to continuous dialogue with PRIs, some amount of local political engagement, recognizing leadership of panchayat and providing reciprocal support to GP in their programmes like immunization, sanitation and mass education. If Muslim women are sensitized, organized and facilitated to articulate their needs, they can be effective partners in panchayat-led development initiatives, Muslim community ought to take the initiative of capability building of Muslim women for their participation in local governance.
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9 Summary of findings, observations and conclusion
9.01 West Bengal has nearly 25% Muslim population which is comparable only to Assam (30.9%) and Kerala (24.7%). Of the 8 districts where Muslim population is high, six districts are identified to be backward in terms of human as well as gender development index. West Bengal has the unique characteristic of 83.22% of the Muslim population living in rural areas with agriculture as the principal source of livelihood. (See Tables 37, 40, 41)
9.02 Historically, Bengal stood apart in the context of Islamisation of the country where the Muslims were the majority but dominated by an agrarian culture, they responded very little to the question of upper India’s Muslim identity. ‘Popular Islam’ would be an apt term to describe the influence of mixed culture on the rituals followed by the Muslim in rural Bengal. The Fraizi and Wahabi movements in which local Muslim women were equally involved, were intrinsically related to Muslim peasant identity.
9.03 The Muslim society is as stratified by economic classes as other societies are and the conditions of Muslim families at the bottom of the pyramid are pitiable. There is clear rural-urban divide though outmigration is gradually exposing them to urban culture. Even amongst the peasantry, there is class differential between the land-owning class and the landless. Islampur Sub-division which is a transferred territory from Bihar has a district cultural mix-up.
9.04 As Sachar Committee has observed, a gender-based fear of the public is experienced to some degree by all women. It is magnified in case of Muslim women. Too many Muslim women particularly in rural areas feel safe within the boundaries of their home and community. A large number of them are still remaining invisible.
9.05 Land reforms, institutionalization of panchayati Raj and mobilization of women into self-help groups ought to have impacted on the lives of Muslim women in the rural areas. The primary objective of the study is to capture the current socio-economic status of Muslim women and to find out how the above factors have contributed to changes (if any) in their conditions of living.
9.06 The study was carried out in 32 Gram Panchayats having largest concentration of Muslim population, in four districts namely Murshidabad, Uttar Dinajpur, Howrah and Nadia, covering 1086 randomly selected households and 67 self-help groups. A multi stage sampling design was followed. The study attempts to capture the status of Muslim women from their point of view and not necessarily from the views of external agencies.
9.07 Analysis of household data of eight Blocks studied reveals very high rates of landlessness, poor housing conditions, food insecurity, high rates of female illiteracy and school drop-outs, near-absence of access to credit, vulnerability. Score-based ranking indicates high rates of poverty varying between 40% and 60% in terms of capability poverty measure. Almost half of the poor Muslim households (about 25% of Muslim population in study area) are living under extreme conditions of poverty. These families need special attention and positive intervention.
9.08 Field studies of the selected villages reveal high dependence on wage employment of Muslim families. The district pattern of Muslim women’s work is home-based. Very few Muslim women are engaged in agriculture. The largest number of Muslim women are self-employed in sewing, embroidery, ‘Zari’ and ‘chikan’ work, rolling ‘beedis’, ready-made garments. Access to institutional credit is extremely low Out migration of
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male workers is more than 40% in 15 out of 16 GPs studied. Out migration of male workers from home makes living conditions of poor Muslim women miserable.
9.09 Response analysis of Muslim women interviewed indicates very low rate of ‘talaq’ or remarriage but extremely high rates of marriage below 18 years of age (80% or more). In all the families studied, it is found that a girl child is not discriminated. Inequity of income classes of Muslim families is very high. Drop-out rates of Muslim girls are very high after completion of primary education. Deficit in higher level of education of Muslim women is staggeringly high. Inspite of growing awareness about preventive health care, access of Muslim women to public health services is limited. About one-fourth of Muslim women have joined self-help group but their participation in social action is still limited. They have moderate level of awareness about government programmes and services but their access is still limited. Muslim women consider about a half of their elected panchayat representatives to be sensitive to their problems. They consider construction of roads, provision of drinking water and electricity to be the principal activities of a Gram Panchayat. They are moderately aware of gram sansad but their participation in public action remains to be low.
9.10 Analysis of Muslim members in three-tier panchayats reveals lower representation proportionate to their population. The share of representation is skewed – lowest at the ZP level and highest at the GP level. Distribution of the office bearers of three-tier panchayats indicates that women in general and Muslim women in particular are preferred in areas concerning women, children and social welfare. In-spite of their presence in panchayats and Muslim women looking forward to them, their dependence on external agencies is to found to be near total. In the opinion of the Muslim women elected to panchayats, there is a gradual increase in access of elementary education and public health services by Muslim women. Only one-third of them have contested election out of their own choice. Given liberty, they would like to work for provision of roads, drinking water and electricity in their constituencies. They have also expressed interest to work for self-help groups.
9.11 Survey of Muslim households indicates that the coverage of Muslim women in SHGs varies between 7% in Howrah district and 29% in Nadia district. Access to bank credit is found to be still restrictive though savings motivation is very strong amongst Muslim women. Majority of the groups formed by Muslim women reported to have not received adequate external facilitation. A strong finance focus is noticed in self-help groups of Muslim women because social intermediation is low. In the context of their growing interest in child education, immunization and total sanitation, participation in social and public action needs to be facilitated through sensitive community involvement Social mobilization and capacity building are found to be urgent needs of Muslim women in self-help groups.
9.12 Disaggregated data on the basis of religious groupings are not available from official records. The survey of Muslim families indicates that between 40% and 60% of Muslim women are having extremely limited access to social and economic opportunities. Out migration and vulnerability make living conditions miserable to Muslim women in about one-third of the Muslim families studied.
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10 Policy Implications and Recommendations
10.01 Field studies reveal multiple deprivations of Muslim women which need to be addressed in the policy. While many of these are common to all women irrespective of community, the development deficit of Muslim women in the bottom layer of the pyramid is significantly higher than their counterparts in the society. Too many Muslim women feel safe within the boundaries of their home and community. The primary responsibility of social mobilization should, therefore, come from the Muslim community themselves. Community-based organizations are to be developed and capacitated to act as catalysts for change. CSO-PRI collaboration can help the process and should therefore be considered as on instrument of policy in local governance.
10.02 The emergence and multiplication of self-help groups is a phenomenon which should be taken advantage of to reach out to the excluded Muslim women. Empowerment of Muslim women through SHGs would lead to benefits not only of individual women or their families but also of the Muslim community through collective action. Empowering is not just for meeting financial needs but also for holistic social development. A process-based linkage of all SHGs with the Gram Panchayat through Gram Unnyan Samitis can help strengthening decentralization and inclusion of Muslim women.
