Contents · Contents Letter from Secretary General..... 4 1-) Peace of Versailles..... 5

Contents Letter from Secretary General ............................................................................................................................... 4

1-) Peace of Versailles ............................................................................................................................................ 5

A) Terms of Peace .......................................................................................................................................... 5

B) Consequences................................................................................................................................................. 6

2-) The Weimar Republic (1919-1933): .................................................................................................................. 8

A) Problems of the Republic: ......................................................................................................................... 8

i) The Ruhr Invasion ................................................................................................................................. 8

ii) Hyperinflation: ...................................................................................................................................... 9

iii) Reparations and rebuilding Germany’s economy. ............................................................................. 10

iv) The November Revolution (1918-1919): ............................................................................................ 12

B) The ‘Golden Years’ of the Weimar Republic (1924-1929): ..................................................................... 14

C) The Decline of the Weimar Republic (1930-1933): ................................................................................ 16

4-) Rise of Mussolini and Italian Fascism: ............................................................................................................ 17

A) Formation of Italian Fascist Party: .......................................................................................................... 17

B) Historical Background of the Party: ........................................................................................................ 17

C) March on Rome: ...................................................................................................................................... 18

D) Mussolini’s Appointment as Prime Minister and Acerbo Law: ................................................................ 20

5-) The Great Depression (1929) ......................................................................................................................... 21

A) The Wall Street Crash .............................................................................................................................. 21

i) Causes .................................................................................................................................................. 23

ii) Effects .................................................................................................................................................. 25

6-) Rise of Adolf Hitler and German National Socialism...................................................................................... 28

A) Timeline (1923-1934) .............................................................................................................................. 28

B) Beer Hall Putsch....................................................................................................................................... 30

i) The Coming of the Putsch ................................................................................................................... 31

ii) Trial ...................................................................................................................................................... 32

iii) Mein Kampf ......................................................................................................................................... 33

iv) Appointment as Chancellor ................................................................................................................ 34

C) The Reichstag Fire ................................................................................................................................... 36

i) Arson ................................................................................................................................................... 36

ii) 1933 Elections ..................................................................................................................................... 37

iii) Reichstag Fire Decree .......................................................................................................................... 37

D) Hitler’s Consolidation of Power .............................................................................................................. 38

i) Enabling Act ........................................................................................................................................ 39

ii) Gleichschaltung ................................................................................................................................... 40

iii) Single Party State ................................................................................................................................ 40

iv) Civil Service Purge ............................................................................................................................... 40

v) Abolishment of Trade Unions ............................................................................................................. 41

vi) Concordat ............................................................................................................................................ 42

vii) Night of the Long Knives ..................................................................................................................... 42

viii) Hindenburg’s Death ........................................................................................................................ 44

7-) Empire of Japan ............................................................................................................................................... 44

A) From Meiji to World War I ...................................................................................................................... 44

B) From World War I to 1930’s .................................................................................................................... 46

C) Mukden Incident and Invasion of Manchuria (1931) ............................................................................. 48

8-) Europe Towards War (1933-1936) .................................................................................................................. 49

A) Third Reich from 1933 to 1936 ................................................................................................................ 49

i) Economic Growth and rearmament ................................................................................................... 49

ii) Remilitarization of Rhineland ............................................................................................................. 51

B) Kingdom of Italy ...................................................................................................................................... 52

i) The Second Italo-Ethiopian War ......................................................................................................... 52

C) Situation in Other Great Powers ............................................................................................................. 53

i) The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland ............................................................. 53

ii) The United States of America ............................................................................................................. 64

11) Soviet Union ............................................................................................................................................... 68

A) Stalin ......................................................................................................................................................... 68

B) Collectivization and Kulaks ................................................................................................................. 70

C) Moscow Trials ..................................................................................................................................... 72

D) The Great Purge .................................................................................................................................. 74

12) On the Road of War (1936-1939) ............................................................................................................... 76

A) Spanish Civil War (1936-1939) ................................................................................................................. 76

