商品的出現：文化基礎商品的出現：文化基礎

““Commodities must be not only produced Commodities must be not only produced materially as things, but also culturally materially as things, but also culturally marked as being a certain kind of thing… marked as being a certain kind of thing… Out of the total range of things available Out of the total range of things available in a society, only some of them are in a society, only some of them are considered appropriate for marking as considered appropriate for marking as commodities…commodities…

Such shift and differences in whether and Such shift and differences in whether and when a thing will become a commodity when a thing will become a commodity reveal a moral economy that stands reveal a moral economy that stands behind the objective economy for visible behind the objective economy for visible transactions’’ (Igor Kopytoff, The Social transactions’’ (Igor Kopytoff, The Social Meaning of Things)Meaning of Things)

““ 在社會主義社會中，並非一切免費，在在社會主義社會中，並非一切免費，在資本主義社會中也不是所有事物，都會變資本主義社會中也不是所有事物，都會變成商品” 成商品” (Michel Albert(Michel Albert ，兩種資本主義，兩種資本主義之戰之戰 ))

““ 商品的消費不只是發生在一個經濟體系商品的消費不只是發生在一個經濟體系之中，他還發生在一個文化體系之中。” 之中，他還發生在一個文化體系之中。” (Robert Bocock(Robert Bocock ，消費，消費 ))

解釋商品的誕生解釋商品的誕生

經濟學家認為，商品是企業家看到消費者經濟學家認為，商品是企業家看到消費者的需求，才產生的創新的需求，才產生的創新

經濟社會學對於商品的研究興趣經濟社會學對於商品的研究興趣

文化價值和意識型態對於特定商品出現文化價值和意識型態對於特定商品出現的影響（支持或抵制）？的影響（支持或抵制）？

哪些社會結構影響（促成或阻礙）商品的出哪些社會結構影響（促成或阻礙）商品的出現？現？

這些社會和文化的影響如何反映在廠商促這些社會和文化的影響如何反映在廠商促銷的廣告手段？銷的廣告手段？

商品出現如何進一步改變文化價值？商品出現如何進一步改變文化價值？

社會學的興趣社會學的興趣

文化和商品的文化和商品的 co-productionco-production ，彼此影響、，彼此影響、形塑。形塑。

對於經濟如何發生在文化中，經濟社會學對於經濟如何發生在文化中，經濟社會學有很多研究，但對文化如何發生在經濟體有很多研究，但對文化如何發生在經濟體系中，也就是文化如何深受商品市場邏輯系中，也就是文化如何深受商品市場邏輯的影響，比較少關心。的影響，比較少關心。

壽險商品的出現壽險商品的出現

控制的理性控制的理性

壽險業研究 壽險業研究 Morals and Market, by Viviana Morals and Market, by Viviana Zelizer, 1983 Zelizer, 1983

Zelizer Zelizer 以研究文化與經濟的主題著名，多研究以研究文化與經濟的主題著名，多研究商品和文化之間的關係，一方面討論被認為不應商品和文化之間的關係，一方面討論被認為不應該成為商品的生活如何變成商品，另一方面也討該成為商品的生活如何變成商品，另一方面也討論金錢不只是交易的工具，也有社會意義論金錢不只是交易的工具，也有社會意義

近作 近作 The Purchase of IntimacyThe Purchase of Intimacy

生命有價？生命有價？

壽險商品的出現呼應社會的需求（都市化、壽險商品的出現呼應社會的需求（都市化、核心家庭、家庭分為經濟支持者與依賴核心家庭、家庭分為經濟支持者與依賴者），但是，只有社會需求不足以讓這個者），但是，只有社會需求不足以讓這個商品出現，對於生命議價違反文化中對於商品出現，對於生命議價違反文化中對於生命無價的看法。直到新的文化價值觀出生命無價的看法。直到新的文化價值觀出現才使得壽險產業得到大眾的接受。 現才使得壽險產業得到大眾的接受。

. .

各國在壽險業出現時都遭遇文化抗拒，因各國在壽險業出現時都遭遇文化抗拒，因為壽險是針對生命予以精算。前提是必須為壽險是針對生命予以精算。前提是必須知道死亡的經濟代價才能建立產品的內容。知道死亡的經濟代價才能建立產品的內容。對於生命的議價挑戰各種社會對於生命乃對於生命的議價挑戰各種社會對於生命乃是神聖的看法，因此經常遭遇文化抵制。是神聖的看法，因此經常遭遇文化抵制。

““The life of every man has a value; not The life of every man has a value; not merely a moral value as weighed in the merely a moral value as weighed in the scale of social affection and family ties scale of social affection and family ties but a value which may be measured in but a value which may be measured in money.” (From an insurance magazine)money.” (From an insurance magazine)

“ “The establishment of monetary The establishment of monetary equivalents for those aspects of the equivalents for those aspects of the social order, such as death, life, human social order, such as death, life, human organs, and items or behavior considered organs, and items or behavior considered scared and therefore, beyond the scared and therefore, beyond the monetary definition.” monetary definition.”