10.03 If the panchayat plans are intended to be inclusive of Muslim women, it must be preceded by intensive social mobilization and convergent community action. Capacity building of Muslim women should be adequate to enable them to articulate their needs in the meetings of gram sansad/gram sabha and participate in community initiatives. Muslim women groups should be enabled to function as sub-sets of gram sansad and gram sabha and prepare women component plan through Mahila Sabha.
10.04 Strengthening primary groups of women by networking has been initiated through formation of clusters and federations. SHG-based Federations should be member-based, member-owned and member-controlled organization whose principal functions will be (a) to strengthen existing SHGs (b) to promote new SHGs (c) to access various services (d) to provide a sense of solidarity (e) to facilitate linkage (f) to build collective bargaining power Muslim women joining SHGs and SHG –based organizations will then have a sense of ownership. They can build up functional partnership with the panchayats but should not be appropriated by the local government. The scope of partnership with panchayats can be explored in areas who can be of mutual benefit. For example, livelihood support can be given to all SHGs by panchayats under NREGA while the services of SHGs can be utilized for community health and mass education initiatives of the panchayats. The policy environment is favourable for such SHG-Panchayat Partnership.
10.05 Capacity building of Muslim women through social mobilization, advocacy and handholding should be a dynamic and iterative process. It should not be limited to ritualistic event-managed training or skill development programmes. It should be through a process of increasing the capacity of Muslim women and their groups to make choices and to transform those choices into desired action and outcomes. The expansion of assets and capabilities of poor Muslim women is needed to enable them to participate in, negotiate with, influence, control and hold accountable the institutions that affect their life. Affirmative action is needed to build the capacities of poor Muslim women.
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10.06 The functional responsibilities of panchayats are being expanded to include promotive and preventive health care, pre-school and primary education, development of women and children, formation of livelihood, social security and other aspects of human development. This should be supported by devolution of funds, functionaries and freedom to the panchayats. If activity mapping is limited to selection of sites and beneficiaries, it will not be fair to make panchayats responsible for the outcome.
10.07 Focus group discussions with elected women representatives reveal that most of them have not contested panchayat elections of their own choice and they were chosen by the political parties out of compulsion as the seats were reserved for women. Most of them did not have any past experience either in politics or in panchayats. Though they feel honored to become panchayat members, the political parties are required to make a prudent choice of their women candidates if they are seriously concerned about development of poor Muslim women.
10.08 Focus groups discussions with elected women representatives of Panchayats indicate that though about 60% of them have got training it was too short and too inadequate to enable to cope up with the complexities of their responsibilities. There was no follow-up. The training methodology followed was not suitable to them. As a result, they had to depend on officials, political personalities, colleagues or husbands before taking decisions. Most of them had expressed their sincere desire to work for Muslim women. Capability building of elected women representatives could only enable them to provide support and services to Muslim women.
10.09 Survey of Muslim women indicates growing awareness amongst them about child education, preventive and promotive health care but their access to public services is found to b extremely limited. Stereo typed home-based work has disabled them to get exposure to alternative livelihood. While sensitive community-based facilitation can help them to get linked to public services, hands-on-training and exposure can build confidence in alternative livelihood. While decentralization will help in facilitation, CSO-PRI collaboration may strengthen the scope of their livelihood options.
10.10 Field survey reveals hat Muslim women suffer most in vulnerable situations like floods, erosion, out migration of male members, displacement. They need special focus and external facilitation is needed for their social security. Organizing them in groups and building their capacities to cope up with the crisis are expected to instill confidence in them.
71
11 Statistical Tables
Table 1: Distribution of SHGs by Facilitating Agency
Sl. No. Facilitating Agency No. of SHGs % of Total
1 year or less 2 - 3 years old 3 - 5 years old More than 5 yrs
73
Table 4: Distribution of SHGs by monthly rate of savings
Sl. No. Monthly Rate No. of SHGs % of Total
1. Rs. 10 21 31.34%
2. Rs. 20 9 13.43%
3. Rs. 30 21 31.34%
4. Rs. 50 13 19.40%
5 More than Rs. 50 0 0
6. No regular rate 3 4.47%
Source: Field Survey
Table 5: Distribution of SHGs by amount of savings in the group corpus
Sl. No. Group savings No. of SHGs % of Total
1. Upto Rs. 3000 11 16.41%
2. Rs. 3001-Rs. 5000 8 11.94%
3. Rs. 5001 – Rs. 10000 23 34.32%
4. Rs. 10001- Rs. 20000 21 31.34%
5 Above Rs. 20000 4 5.97%
Source: Field Survey
Distribution of SHGs by amount of savings in the group corpus
31.34% 11.94%16.41%
34.32%