B) The Second Sino-Japanese War .......................................................................................................... 77

C) Anschluss ............................................................................................................................................. 79

D) Sudetenland and Munich Agreement ................................................................................................ 80

E) First Vienna Award .............................................................................................................................. 82

F) German Invasion of Czechoslovakia ................................................................................................... 83

G) Memel Dispute .................................................................................................................................... 84

H) The Status of Danzig ........................................................................................................................... 85

I) Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact ................................................................................................................... 86

J) Soviet-Japanese Border War .............................................................................................................. 87

13) Conclusion .................................................................................................................................................. 88

Letter from Secretary General

Highly meritorious participants,

It is my utmost please and honour to welcome you all to the fourteenth session of

European Union Simulation in Ankara. My name is Tayanç GÜNGÖR and I will be serving as

the Secretary General of this session. Our theme for this year is “Virtues of Humanity”. As a

person who has humanity in his very veins, I am more than glad that we will focus on issues

which requires most of the virtues of humanity in order to solve. Also, one of my concerns

which is uniqueness is well represented in this conference with its special committees selected

conscientiously.

Each committee and topic were selected in order to prepare for delegates a stage on

which they can show their diplomatic skills even on the most challenging situations throughout

the conference. Although many challenges waiting for the delegates, these challenges also teach

participants how to deal with important crisis and how to make important decisions accordingly.

Participants should not await an easy task in sessions and that difficulty can fall within a range

hard to “blood, toil, tears and sweat” like Mr. Churchill said.

The guide that you will be reading is a collective work of academic team. Therefore, I

would like to thank the people who put their efforts day and night, and tirelessly spend their

lives on the creation part of this study guide, namely Ms. Selin Kumbaracı, Ms. İlkyaz Deniz

Bilgiç, Ms. Maha Waseem, Mr. Oğuzhan Sabuncu and lastly Mr. Berke Şendağ. Although I

can say pages of compliments and try to show my admiration to these people I believe it will

not be enough to describe how hardworking and devoted they are. Their endeavour is the

essential part for both this committee and this conference.

To conclude, though the challenges ahead are great and many, I have full confidence in

the participants’ ability to manoeuvre through these difficulties. I wish you all productive

debates.

Tayanç GÜNGÖR

Secretary General of EUROsimA 2018

1-) Peace of Versailles

A) Terms of Peace

On June 28th, 1919, 32 countries gathered at the Palace of Versailles in France with the

aim to restore peace. Upon the signing of the Treaty of Versailles between the Allies (Britain,

France and the USA) and Germany, World War I officially came to an end.

It was thus far inherently dominated by the “The Big 3” namely Georges Clemenceau of

France, David Lloyd George of Britain and Woodrow Wilson of the USA. Germany however,

was not invited to add any input. Since the conference was largely upheld by the Allies, the

clauses infused in the treaty ultimately reflected how their countries were treated during the

war.

The French were adamant on imposing the harshest terms on Germany, eager to ensure that

the Treaty eliminates Germany’s ability to renew war with France. This was put into practice

when the German army was reduced significantly to 100,000 men and was not allowed to have

any tanks; the navy was greatly reduced and not allowed any submarines with only a handful

of ships. The air force was effectively non-existent and the entire Rhineland area was made

into a demilitarised zone. 1 Separating the Saar from Germany for fifteen years.

Britain however didn’t want to adopt such a strict stance against Germany since they still

wanted Germany to be strong enough to trade! This was mainly because communism in Russia

was of great concern to George who was worried it might spring in Germany if the economy

went under upheaval. However, as Germany was forced to admit responsibility for the war,

the country was also forced to pay reparations for the damage caused; mainly to Belgium and

France. The amount determined was an immensely high figure which was impossible for

Germany to pay off and was a major factor in the economic crisis which devastated the country.

2

Ultimately, France demanded revenge and return of Lorraine back to France.