文化態度的改變文化態度的改變

The attitudes toward death had changed The attitudes toward death had changed from religion and superstitions-orientation from religion and superstitions-orientation to a more active and rational orientation to a more active and rational orientation toward death and disease. This change toward death and disease. This change supported a more active and rational supported a more active and rational orientation toward death and disease and orientation toward death and disease and provided a source of cultural support for provided a source of cultural support for life insurance. P.45 life insurance. P.45

More and more people view the end of More and more people view the end of life a major financial issue. Life insurance life a major financial issue. Life insurance was part of general value change to was part of general value change to rationalize and formalize the rationalize and formalize the management of death. Life insurance management of death. Life insurance makes people plan and discuss their makes people plan and discuss their death in monetary terms.” P.45 death in monetary terms.” P.45

But there were criticisms toward life But there were criticisms toward life insurance because it was regarded as to insurance because it was regarded as to compensate the loss of a father and a compensate the loss of a father and a husband with money to his wife and husband with money to his wife and children. Critics objected that this turned children. Critics objected that this turned man’s sacred life into an “article of man’s sacred life into an “article of merchandise.” P.45 merchandise.” P.45

促銷的文化手段促銷的文化手段

Culture persuasion: life insurance companies Culture persuasion: life insurance companies used many media trying to change people’s used many media trying to change people’s attitudes from fatalistic ideology to human attitudes from fatalistic ideology to human control over all aspects of death.control over all aspects of death.

Door-to door sales: Energetic salesmanship Door-to door sales: Energetic salesmanship is considered important to breakthrough is considered important to breakthrough client reluctance to deal with the economics client reluctance to deal with the economics of death.of death.

壽險對於生命壽險對於生命 // 死亡的文化影響死亡的文化影響

人們將生命視為經濟資產（有生命就有人們將生命視為經濟資產（有生命就有賺錢能力），死亡被視為與改變經濟生賺錢能力），死亡被視為與改變經濟生活有關的事件。活有關的事件。

購買壽險變成一家之主照顧家人的責任感，購買壽險變成一家之主照顧家人的責任感，保得越多，顯示越有責任感。保得越多，顯示越有責任感。

結論結論

1.Values and ideologies regarding death 1.Values and ideologies regarding death and life interacted with the institution of and life interacted with the institution of life insurance.life insurance.

2.Life insurance encountered great 2.Life insurance encountered great cultural resistance that condemned its cultural resistance that condemned its materialistic assessment of death. materialistic assessment of death.

3. But later changing attitudes that favored the 3. But later changing attitudes that favored the controllability of death at beginning of 20th controllability of death at beginning of 20th century, encouraged the insurance industry to century, encouraged the insurance industry to prosper and become a widely accepted prosper and become a widely accepted commodity.commodity.

4. Life insurance also continued to change 4. Life insurance also continued to change people’s ideas regarding life and death to a people’s ideas regarding life and death to a more rational and economic direction.more rational and economic direction.

幼兒用品業的產生幼兒用品業的產生

母職的文化母職的文化

In Cook’s study, his concern centers onIn Cook’s study, his concern centers on “how childhood has developed into a “how childhood has developed into a site for commercial activity in the site for commercial activity in the twentieth century.”twentieth century.”

Commercialization of childhood has Commercialization of childhood has brought many new businesses such as brought many new businesses such as education, insurance, and most obviously education, insurance, and most obviously commodities supply for making childhood commodities supply for making childhood comfortable. comfortable.

In the U.S, between 1870 and 1930, a In the U.S, between 1870 and 1930, a child’s value was measured less and less child’s value was measured less and less in economic-monetary terms and in economic-monetary terms and increasingly constitutes in sentimental-increasingly constitutes in sentimental-emotional ones. But this phenomenon emotional ones. But this phenomenon was confined to middle and upper class was confined to middle and upper class families.families.

“ “ we work for our children, plan for them, we work for our children, plan for them, spend money on them, buy life insurance spend money on them, buy life insurance for their protection, and some of us even for their protection, and some of us even save money for them.” save money for them.”

child labor laws and compulsory child labor laws and compulsory education gradually destroyed the class education gradually destroyed the class lag. lag.

childhood was gradually considered as a childhood was gradually considered as a separate stage of life in this context. separate stage of life in this context. Changes in family are also linked with the Changes in family are also linked with the shift in children’ value.. shift in children’ value..

The concept of family is inseparable from the The concept of family is inseparable from the concept of childhood. concept of childhood.