5.97%Upto Rs. 3000
Rs. 3001 - Rs. 5000
Rs. 5001 - Rs.10000
Rs. 10001 - Rs. 20000
Above Rs. 20000
74
Table 6: Distribution of members of SHGs according to purposive use of loan
Sl. No. Purpose of loan use No. of Members % of Total
1. Agriculture 462 20.82%
2. Livestock 480 21.64%
3. Households Industry 352 15.87%
4. Small Business 453 20.42%
5 Family Needs 471 21.23%
Source: Field Survey
Distribution of members of SHG according to purposive use of loan
21.23%
20.42%
15.87%
21.64%
20.82% Agriculture
Livestock
Households Industry
Small Business
Family Needs
75
Table 7: Distribution of SHGs by rate of loan repayment
Sl. No. Repayment Rate No. of SHGs % of Total
1. Between 90% and 80% 19 32.75%
2. Between 80% and 70% 17 29.31%
3. Between 70% and 60% 10 17.24%
4. Below 60% 12 20.68%
Source: Field Survey
Table 8: Distribution of membership by status of training
Sl. No. Nature of training No. of members % of Total
1. Orientation 309 37.63%
2. Skill Development 126 15.34%
3. No training 386 47.01%
Source: Field Survey
Table 9: Distribution of SHGs by satisfaction level of bank facility
Sl. No. Bank facility No. of SHGs
Yes No
No % of Total No. % of Total
1. Adequacy of bank credit 61 46 75.40% 15 24.59%
2. Timeliness 61 50 81.96% 11 18.03%
3. Co-operative 61 51 83.60% 10 16.39%
Source: Field Survey
76
Table 10: Distribution of SHGs by external assistance
Yes No Sl. No. External Agency
No % of Total No. % of Total
1. Panchayat 23 34.32% 44 65.67%
2. Govt. Deptt/Block Office 23 34.32% 44 65.67%
3. NGO 22 33.33% 44 66.66%
4. Bank/Co-operative 38 57.57% 28 42.42%
5. Village Organisation 8 12.12% 58 87.87%
6. Social Worker 7 10.60% 59 89.39%
7. Others SHG 7 10.60% 59 89.39%
8. None 34 53.12% 30 46.87%
Source: Field Survey
Table 11: Distribution of SHGs by assistance of Gram Panchayat
Yes No Sl. No. Type of assistance
No % of Total No. % of Total
1. National Rural Emp. Guarantee 15 22.72% 51 77.27%
2. Mid-Day Meal 14 21.21% 52 78.78%
3. Leasing-in Land/Pond 4 5.97% 63 94.02%
4. Other 9 13.43% 58 86.56%
5. No assistance 37 55.22% 30 44.77%
Source: Field Survey
77
Table 12: Distribution of SHGs by participation in social action
Yes No Sl. No. Social Activity
No % of Total No. % of Total
1. Participation in child education 40 59.70% 27 40.29%
2. Participation in Immunisation Camp 45 68.18% 21 31.81%
3. Participation in total sanitation 40 59.70% 27 40.29%
4. Participation in Angawadi 23 34.32% 44 65.67%
5. Participation in Other act. 16 23.88% 51 76.11%
6. Protest against domestic violence 23 34.84% 43 65.15%
7. Protest against human trafficking 6 9.09% 60 90.90%
8. No participation in social action 28 41.79% 39 58.20%
Source: Field Survey
59.7
%68
.18%
59.7
%34
.32%
23.8
8%34
.84%
9.09
%41
.79%
40.2
9%31
.18%
40.2
9%65
.67% 76
.11%
65.1
5% 90.9
%
58.2
%
0
20
40
60
80
100
Yes No
Distribution of SHGs by participation in social ation
Child education Immunisation campSanitation AnganwadiOther actiivities Protest against domestic violationProtest against trafficking No participation in social action
78
Table 13: Distribution of SHGs by participation in social action
Yes No Sl. No. Participation in development
initiative No % of Total No. % of Total
1. Attendance in Gram Sansad 47 70.14% 20 29.85%
2. Submission of Group Plan to GS 29 43.28% 38 56.71%
3. Participation in GUS Activities 11 16.41% 56 83.58%
4. Participation in GP Activities. 14 21.21% 52 78.78%
5. Participation in Community initiative
12 17.91% 55 82.08%
6. No participation in development 24 35.82% 43 64.17%
Source: Field Survey
70.1
4%
43.2
8% 16.4
1%
21.2
1%17
.91% 35
.82%
29.8
5%
56.7
1%
83.5
8%
78.7
8%
82.0
8%
64.1
7%
0
20
40
60
80
100
Yes No
Distribution of SHGs by participation in social ation
Attendence in Gram Sansad Submission of Group Plan to GSGUS Activities GP ActivitiesCommunity initiatives No participation in development
79
Table 14: Distribution of SHGs by awareness of Govt. Programme
Yes No Sl. No. Govt. Programme
No % of Total No. % of Total
1. Janani Suraksha Yojana 53 79.10% 14 20.89%
2. Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme
42 62.68% 25 37.31%
3. S.G.S.Y 36 54.54% 30 45.45%
4. Annapoorna 35 53.03% 31 46.96%
5. Antyodaya 44 65.67% 23 34.32%
6. Reproductive Child Health 31 46.26% 36 53.73%
7. Kishori Sakti Yojana 16 23.88% 51 76.11%
Source: Field Survey
70.1
4%
43.2
8%
16.4
1%21
.21% 17
.91%
35.8
2%
23.8
8
29.8
5% 56.7
1% 83.5
8%78
.78%
82.0
8%64
.17%
76.1
1
0
20
40
60
80
Yes No
Distribution of SHGs by participation in social ation
Table 17: Response Analysis of Muslim women by changes for EWR in Panchayats
Sl. No. Rate of change Number % of Total
1. Very fast 11 16.41%
2. Slow 33 49.25%
3. No change 11 16.41%
4. Dominated by male member 12 17.91%
Source: Field Survey
82
Table 18: Response Analysis of Muslim women by changes after joining SHG
Yes No Sl.No. Change Aspect
No % No %
1. Very fast 22 33.33% 43 65.15%
2. Normal change 48 72.72% 18 27.27%
3. No change 3 4.68% 60 93.75%
4. Increase in self-confidence 62 93.93% 4 6.06%
5. Increase in self-esteem 60 90.90 6 9.09%
6. Increase in women’s income 61 93.84% 4 6.15%
7. Increase in social status 60 92.30% 5 7.69%
8. Not much change noticed 16 24.61% 50 76.92%
9. Increase in care of girl child 60 92.30% 5 7.69%
10. Increase in care of adolescent girl 55 84.61% 10 15.38%
11. Increase in care during pregnancy 58 89.23% 7 10.76%
12. Increase in assistance to widows 46 70.76% 19 29.23%
Source: Field Survey
83
Table 19: Response Analysis of women groups by changes observed for EWR and SHG
Sl. No. Sector Number % of Total
1.
Education i) Women have learnt to sign. ii) Children are going to school and awareness has increased iii) Illiterate women are facing problems in getting married.