Additionally, it wanted for Germany to pay reparations for losses. However, the Americans

and British were largely concerned with the Treaty not being harsh enough to create yet another

pretext for a new war. Thereafter, the Covenant of the New League of Nations was created

1 "Kathy Warnes," World History, July 25, 2017, , accessed April 06, 2018, https://worldhistory.us/european-

history/the-terms-and-conditions-of-the-treaty-of-versailles-1919.php. 2 "Kathy Warnes," World History, July 25, 2017, , accessed April 06, 2018, https://worldhistory.us/european-

history/the-terms-and-conditions-of-the-treaty-of-versailles-1919.php.

which Germany was not allowed to join until 1926, and the League of Nations governed

Germany’s overseas colonies instead. Moreover, Alsace-Lorraine was given to France,

Northern Schleswig was given to Denmark, Danzig was made part of Poland. The Sudetenland

was to form part of Czechoslovakia, and land that Germany gained when it signed the treaty

of Brest-Litovsk was to be returned to Russia. The territorial losses amounted to approximately

13.5% of Germany’s pre-First World War territory and around 7 million of its citizens.3

The German government signed the treaty under protest. Right-wing German parties attacked

it as a betrayal, and terrorists assassinated several politicians whom they considered

responsible. The U.S. Senate refused to ratify the treaty, and the U.S. government took no

responsibility for most of its provisions. 4

Eventually the treaty was shown, rebuttal ignored, and everyone gathered at the hall of

mirrors, where two German representatives were forced to sign the Treaty of Versailles. The

treaty included fifteen parts and 440 articles and established Germany’s liability for reparations

without stating a specific figure and began with Article 231, in which Germany accepted the

responsibility of itself and its allies for the losses and damages of the Allies “as a consequence

of the war imposed upon them by the aggression of Germany and her allies.” 5

B) Consequences

The terms of the Treaty of Versailles left Germany in political, economic and social

mayhem. This was also because events such as the Allied depression of 1921, the German

inflationary experience of 1920-23, and France's occupation of the Ruhr valley in 1923 were

not anticipated at the time of the Treaty. At the time of the reparations conference, the Allies

did not know Germany's capacity to make reparations, nor did they know the effect the

reparations would have on the world economic and political conditions. 6 And so, the treaty

ultimately left the German people and politicians distressed. The Germans felt that the war

wasn’t entirely Germany’s fault and the ‘unreasonable blame’ put on them fuelled resentment.

Which further enabled extremist groups to rise and gain popularity.

The first point that uprooted Hitler’s rise to power was the claim that Germans were

3 "Kathy Warnes," World History 4 History.com Staff, "Treaty of Versailles," History.com, 2009, accessed April 05, 2018,

https://www.history.com/topics/world-war-i/treaty-of-versailles. 5 History.com Staff, "Treaty of Versailles," 6 Daniel G Arce M, "The Economic Consequences of the Peace: Keynes and Correlation," Mathematical Social

Sciences 29, no. 3 (1995): , doi:10.1016/0165-4896(94)00776-5.

humiliated over the amount of control and power that the allies had over them. This

sentimental manipulation of German’s vulnerability has a considerable influence on the

German mindset.

More so, the payment of massive reparations resulted in the economic collapse of

Germany, which caused widespread poverty leading to millions of Germans starved and

helpless. The splitting and redistribution of German land further added to the economic crisis

as many industrial assets and factories were also lost along with the land. This in turn

angered the people even more and was one of the core factors that Hitler used to attain

power.

But it was seemingly just Germany suffering through the negative repercussions. The

United States however entered an economic boom after World War I often referred to as the

Roarin' 20's, taking control of the Global Economy while major European countries

recovered. Additionally, the French and Belgian troops invaded Ruhr to take goods and raw

materials because Germany could not make payments at the time.7 A section of Germany's

land was given to Poland to give them access to the Baltic Sea. This "Polish Corridor"

separated Germany and East Prussia, dividing an already established race and culture. The

new boundaries that were outlined caused major social problems because various ethnic

groups were forced to mix. Similarly, the establishment of Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, and

other mixed countries caused major problems in the future too.8

Henceforth, by the end of world war I, much of Europe was in ruins, and while the

entire world had to deal with the consequences of the war and the Treaty of Versailles,

Germany had it worst. The inherent turmoil appeased a dire need for the German people to

be governed by a strong leader. This resentment personified as Adolf Hitler who eventually

initiated World War II.