The increasing differentiation between The increasing differentiation between economic production and the home economic production and the home transformed the basis of family. As transformed the basis of family. As instrumental ties weakened, the emotional instrumental ties weakened, the emotional value of all family members gained new value of all family members gained new importanceimportance

The creation of family wage- a salary The creation of family wage- a salary which would support a male wage earner which would support a male wage earner and his dependent family was partly and his dependent family was partly contributed to the creation of motherhood contributed to the creation of motherhood and childhood.and childhood.

The logic of separate spheres imposed The logic of separate spheres imposed gender distinction. Work outside the gender distinction. Work outside the home involved men participating in the home involved men participating in the self-interested instrumental world of self-interested instrumental world of marked relations, leaving the domestic marked relations, leaving the domestic realm of women and children as the site realm of women and children as the site of moral life under the care of women of moral life under the care of women whose principal duty rested upon their whose principal duty rested upon their roles as mothers.roles as mothers.

Scientific MotheringScientific Mothering

Medicalization of mothering/parentingMedicalization of mothering/parenting also contributes to the commercialization also contributes to the commercialization of childhood. Mothers and expectant of childhood. Mothers and expectant mothers were thought to be in need of mothers were thought to be in need of advice and instruction from medical advice and instruction from medical profession about the proper care of profession about the proper care of children.. children..

. “Proper care” means a “scientific” care, . “Proper care” means a “scientific” care, providing medical rational to the physical-providing medical rational to the physical-material environment of children. In the material environment of children. In the ideology of scientific motherhood, those child ideology of scientific motherhood, those child rearing practices passed from mother to rearing practices passed from mother to daughter ― once thought to be a sound basis daughter ― once thought to be a sound basis for a child’s moral and physical development ― for a child’s moral and physical development ― were now found insufficient and mothers were were now found insufficient and mothers were found in need of “expert” knowledge and found in need of “expert” knowledge and education. education.

These scientific/medical knowledge, These scientific/medical knowledge, applied to child clothing, addressed the applied to child clothing, addressed the concern of mothers. concern of mothers.

Commercializatin of childhoodCommercializatin of childhood

AlongAlong with the changing definition of children with the changing definition of children to a family. Americans witnessed the rise and to a family. Americans witnessed the rise and proliferation of mass-produced goods proliferation of mass-produced goods specifically designed, manufactured and specifically designed, manufactured and merchandised for children, such as toys, merchandised for children, such as toys, furniture and nursery ware. However, in this furniture and nursery ware. However, in this early stage, children’s wear, were seldom early stage, children’s wear, were seldom separate children’s clothing departments in separate children’s clothing departments in urban department stores. urban department stores.

By the end of Second World War, infant’s By the end of Second World War, infant’s and children’s wear become highly and children’s wear become highly specialized. These departments quickly specialized. These departments quickly divided and subdivided along gender divided and subdivided along gender lines and along an age stage line. As the lines and along an age stage line. As the child grows, her/his clothing becomes child grows, her/his clothing becomes differentiated in terms of choices. differentiated in terms of choices.

This commercialization involves the This commercialization involves the redefinition of commodities as redefinition of commodities as beneficial/functional for children, and at beneficial/functional for children, and at the same time the redefinition of children the same time the redefinition of children themselves as persons. themselves as persons.

Cultural brokersCultural brokers

Business sectors often represented by Business sectors often represented by various kinds of cultural brokers in forms various kinds of cultural brokers in forms of publishers and other media channels of publishers and other media channels directly involve in redefining process.directly involve in redefining process.

Commercial sectors targeted the concept Commercial sectors targeted the concept of scientific mothering in two ways. First, of scientific mothering in two ways. First, department stores stocked the newest department stores stocked the newest and most “scientifically” up-to-date and most “scientifically” up-to-date garments and shoes so as to assist garments and shoes so as to assist modern mothers in their attempt to create modern mothers in their attempt to create the most healthful situation for growing the most healthful situation for growing babies. babies.

Second, staffing knowledgeable Second, staffing knowledgeable saleswomen, consulting physicians, saleswomen, consulting physicians, providing educational documents by the providing educational documents by the American Medical Association.American Medical Association.

The impact on cultureThe impact on culture

1.Maternal love is expressed via materials:1.Maternal love is expressed via materials:

Commodities help people to create social Commodities help people to create social status, identities and images. Through status, identities and images. Through purchasing for their children, mothers purchasing for their children, mothers express their affection for the children express their affection for the children and at the same time establish their and at the same time establish their social status, identities and images. social status, identities and images.

the commercialization of childhood the commercialization of childhood further help to reconstruct the idea of further help to reconstruct the idea of being a mother, the motherhood. being a mother, the motherhood.

2. Children as Consumers 2. Children as Consumers ：：

Even the children quickly involve in Even the children quickly involve in making choices in wearing and they making choices in wearing and they actively participate in this image-making actively participate in this image-making by developing their own desire and by developing their own desire and feeling for styles. feeling for styles.