35
27
1
52.23%
40.29%
2.98%
2. Income Generation Increase in income of women
50
74.62%
3. Health and Hygiene i) have understood the importance of sanitation ii) Increase in awareness
13 33
19.40% 49.25%
4. Social Development i) Increase in child care ii) Protest against social evil
3 6
4.47% 8.95%
5. Rural Development i) Increase in hygiene in family ii) Plantation of trees
5 2
7.46% 2.98%
Source: Field Survey
84
Table 20: Response Analysis of Women groups by changes in empowerment aspects by the presence of EWR and by joining SHG
Very high High Average Low Very Low Sl.No. Empowerment
Aspect No % No % No % No % No %
1. Part. In family decision 8 12.5% 32 50% 20 31.25% 4 6.25% 0 0
2. Sharing by male member 13 20.31% 28 43.75% 14 21.87% 8 12.5% 1 1.56%
3. Part. In family planning 11 17.18% 32 50% 11 17.18% 8 12.5% 2 3.12%
Table 44:Distribution of Muslim women by mother language (Dist – Nadia, N – 259)
Sl. No. Language Spoken No. of Respondents % of total
1 Bengali 259 100
2 Urdu NIL NIL
3 Hindi NIL NIL
Source: Field Survey
Table 45:Distribution of Muslim households by income class (Dist– Nadia, N – 259)
Sl. No. Status No. of households % of total
1 High 37 14
2 Middle 78 30
3 Poor 144 56
Source: Field Survey
Table 46: Distribution of Muslim women by age (Dist – Nadia, N – 259)
Sl. No. Age No. of Respondents % of total
1 20 or less 7 3
2 21 – 30 96 37
3 31 – 45 101 39
4 46 – 60 41 16
5 Above 60 14 5
Source: Field Survey
Table 47: Distribution of Muslim women by marital status (Dist – Nadia, N – 259)
Sl. No. Marital Status No. of Respondents % of total 1 Unmarried NIL NIL 2 Married 237 92 3 Widow 20 8 4 Talag – pronounced 1 insignificant 5 Separated NIL NIL 6 Left behind NIL NIL 7 Remarried 1 insignificant
Source: Field Survey
120
Table 48: Distribution of Muslim families by number of members (Dist – Nadia, N– 259)
Sl. No. Membership No. of Respondents % of total
1 Male Adult
a) Upto two 169 65
b) More than two 85 33
2 Female
a) Upto two 183 71
b) More than two 76 29
3 Male Child
a) Upto two 57 22
b) More than two NIL NIL
4 Female Child
a) Upto two 44 17
b) More than two NIL NIL
Source: Field Survey
Table 49: Distribution of Muslim women by educational status (Dist – Nadia, N – 259)
Sl. No. Education No. of Respondents % of total
1 Literate 102 39
2 Upto primary 113 40
3 Madhyamik 46 5
4 Higher Secondary or above 10 4
Source: Field Survey
121
Table 50: Distribution of family members by educational status (Dist – Nadia, N – 259)
Sl. No.
Educational Status
At present number
% of total Before 10 yrs
% of total
1 Primary
a) Upto two 127 49 93 36
b) More than two 23 9 19 7
2 Madhyamik
a) One 63 24 35 14
b) More than one 84 32 14 5
3 Uchha Madhyamik
a) One 13 5 4 2
b) More than one 4 2 2 1
4 Graduate
a) One 9 3 3 1
b) More than one 4 2 NIL NIL
5 Post Graduate
a) One 3 1 1 insignificant
b) More than one 1 insignificant 1 insignificant
Source: Field Survey
Table 51: Distribution of Muslim Women by ownership of assets (Dist – Nadia, N – 259)
Sl. No. Nature of assets No. of Households % of total
1 Land 17 7
2 House 4 2
3 Savings & other assets 87 34
4 No asset 158 61
Source: Field Survey
122
Table 52: Distribution of Muslim Women by occupation (Dist – Nadia, N – 259)
Sl. No. Occupation Number % of total
1 Agriculture 4 2
2 Livestock 53 20
3 House industry 8 3
4 Small business 6 2
5 Service 3 1
6 No employment 184 71
7 Others 1 insignificant
Source: Field Survey
Table 53: Distribution of Muslim households by members engaged in occupation (Dist – Nadia, N – 259)
Sl. No. Family members active in occupation No. of members % of total
1 Agriculture
a) Upto two 197 76
b) More than two 12 5
2 Livestock
a) Upto two 63 24
b) More than two 84 32
3 House industry
a) Upto two 13 5
b) More than two 4 2
4 Small business
a) One 9 3
b) More than one 4 2
5 Service
a) One 3 1
b) More than one 1 insignificant
6. Others
a) One 39 15
b) More than one 2 1
Source: Field Survey
123
Table 54: Distribution of Muslim households by change of status of employment (Dist – Nadia, N – 259)
Sl. No. Status of employment No. of family members % of total
1 Member employed 10 yrs ago 312 124
2 Member employed at present 403 156
Source: Field Survey
Table 55: Distribution of Muslim women by monthly income (Dist – Nadia, N – 259)
Sl. No. Income range No. of women % of total
1 Upto Rs. 500 69 27
2 Rs. 501 – Rs. 1000 3 1
3 Rs. 1001 – Rs. 2000 1 insignificant
4 Above Rs. 2000 NIL NIL
5 No income 186 72
Source: Field Survey
Table 56: Distribution of households by range of family income (Dist – Nadia, N – 259)
Sl. No. Range of monthly family income No. of muslim households % of total
1 Upto Rs. 2000 165 64
2 Rs. 2001 – Rs. 5000 75 29
3 Rs. 5001 – Rs. 10000 16 6
4 Rs. 10001 – Rs. 20000 2 1
5 Above Rs. 20000 NIL NIL
Source: Field Survey
Table 57: Distribution of households by increase in monthly family income (Dist – Nadia, N – 259)
Sl. No. Range of increase in monthly family income No. of households % of total1 Upto Rs. 500 64 252 Rs. 501 – Rs. 1000 32 123 Rs. 1001 – Rs. 2000 10 44 More than Rs. 2000 3 15 No increase 150 58
Source: Field Survey
124
Table 58: Distribution of households by status of food security (Dist – Nadia, N – 259)
Sl. No. Food security status Yes
No. %
1 Two square meals daily 233 90
2 Take pulses daily 155 60
3 Eat vegetables regularly 165 64
4 Take protein food regularly 123 47
Source: Field Survey
Table 59: Distribution of women by institution of delivery (Dist – Nadia, N – 259)
Sl. No. Institution Number % of total
1 At hospital / health centre 64 25
2 At home 193 75
3 By trained dai 88 34
4 By neighbours 139 54
Source: Field Survey
Table 60: Distribution of women by age at marriage (Dist – Nadia, N – 259)
Sl. No. Age at marriage Number % of total
1 Below 18 years of age 225 87
2 Above 18 years of age 34 13
Source: Field Survey
Table 61: Distribution of women by method of family planning (Dist – Nadia, N – 259)