7 "Economic Effects," Treaty of Versailles, , accessed April 07, 2018,

https://treatyofversice.weebly.com/economic-effects.html. 8 "Social Effects." Treaty of Versailles. Accessed April 07, 2018. https://treatyofversice.weebly.com/social-

effects.html.

2-) The Weimar Republic (1919-1933):

A) Problems of the Republic:

i) The Ruhr Invasion

In 1919 Germany’s war debt was 144,000 million marks. Reparations made matters worse, and

by December 1922 the national debt had reached 469,000 million marks. The government asked

the Allies for permission to suspend reparation payments, but the Allies refused. 9 Since The

Treaty of Versailles required Germany to pay certain reparations, which Germany did not do

so in a timely manner, French and Belgian troops marched into Germany on the 11th of January

1923 and occupied the industrial Ruhr area. Germany couldn’t resist the occupation because

the Treaty of Versailles had already limited their military. The French backed up their attack

on Ruhr by claiming that if they let Germany’s inability to pay the reparation slide then this

would ultimately lead Germany to undermine other areas of the Treaty as well. And so, the

French leader Raymon Poincare, exasperated and annoyed at Germany’s inefficiency to keep

up with the Treaty, felt it was completely justified to capture Ruhr. The German people were

outraged and Fritz Thyssen and other industrialists who had investments in the Ruhr, organized

a passive resistance campaign. The French responded by bringing in their own workers to

operate the mines and began arresting leaders of the resistance movement. 10 Eventually some

workers did more than passively resist and carried out acts of industrial sabotage such as setting

fire to factories and flooding mines. In response, the French and Belgium soldiers arrested mine

owners and took over the mines and railways, some strikers were even shot and killed by French

troops. 11 By the time Gustav Stresemann’s new government called off the strikes in September

approximately 130 German civilians had been killed by the occupying army. 12 The occupation

ultimately led to Germany’s economy crippling down to ashes. Unemployment and inflation

9 "French Invasion of the Ruhr and Hyperinflation 1923," GCSE History, June 06, 2016, , accessed April 07, 2018,

https://www.gcsehistorywithmissbez.com/the-weimar-republic/french-invasion-of-the-ruhr-1923/. 10 John Simkin, Spartacus Educational, , accessed April 07, 2018, http://spartacus-educational.com/GERruhr.htm. 11 "French Invasion of the Ruhr and Hyperinflation 1923," GCSE History, June 06, 2016, , accessed April 07, 2018,

https://www.gcsehistorywithmissbez.com/the-weimar-republic/french-invasion-of-the-ruhr-1923/. 12 "Ruhr | | History Revision for GCSE, IGCSE, IB and AS/A2 History | Mr Allsop History," History Revision for GCSE

IGCSE IB and ASA2 History Mr Allsop History Ruhr Tag, , accessed April 07, 2018,

https://www.mrallsophistory.com/revision/tag/ruhr.

became quite the norm and Germany’s inability to pay the reparations now became even more

impaired. However, at the request of the German Red Cross, the ICRC sent a fact-finding

mission to the area in August 1923, to see how the situation affected the population, and to look

into the question of people detained or expelled from the occupied territory. It was the first time

the ICRC had worked in enemy-occupied territory to take up issues concerning the civilian

population. With the agreement of the occupying forces the ICRC delegates visited 13 places

where prisoners – including those taken hostage – were held. Similar missions were carried out

in November 1923 and in May 1924, before the occupation ended in the summer of 1925 13

when the German chancellor called off the passive resistance and eventually began paying

reparations again. The French and Belgian troops withdrew from the Ruhr in 1925.14

ii) Hyperinflation:

World War 1 lasted from 1914 until 1918. In the end much of Europe was in ruins. The

Allies triumphed, and Germany was brutally defeated. Ultimately, the Weimar government's

main crisis occurred in 1923, when the Germans failed to make a reparations payment on time,

which set off a train of events; a French invasion of the Ruhr, a general strike and runaway

inflation – hyperinflation 15 being one of significant ones. As a chain reaction, German workers

initiated a prolonged strike to protest against the Ruhr occupation in 1923. And so, Germany

did what America did during the Continental Congress back in 1777; they upped their printing

press. Most significantly, the Allies presented Germany with a bill of 132 billion gold marks,

which was in fact twice of Germany’s annual income. So as a mere stunt to tackle the problem,

stimulate the economy and pay industrial workers in Ruhr, the Weimar government rapidly

printed banknotes, flooding the economy with paper money. But what was intended to be a

temporary measure turned out to be a long term policy, mainly because of the continuation of

the French occupation and the Ruhrampf all throughout 1923.

Berlin continued to devalue banknotes, giving rise to the infamous hyperinflation of 1923 by

increasingly pumping paper notes into the German economy. As banknotes flooded the

economy their value plummeted, leading to rapid increases in prices and wages. 16Ultimately

13 "The Occupation of the Ruhr (Germany, 1923-1925)," ICRC, January 21, 2005, , accessed April 07, 2018,

https://www.icrc.org/eng/resources/documents/misc/68ujy5.htm. 14 John Simkin, Spartacus Educational, , accessed April 07, 2018, http://spartacus-educational.com/GERruhr.htm. 15 "GCSE Bitesize: Key Problems," BBC, , accessed April 07, 2018,

http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/history/mwh/germany/weimarproblemsrev1.shtml. 16 "The 1923 Hyperinflation," Weimar Republic, May 09, 2016, , accessed April 07, 2018,

http://alphahistory.com/weimarrepublic/1923-hyperinflation/.

causing absolute mayhem and disastrous problems for the German people. By mid 1923 the

nation’s central banks were using more than 30 paper factories, almost 1,800 banknote printing

presses and 133 companies to print and issue banknotes. 17 At the height of the crisis,

Germany’s state governments, major cities, large companies, even some pubs were all issuing

their own paper money. The problem was compounded by Germany’s wartime decision to

abandon the gold standard, leaving paper Reichsmarks without any intrinsic or supportive

value.18 More banknotes were sent into circulation the value and buying power of each

Reichsmark decreased. The uncanny severity of the situation can be observed by the fact that

one dollar which was once equivalent to 4 marks, five years later was equivalent to 4.2 trillion

marks! It was a time where an entire wheelbarrow of bank notes would buy just a mere loaf of

bread. Such broad effects made foreign exchange impossible for Germany, further depleting

the economy. The 1923 hyperinflation forced the Weimar government to confront its own

extinction. There was open talk that the government might be removed by a popular revolution

or a military putsch. An attempted coup in Munich, launched by Hitler and the NSDAP in early

November 1923, seemed a sign of what might come.19

iii) Reparations and rebuilding Germany’s economy.

After World War I, reparations to the Allied Powers were required of Germany by the

Treaty of Versailles. The original amount of $33 billion was later reduced by the Dawes Plan

and the Young Plan and was canceled after 1933. In the 1920s German resentment over

reparations was used by ultranationalists to foment political unrest. 20 The Allies’ determination

to extract reparations from Germany therefore greatly hindered the nation’s recovery after the

war. Vast sums of money were demanded from Berlin as compensation for the Kaiserreich’s

role in instigating war. 21 The legal basis for reparations was provided by Article 231 of the

Versailles treaty, the infamous ‘war guilt’ clause that deemed Germany responsible for “all the

loss and damage” suffered by Allied nations during the war.22 It took two years for the