Sl. No. Method of family planning Number % of total
1 Adopted / willing to adopt pmt. method 76 29
2 Using modern method 68 26
3 No family planning 115 44
4 No response NIL NIL
Source: Field Survey
125
Table 62: Distribution of women by the institution for medical treatment (Dist – Nadia, N – 259)
Sl. No. Institution Number % of total
1 Hospital 195 75
2 Health centre 135 52
3 Qualified doctor 149 58
4 Quack / Yunani 20 8
5 Unqualified RMP 171 66
6 Others 2 1
Source: Field Survey
Table 63: Distribution of women by access of health services (Dist – Nadia, N – 259)
Sl. No. Health care service during pregnancy Number % of total
1 Health examination (thrice) 108 42
2 Anti – tetanus injection 129 50
3 Iron tablets 115 44
4 Supplementary food 35 14
Source: Field Survey
Table 64: Distribution of women by immunization of children (Dist – Nadia, N – 259)
Sl. No. Immunization coverage Number % of total
1 100% coverage 115 44
2 Not all children 58 22
3 None 36 14
4 Partial coverage 50 19
Source: Field Survey
126
Table 65: Distribution of women by perceptions of change in health care measures in the last 10 years (Dist – Nadia, N – 259)
Sl. No. Change in health service Number % of total
1 Increase in public health care 167 64
2 Regular monitoring by health worker 168 65
3 Increase in access to doctor 225 87
4 Other 1 insignificant
5 No change 56 22
Source: Field Survey
Table 66: Distribution of Muslim families by access to water and sanitation (Dist – Nadia, N – 259)
Sl. No. Source Yes
No. %
1 Tube well 254 98
2 Sanitory latrine 159 61
3 Drainage facility 54 21
4 Smokeless chullah 14 5
Source: Field Survey
Table 67: Distribution of Muslim women by association (Dist – Nadia, N – 259)
Sl. No. Association Number % of total
1 Self – Help group 78 30
2 Gram Unnayan samity 10 4
3 Anganwadi centre 7 3
4 Mother – Teacher committee 6 2
5 None 158 61
Source: Field Survey
127
Table 68: Distribution of muslim women by membership in Self – help group (Dist – Nadia, N – 259)
Sl. No. Membership status Number % of total
1 Savings
a) Upto Rs. 1000 56 72
b) Above Rs. 1000 22 28
2 Credit
a) Upto Rs. 1000 22 28
b) Above Rs. 1000 33 42
3 Participation in social action 12 15
4 Increase in income 55 70
Source: Field Survey
Table 69: Distribution of women by awareness of Govt. Program (Dist – Nadia, N – 259)
Sl. No. Program Yes
No. %
1 Indira Abas Yojana 143 55
2 NREGA 234 90
3 Janan Suraksha Yojana 152 59
4 Widow Pension 71 27
5 S.G.S.Y 191 74
6 Balika Samriddhi Yojana 36 14
7 Others 1 0
8 None 73 28
Source: Field Survey
Table 70: Distribution of women by knowledge of Gram Sansad (Dist – Nadia, N – 259)
Sl. No. Program Yes No
No. % No. %
1 Heard about it 112 43 147 57
Source: Field Survey
128
Table 71: Distribution of Muslim families by access to public services (Dist – Nadia, N – 259)
Sl. No. Services/Utility Yes % No %
1 Ration card 240 93 19 7
2 Voter ID 253 98 6 2
3 Job card 219 85 40 15
4 BPL card 125 48 131 51
5 Health card 165 64 94 36
Source: Field Survey
Table 72: Distribution of women by opinion about elected panchayat representative (Dist – Nadia, N – 259)
Sl. No. Opinion accessible Yes
No. %
1 Attentive 169 65
2 Tries up to ability 169 65
3 Never listens 78 30
4 No work, no power 75 29
Source: Field Survey
Table 73: Distribution of Muslim women by assistance of Govt. employees (Dist – Nadia, N – 259)
Sl. No. Indicator Yes
No. %
1 Not known 173 67
2 Not seen 149 57
3 Empathetic 86 33
4 Tries utmost 70 27
Source: Field Survey
129
Table 74: Distribution of Muslim women by legal awareness (Dist – Nadia, N – 259)
Sl. No. Nature of law Yes
No. %
1 Sariat 119 46
2 Marriage registration 106 41
3 Domestic violence 59 23
4 Wife bashing 80 31
5 Trafficking 101 39
6 Talaq 146 56
7 Khula 85 33
8 Maintenance 86 33
9 Right to property 113 44
Source: Field Survey
Table 75: Distribution of Muslim women by activities of Gram Panchayat (Dist – Nadia, N – 259)
Sl. No. Indicator Yes
No. %
1 Drinking water 159 61
2 Roads 179 69
3 Electricity 122 47
4 Drainage 33 13
Source: Field Survey
Table 76: Distribution of Muslim women by opinion about SHG (Dist – Nadia, N – 259) (SHG Members)
Sl. No. SHG’s Need Yes
No. %
1 Assistance of GP 72 28
2 Training / Skill formation 72 28
3 Bank assistance 73 28
4 Marketing assistance 70 27
Source: Field Survey
130
Table 77: Distribution of Muslim women by mother language (Dist – Howrah, N – 200)
Sl. No. Language spoken Number % of total
1 Bengali 200 100
Source: Field Survey
Table 78: Distribution of Muslim households by income class (Dist – Howrah, N – 200)
Sl. No. Status No. of households % of total
1 High 48 24
2 Middle 72 36
3 Poor 80 40
Source: Field Survey
Table 79: Distribution of Muslim women by age (Dist – Howrah, N – 200)
Sl. No. Age No. of respondents % of total
1 20 or less 2 1
2 21 – 30 60 30
3 31 – 45 91 45
4 46 – 60 42 21
5 Above 60 5 3
Source: Field Survey
Table 80: Distribution of Muslim women by marital status (Dist – Howrah, N – 200)
Sl. No. Marital status No. of respondents % of total
1 Unmarried 1 insignificant
2 Married 172 86
3 Widow 25 13
4 Talaq pronounced 1 insignificant
5 Separated NIL NIL
6 Left behind NIL NIL
7 Remarried 1 insignificant
Source: Field Survey
131
Table 81: Distribution of Muslim families by number of member (Dist – Howrah, N – 200)
Sl. No. Membership status Number % of total
1 Male adult
a) Upto two 82 41
b) More than two 116 58
2 Female
a) Upto two 94 47
b) More than two 105 53
3 Male child
a) Upto two 76 38
b) More than two 5 3
4 Female child
a) Upto two 71 36
b) More than two 5 3
Source: Field Survey
Table 82: Distribution of Muslim women by educational status (Dist – Howrah, N – 200)
Sl. No. Education No. of respondents % of total
1 Literate 93 47
2 Upto primary 39 20
3 Madhyamik 54 27
4 Higher secondary or above 14 7
Source: Field Survey
132
Table 83: Distribution of family members by educational status (Dist – Howrah, N – 200)
Sl. No.
Educational status At present number
% of total
Before 10 years
% of Total
1 Primary
a) Upto two 80 40 97 49
b) More than two 65 33 41 21
2 Madhyamik
a) One 41 21 37 19
b) More than one 103 52 39 20
3 Uchha madhyamik
a) One 11 6 5 3
b) More than one 8 4 3 2
4 Graduate
a) One 6 3 2 1
b) More than one 4 2 2 1
5 Post Graduate
a) One NIL NIL NIL NIL
b) More than one NIL NIL NIL NIL
Source: Field Survey
Table 84: Distribution of Muslim Women by ownership of assets (Dist – Howrah, N – 200)
Sl. No. Nature of asstes No. of households % of total
1 Land 14 7
2 House 7 4
3 Savings & other assets 48 24
4 No asset 131 65
Source: Field Survey
133
Table 85: Distribution of Muslim Women by occupation (Dist – Howrah, N – 200)
Sl. No. Occupation Number % of total
1 Agriculture 2 1
2 Livestock 9 4
3 House industry 30 15
4 Small business 1 1
5 Service NIL NIL
6 No employment 149 75
7 Others 9 4
Source: Field Survey
Table 86: Distribution of Muslim households by members engaged in occupation (Dist – Howrah, N– 200)
Sl. No. Family members active in occupation Number of members % of total
1 Agriculture
a) Upto two 25 13
b) More than two 1 insignificant
2 Livestock
a) Upto two 3 2
b) More than two NIL NIL
3 House industry
a) Upto two 114 57
b) More than two 31 16
4 Small business
a) One 14 7
b) More than one 3 2
5 Service
a) One 7 4
b) More than one 2 1
6 Others
a) One 42 21
b) More than one 20 10
Source: Field Survey
134
Table 87: Distribution of Muslim households by change of status of employment (Dist – Howrah, N – 200)
Sl. No. Status of employment No. of family members % of total
1 Members employed 10 years ago 198 99
2 Members employed at present 198 99
Source: Field Survey
Table 88: Distribution of Muslim women by monthly income (Dist – Howrah, N – 200)
Sl. No. Income range No. of women % of total
1 Upto Rs. 500 26 13
2 Rs. 501 – Rs. 1000 11 6
3 Rs. 1001 – Rs. 2000 10 5
4 Above Rs. 2000 NIL NIL
5 No income 153 76
Source: Field Survey
Table 89: Distribution of households by range of family income (Dist – Howrah, N – 200)
Sl. No. Range of monthly family income No. of Muslim households % of total
1 Upto Rs. 2000 96 48
2 Rs. 2001 – Rs. 5000 82 41
3 Rs. 5001 – Rs. 10000 15 8
4 Rs. 10001 – Rs. 20000 3 2
5 Above Rs. 20000 3 2
Source: Field Survey
135
Table 90: Distribution of households by increase in monthly income (Dist – Howrah, N – 200)
Sl. No. Range of increase in monthly income No. of households % of total
1 Upto Rs. 500 52 26
2 Rs. 501 – Rs. 1000 36 18
3 Rs. 1001 – Rs. 2000 7 4
4 More than Rs. 2000 6 3
5 No increase 99 50
Source: Field Survey
Table 91: Distribution of households by staus of food security (Dist – Howrah, N – 200)
Sl. No. Food security status Yes
No. %
1 Two squares meals daily 183 92
2 Take pulses regularly 122 61
3 Eat vegetables regularly 172 86
4 Take protein food regularly 100 50
Source: Field Survey
Table 92: Distribution of Muslim women by institution of delivery (Dist – Howrah, N – 200)
Sl. No. Institution Number % of total
1 At hospital / health care 93 46
2 At home 130 64
3 By trained dai 62 31
4 By neighbours 68 34
Source: Field Survey
Table 93: Distribution of Muslim women by age at marriage (Dist – Howrah, N – 200)
Sl. No. Age at marriage No. of respondents % of total
1 Below 18 years of age 167 84
2 Above 18 years of age 32 16
Source: Field Survey
136
Table 94: Distribution of Muslim women by method of family planning (Dist – Howrah, N – 200)
Sl. No. Method of family planning No. of respondents % of total
1 Adopted / willing to adopt pmt. Method 43 21
2 Using modern method 51 25
3 No family planning 106 53
Source: Field Survey
Table 95: Distribution of Muslim women by the institution for medical treatment (Dist – Howrah, N – 200)
Sl. No. Institution No. of respondents % of total
1 Hospital 130 65
2 Health Centre 85 43
3 Qualified Doctor 190 95
4 Quack / Yunani 25 13
5 Unqualified RMP 158 79
6 Others 1 1
Source: Field Survey
137
Table 96: Distribution of Muslim Women by access of health service (Dist – Howrah, N – 200)
Sl. No. Health care service by pregnancy No. of respondents % of total
1 Health examination (thrice) 52 26
2 Anti titenus injection 130 65
3 Iron tablets 54 27
4 Supplementary food 44 22
Source: Field Survey
Table 97: Distribution of Muslim women by immunization of children (Dist – Howrah, N – 200)
Sl. No. Immunization coverage No. of respondents % of total
1 100% coverage 53 27
2 Not all children 98 49
3 None 28 14
4 Partial coverage 21 10
Source: Field Survey
Table 98: Distribution of Muslim women by perception of change in health care measures in the last 10 years (Dist – Howrah, N – 200)
Sl. No. Change in health service No. of respondents % of total
1 Increase in public health care 115 58
2 Regular monitoring by health worker 152 76
3 Increase in access to doctor 190 95
4 Other 3 2
5 No change 37 19
Source: Field Survey
138
Table 99: Distribution of Muslim families by access to water (Dist – Howrah, N – 200)
Sl. No. Source Yes
No. %
1 Tube well 197 99
2 Sanitary latrine 148 74
3 Drainage facility 39 20
4 Smokeless chullah 3 2
Source: Field Survey
Table 100: Distribution of Muslim Women by association (Dist – Howrah, N – 200)
Sl. No. Association Number % of total
1 Self – help group 15 7.5
2 Gram unnayan samity 7 3.5
3 Anganwadi centre 5 2.5
4 Mother – teache committee NIL NIL
5 Others NIL NIL
6 None 173 86.5
Source: Field Survey
Table 101: Distribution of Muslim Women by membership in self – help group (Dist – Howrah, N – 200)
Sl. No. Membership status Number % of total
1 Savings
a) Up to Rs. 1000 14 93
b) Above Rs. 1000 1 7
2 Credit
a) Up to Rs. 1000 11 73
b) Above Rs. 1000 NIL NIL
3 Participation in social action 5 33
4 Increase in income 11 73
Source: Field Survey
139
Table 102: Distribution of Muslim women by awareness of Govt. Programs (Dist – Howrah, N – 200)
Sl. No. Program Yes
No. %
1 Indira Awas Yojana 130 65
2 NREGA 50 25
3 Janani Suraksha Yojana 101 51
4 Widow pension 99 50
5 S.G.S.Y. 180 90
6 Balika samriddhi yojana 16 8
7 None 57 29