17 "The 1923 Hyperinflation," Weimar Republic, May 09, 2016, , accessed April 07, 2018,

http://alphahistory.com/weimarrepublic/1923-hyperinflation/. 18 "The 1923 Hyperinflation," Weimar Republic, May 09, 2016, , accessed April 07, 2018,


http://alphahistory.com/weimarrepublic/1923-hyperinflation/. 20 The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, "Reparations," Encyclopædia Britannica, July 29, 2013, , accessed April 07, 2018,

https://www.britannica.com/topic/reparations. 21 "War Reparations and Weimar Germany," Weimar Republic, January 18, 2015, , accessed April 07, 2018,

http://alphahistory.com/weimarrepublic/reparations/. 22 ibid.

international Reparations Commission to assess damages in relation to Germany's national and

decide how much the government owed. The first reparation demands were 266 gold marks,

which amounted to roughly $63 billion then (close to $768 billion today), although this was

later reduced to $33 billion (about $402 billion today)23 it was a strikingly gigantic figure

considering the economic ruins Germany was already sweeping. Germany made an initial

reparations payment of $250 million – or about 0.8 percent of the total – in August 1921.

Additionally, instead of taxing its people like Britain did, Germany started taking loans and was

left with a huge debt, in order to pay off this debt they started printing more money, so much

more that the government had 300 paper mills working 24 hours a day to make more money!

But even this placed enormous strains on the German economy, which had dwindling gold

reserves, little foreign trade and was reliant on imported raw materials for its industries. The

country wasn’t gathering any real wealth so the prices of goods and services rose significantly.

24 Unable to import or buy foreign exchange, the German government found itself unable to

meet its reparations obligations.25 The reparations are often blamed for causing Germany’s

infamous hyperinflation but the two are in fact reciprocal outcomes of the uncanny

circumstances that Germany found itself in upon losing World War 1. Thus far, it can be

understood that reparations cannot therefore be considered the entire problem. Yet reparations

were more than merely a contributory factor to the acceleration of inflation. 26 It is also striking

to note that the earlier stage ‘creeping inflation’ was the result of long-term structural problems

within the economy and the pressures exerted by war, and the later-stage hyperinflation was

directly related to the obligation after 1921 to pay reparations. The connection between the

reparations saga and the collapse of the mark is too strong to be coincidental.27 Alongside the

culminating weight of the indebted war reparations, the Weimar Republic also faced challenges

from the left with the Sparatcus in Berlin rising around Januray 1990 and also from the right

for example the cat coach in Berlin the year following the Sparatcus’ uprising.

This ultimately led to the rise of the Nazi socialists who claimed to be rebuilding Germany.

They were against the idea that the government should be run by the army or the wealthy, they

wanted the industrial sector to be entirely privatized and the power and strength of the military

23 Claire Suddath, "Why Did World War I Just End?" Time, October 04, 2010, , accessed April 07, 2018,

http://content.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2023140,00.html. 24 Finnie, "Germany After WWI," LinkedIn SlideShare, October 31, 2013, , accessed April 08, 2018,

https://www.slideshare.net/crtfinnie/germany-after-wwii. 25 "The 1923 Hyperinflation," Weimar Republic, May 09, 2016, , accessed April 07, 2018,


http://alphahistory.com/weimarrepublic/1923-hyperinflation/. 27 ibid

to be increased.

The Nazis refuted the establishment of a democratic government and appealed to limit the

activities of the Jews and foreigners as they were held responsible for the chaos. Their strong

ideology eventually gathered them an instigating amount of support and Hitler eventually

attained control, on his way to ‘rebuild’ Germany.

iv) The November Revolution (1918-1919):

On October 29, 1918, a sailors’ revolt broke out in Kiel.28 The soldiers, sailors, and later

the workers formed councils that were modelled off of their Soviet counterparts. The uprising

in Kiel spread throughout the entirety of Germany, especially in major cities. The revolutionary

groups seized all military and civilian powers in cities and established individual councils. The

Workers’ and Soldiers’ Councils put pressure on the German royal family, and forced the

German princes to abdicate from their claims on the German throne.

From November 6 to November 10, one of the abdicated princes and Chancellor Max

von Baden and the head of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) Friedrich Ebert put

pressure on the German Emperor Wilhelm II to abdicate as well29, so that the rebellion would

be settled, peace would be established and public order could be preserved. On the 8th of

November, the more radical group of socialists that separated from SPD and formed the

Independent Social Democratic Party (USPD) arranged mass demonstrations and general

strikes around the country and especially in Berlin to force the Emperor to resign. In addition

to the civil unrest, the troops in Berlin who were formerly loyal to the Emperor also placed

themselves beside the SPD and refused to obey the Emperor’s orders. On the 9th of November,

Chancellor Max von Baden proclaimed that the Emperor had abdicated and handed his

chancellorship over to Friedrich Ebert. Philip Scheidemann, then a member of the SPD,

proclaimed that the monarchy had been abolished and the republic was founded on the same

day.30 Witnessing that he no longer had power over the country and control over the events in

28 See Hauptkrankenbuch Festungslazarett Kiel, Nr. 15918, Krankenbuchlager Berlin, zit. bei Dirk, Dähnhardt, Revolution in

Kiel.p. 66. 29 v. Baden: Erinnerungen und Dokumente p. 599 f. 30 Ralf Hoffrogge, Working-Class Politics in the German Revolution. Richard Müller, the Revolutionary Shop Stewards and

the Origins of the Council Movement, Brill Publications 2014, pp. 61–79.

the capital, Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated from the German Imperial throne and fled to the

Netherlands on November 10.

With the monarchy out of the way, the revolutionary groups established a coalition

government named “Council of the People’s Deputies”31; however, a group of radical leftists

calling themselves the “Spartacist League” opposed this coalition that was supported by a

massive portion of the revolutionaries. One of the first actions that this group took was to sign

the Armistice of Compiègne on November 11, which meant the end of hostilities between the

Allies and Germany.32

On November 19, the new government decided that the political system could not be

based upon the revolutionary councils based on individual cities. This decision angered the

radical leftist groups which demanded a Soviet-like political system in Germany and caused a

combination of civil and military unrest that led to “Ebert’s Bloody Christmas”33, which was a

skirmish between the German army loyal to the new government and the socialist revolutionary

Volksmarinedivisions on the streets of Berlin. After the event, the government disbanded the

army troops and formed the Freikorps which were going to be decisive in the near future; and

the radical groups left the revolutionary government.

The skirmish in Berlin led to the foundation of the Communist Party of Germany (KPD)

by Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht on January 1, 1919.34 KPD (more widely known as

the “Spartacist League” as mentioned above) started the Spartacist Uprising on the 5th of

January. Their goal was to overthrow the ‘revolutionary’ government which betrayed the

revolution, and establish communism in Germany. However, the uprising turned into a bloody

and fierce battle all around Germany. The right-leaning Freikorps put down the communist

revolutionary attempts by the 15th of January. The same day also remarks the executions of

Luxemburg and Liebknecht, the leaders of the Spartacist Uprising. Between January and April

1919, councils in several German states proclaimed their Soviet republics; but were quickly

dissolved by the Freikorps.

31 Haffner, Sebastian (2002). Die deutsche Revolution 1918/19 (German). Kindler. 32 Poulle, Yvonne (1999). "La France à l'heure allemande". Bibliothèque de l'école des chartes. 157 (2): 493–502. 33 Sturm, Reinhard (2011). "Weimarer Republik, Informationen zur politischen Bildung, Nr. 261 (German)". Bonn:

Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung. 34 Winkler, Weimar p. 55 f.

Despite all these events, the National Assembly elections were held on 19th of January.