Source: Field Survey
Table 103: Distribution of Muslim women by awareness of Gram Sansad (Dist – Howrah, N – 200)
Sl. No. Gram Sansad Yes No
No. % No. %
1 Heard about it 46 23 153 77
Source: Field Survey
Table 104: Distribution of Muslim families by entitlement to public services (Dist – Howrah, N – 200)
Sl. No. Services / Utility Yes No
No. % No. %
1 Ration card 183 92 17 9
2 Voter ID 183 92 17 9
3 Job card 4 2 196 98
4 BPL card 63 32 137 69
5 Health card 152 76 48 24
6 Others 6 3 0 0
Source: Field Survey
140
Table 105: Distribution of Muslim women by opinion about elected panchayat representative (Dist – Howrah, N – 200)
Sl. No. Opinion accessible Yes
No. %
1 Attentive 114 57
2 Tries up to ability 96 48
3 Never listens 69 35
4 No work, no power 66 33
Source: Field Survey
Table 106: Distribution of Muslim women by assistance of Govt. employees (Dist – Howrah, N – 200)
Sl. No. Indicator Yes
No. %
1 Not known 77 39
2 Not seen 17 9
3 Empathetic 28 14
4 Tries utmost 28 14
Source: Field Survey
Table 107: Distribution of Muslim women by legal awareness (Dist – Howrah, N – 200)
Sl. No. Nature of law Yes
No. %
1 Sariat 104 52
2 Marriage registration 112 56
3 Domestic violence 94 47
4 Wife bashing 76 38
5 Trafficking 78 39
6 Talaq 80 40
7 Khula 46 23
8 Maintenance 56 28
9 Right to property 68 34
Source: Field Survey
141
Table 108: Distribution of Muslim women by activities of Gram Panchayat (Dist – Howrah, N – 200)
Sl. No. Activity Yes
No. %
1 Drinking water 155 78
2 Roads 156 78
3 Electricity 162 81
4 Drainage 13 7
5 Others (State) NIL NIL
Source: Field Survey
Table 109: Distribution of Muslim Women by opinion about Self Help Groups (Dist – Howrah, N – 200) (SHG Members)
Sl. No. SHG’s need Yes No
No. % No. %
1 Assistance of GP 14 93 1 1
2 Training / Skill formation 15 100 1 1
3 Bank Assistance 15 100 0 0
4 Marketing Assistance 15 100 1 1
Source: Field Survey
Table 110: Distribution of Muslim women by mother language (Dist – Murshidabad, N– 295)
Sl. No. Language spoken Respondents % of total
1 Bengali 295 100
Source: Field Survey
Table 111: Distribution of Muslim households by income class (Dist – Murshidabad, N– 295)
Sl. No. Status No. of households % of total
1 High 51 17
2 Middle 123 42
3 Poor 121 41
Source: Field Survey
142
Table 112: Distribution of Muslim women by age (Dist – Murshidabad, N – 295)
Sl. No. Age No. of households % of total
1 20 or less 10 3
2 21 – 30 82 28
3 31 – 45 129 44
4 46 – 60 55 19
5 Above 60 19 6
Source: Field Survey
Table 113: Distribution of Muslim women by marital status (Dist – Murshidabad, N – 295)
Sl. No. Marital status No. of respondents % of total
1 Unmarried 1 insignificant
2 Married 265 90
3 Widow 22 7
4 Talaq – pronounced NIL NIL
5 Separated NIL NIL
6 Left behind 2 1
7 Remarried 5 2
Source: Field Survey
143
Table 114: Distribution of Muslim families by number of member (Dist – Murshidabad, N – 295)
Sl. No. Marital status No. of respondents % of total
1 Male adult
a) Up to two 187 63
b) More than two 108 37
2 Female
a) Up to two 199 67
b) More than two 96 33
3 Male child
a) Up to two 295 100
b) More than two NIL NIL
4 Female child
a) Up to two 294 100
b) More than two 1 insignificant
Source: Field Survey
Table 115: Distribution of Muslim families by educational status (Dist – Murshidabad, N – 295)
Sl. No. Marital status No. of respondents % of total
1 Literate 138 47
2 Up to primary 47 16
3 Up to upper primary 74 25
4 Madhyamik 29 10
5 Higher Secondary or above 7 2
Source: Field Survey
144
Table 116: Distribution of Familiy Members by Educational Status (Dist – Murshidabad, N – 295)
Sl. No.
Educational Status
At Present number
% of total Before 10 years
% of Total
1 Primary
a) Upto 145 49 105 36
b) More than two 42 14 25 8
2 Madhyamik
a) One 142 48 97 33
b) More than two 72 24 16 5
3 Uchha
a) One 28 9 11 4
b) More than two 3 1 NIL NIL
4 Graduate
a) One 20 7 17 6
b) More than two 1 insignificant Insignificant Insignificant
5 Post Graduate
a) One 7 2 4 1
b) More than two 1 Insignificant NIL NIL
Table 117: Distribution of Muslim households by ownership of assets (Dist – Murshidabad, N – 295)
Sl. No. Nature of assets No. of households % of total
1 Land 67 23
2 House 35 12
3 Savings & other assets 137 46
4 No asset 113 38
Source: Field Survey
145
Table 118: Distribution of Muslim women by occupation (Dist – Murshidabad, N – 295)
Sl. No. Occupation Number % of total
1 Agriculture 21 7
2 Livestock 117 40
3 House industry 16 5
4 Small business 7 2
5 Service 8 3
6 No employment 150 51
7 Others 12 4
Source: Field Survey
Table 119: Distribution of Muslim Households by Members Engaged in Occupation (Dist – Murshidabad, N – 295)
Sl. No. Educational Status At Present number % of total
1 Agriculture
a) Up to Two 193 65
b) More than two 23 78
2 Livestock
a) Up to Two 115 39
b) More than two 6 2
3 House Industry
a) Upto Two 28 9
b) More than two 1 insignificant
4 Small Business
a) One 56 19
b) More than one 4 13
5 Service
a) One 34 11
b) More than one 1 Insignificant
6 Others
a) One 68 23
b) More than one NIL NIL
146
Table 120: Distribution of Muslim Households by Change of status of employment (Dist – Murshidabad, N – 295)
Sl. No. Status of employment Number of family members % of total
1 Members employed 10 years ago 399 135
2 Members employed at present 581 197
Table 121: Distribution of Muslim women by monthly income (Dist – Murshidabad, N – 295)
Sl. No. Income range Number of women % of total
1 Up to Rs. 500 119 40
2 Rs. 501 – Rs. 1000 20 7
3 Rs. 1001 – Rs. 2000 6 2
4 Above Rs. 2000 1 Insignificant
5 No income 149 50
Source: Field Survey
Table 122: Distribution of households by range of family income (Dist – Murshidabad, N – 295)
Sl. No. Range of monthly family income Number of muslim households % of total
1 Up to Rs. 2000 151 51
2 Rs. 2001 – Rs. 5000 101 34
3 Rs. 5001 – Rs. 10000 36 12
4 Rs. 10001 – Rs 20000 5 2
5 Above 20000 2 1
Source: Field Survey
Table 123: Distribution of households by increase in monthly family income (Dist – Murshidabad, N – 295)
Sl. No.
Range of increase in monthly income
Number of muslim households
% of total
1 Up to Rs. 500 99 34
2 Rs. 501 – Rs. 1000 71 24
3 Rs. 1001 – Rs. 2000 22 7
4 More than 2000 15 5
5 No increase 88 30
Source: Field Survey
147
Table 124: Distribution of households by status of food security (Dist – Murshidabad, N – 295)
Sl. No. Food security status Yes
No. %
1 Two square meals daily 225 76
2 Take pulses regularly 159 54
3 Eat vegetables regularly 264 89
4 Take protein food regularly 117 40
Source: Field Survey
Table 125: Distribution of women by institution of delivery (Dist – Murshidabad, N – 295)
Sl. No. Institution Number % of total
1 At hospital / health centre 64 22
2 At home 263 89
3 By trained dai 92 31
4 By neighbours 11 4
Source: Field Survey
Table 126: Distribution of women by age at marriage (Dist – Murshidabad, N – 295)
Sl. No. Age at marriage No. of respondents % of total
1 Below 18 years 245 83
2 Above 18 years 50 17
Source: Field Survey
Table 127: Distribution of women by method of family planning (Dist – Murshidabad, N – 295)
Sl. No. Method of family planning No. of respondents % of total
1 Adopted / willing to adopt pmt. Method 98 33
2 Using modern method 32 11
3 No family planning 165 56
Source: Field Survey
148
Table 128: Distribution of women by the institution for medical treatment (Dist – Murshidabad, N – 295)
Sl. No. Institution No. of respondents % of total
1 Hospital 253 86
2 Health Centre 123 42
3 Qualified Doctor 149 50
4 Quack / Yunani 14 5
5 Unqualified RMP 187 63
6 Others 3 1
Source: Field Survey
Table 129: Distribution of women by access of health services (Dist – Murshidabad, N – 295)
Sl. No. Health care service during pregnancy No. of respondents % of total
1 Health examination (thrice) 121 41
2 Anti tetanus injection 173 69
3 Iron tablets 123 42
4 Supplementary food 81 27
Source: Field Survey
Table 130: Distribution of women by immunization of children (Dist – Murshidabad, N – 295)
Sl. No. Immunization coverage No. of respondents % of total
1 100% coverage 93 32
2 Not all children 60 20
3 None 45 15
4 Partial coverage 97 33
Source: Field Survey
Table 131: Distribution of women by perception of change in health care measures in the last 10 years (Dist – Murshidabad, N – 295)
Sl. No. Change in health service No. of respondents % of total
1 Increase in public health care 206 70
2 Regular monitoring by health worker 191 65
3 Increase in access to doctor 141 48
4 No change 89 30
Source: Field Survey
149
Table 132: Distribution of Muslim families by access to water and sanitation (Dist – Murshidabad, N – 295)
Sl. No. Change in health service Yes
No. %
1 Tube well 290 98
2 Sanitary latrine 145 49
3 Drainage facility 64 22
4 Smokeless chullah 16 5
Source: Field Survey
Table 133: Distribution of Muslim women by association (Dist – Murshidabad, N – 295)
Sl. No. Association No. of respondents % of total
1 Self - Help Group 78 26
2 Gram Unnayan Samity 14 5
3 Anganwadi Centre 20 7
4 Mother – Teacher committee 10 3
5 None 173 insignificant
Source: Field Survey
Table 134: Distribution of Muslim women by Membership of SHG (Dist – Murshidabad, N – 295)
Sl. No. Membership Number % of total
1 Savings
a) Up to Rs. 1000 41 53
b) Above Rs. 1000 37 47
2 Credit
a) Up to Rs. 1000 16 5
b) Above Rs. 1000 31 10
3 Participation in Social Action 26 33
4 Increase in income 52 66
Source: Field Survey
150
Table 135: Distribution of Muslim women by awareness of Govt. Program (Dist – Murshidabad, N – 295)
Sl. No. Program Yes
No. %
1 Indira Awas Yojana 139 47
2 NREGA 237 80
3 Janani Suraksha Yojana 158 54
4 Widow pension 123 42
5 S.G.S.Y 222 75
6 Balika smriddhi yojana 26 9
7 Others 11 4
8 None 42 14
Source: Field Survey
Table 136: Distribution of Muslim women by awareness of Gram Sansad (Dist – Murshidabad, N – 295)
Gram Sansad Yes No
No. % No. %
Heard about it 94 32 201 68
Source: Field Survey
Table 137: Distribution of Muslim families by entitlement to public services (Dist – Murshidabad, N – 295)
Sl. No. Service / Utility Yes % No %
1 Ration card 278 94 17 6
2 Voter ID 281 95 14 5
3 Job card 192 65 103 35
4 BPL card 77 26 218 74
5 Health card 190 64 105 36
6 Othesr 4 1 291 99
Source: Field Survey
151
Table 138: Distribution of women by opinion about elected Panchayat representative (Dist – Murshidabad, N– 295)
Sl. No. Opinion accessible Yes No
No. % No. %
1 Attentive 143 48 150 51
2 Tries upto ability 132 45 152 52
3 Never listens 93 31 163 55
4 No work, no power 84 28 211 72
Source: Field Survey
Table 139: Distribution of Muslim women by assistance of Govt. employees (Dist – Murshidabad, N – 295)
Sl. No. Indicator Yes
No. %
1 Not known 209 71
2 Not seen 12 4
3 Empathetic 50 20
4 Tries utmost 50 26
Source: Field Survey
Table 140: Distribution of Muslim women by legal awareness (Dist – Murshidabad, N – 295)
Sl. No. Nature of law Yes
No. %
1 Sariat 142 48
2 Marriage registration 134 45
3 Domestic violence 133 45
4 Wife bashing 118 40
5 Trafficking 120 41
6 Talaq 140 47
7 Khula 86 29
8 Maintenance 132 45
9 Right to property 112 38
Source: Field survey
152
Table 141: Distribution of Muslim women by activities of GP (Dist – Murshidabad, N – 295)