The SPD won the majority of the votes (37,4%) since the more radical groups could not recover

from the events and could not run in the elections. The newly-elected National Assembly met

in the town of Weimar to avoid any disruption in the capital city of Berlin and formed the

“Weimar Constitution”, which unofficially gave the country its name. On February 11,

Friedrich Ebert was elected as the President of the Republic, and Scheidemann appointed as his

Chancellor on the 13th. The Constitution was formally passed on the 11th of August, formally

marking the end of the civil conflicts and establishing the Weimar Republic.35

The civil problems were not to end there, however. The riots during the November

Revolution and how the revolutionary government handled them was a major reason of

resentment towards the newly founded republic. In addition to that, the nationalists of Germany

blamed the revolutionaries and the civilians for stabbing the German army in the back, which,

according to the nationalists, was undefeated on the field but was betrayed by the leftists; and

causing Germany to lose the World War.36 This by no means was true, since the German army

was suffering irreplaceable losses and the Allies were strengthened by the entrance of the

United States into the war.

B) The ‘Golden Years’ of the Weimar Republic (1924-1929):

Gustav Stresemann was appointed as the Chancellor in 1923 and served for 100 days in

that office, then became the Foreign Minister and occupied that position for 6 years from 1923

to 1929. With Stresemann’s efforts to resolve the problems of the Republic, these years became

a period of stability compared to the previous 5 years. The ‘Golden Years’ remarked a

relatively growing economy, resolution of the Ruhr region problem, decline in civil unrest, and

relative improvement in Germany’s international status.

The Weimar Republic tried to resolve most of its problems with a pair of plans: the

Dawes Plan (1924) and the Young Plan (1929). The Dawes Plan aimed to resolve the problems

stemming from the occupation of the Ruhr area, the periodisation and the amount of reparation

payments, the reformatting of the German economy and international loans to Germany to

35 Mosler: Die Verfassung des Deutschen Reichs vom 11. August 1919 36 Diest, Wilhelm; Feuchtwanger, E. J. (1996). "The Military Collapse of the German Empire: the Reality Behind the Stab-in-

the-Back Myth". War in History. 3 (2): 186–207.

rebuild the republic.37 The Young Plan was programmed to reduce the amount of reparations

that Germany had to pay but was unable to38, due to the stagnant economy. Due to the Great

Depression (1929), the plan was rendered rather inefficient, but removed a large sum of

reparation burden on Germany nevertheless.

Among all of the problems, Stresemann initially tried to resolve the hyperinflation

problem. Since hyperinflation prevented the German folk from purchasing the simplest of

common goods, Stresemann knew that this problem had to be resolved as soon as possible.

First, the German central bank first stopped monetising the government debt, then issued the

new ‘Rentenmark’ along with the old ‘Papermark’.39 This move by Stresemann and the German

central bank helped bring inflation under control but greatly reduced the purchasing power of

the old currency.40 In addition to this move, the Dawes Plan was programmed to ease

Germany’s reparation payment schedule41, which also contributed to the reduction efforts of

inflation. Albeit the fact that the Dawes Plan was a well-thought out plan restructuring

Germany’s payments, it was not realised as well as the programmers had originally thought of.

This situation led to the formation of the Young Plan, which would cut out a large portion of

Germany’s payments42 and spread the payments in a long period of time43. Many Germans

however, believed that they shouldn’t have been forced to make any payments at all and having

a long-term payment plan would do nothing but put an incredible amount of burden on the great

grandchildren of Germany.

The Dawes Plan also called for France and Belgium to recall their troops from the Ruhr

area in exchange for the end of the passive resistance of Germans in the area, which allowed

Germany to restart its coal industry and generate a large sum of surplus value that would be

used in the reconstruction of the economy and payment of war reparations. However, some

resentful Germans thought that ending the resistance and obliging by the plan was a weak move

and that Stresemann had given into the French demands.

37 Modern World History Text Book, Ben Walsh (OCR Exam Board) 38 Dunlap, Annette B. (2016). Charles Gates Dawes: A Life. Evanston, Illinois: Northwestern University Press and the Evanston

History Center. p. 215 39 "90 Years Ago: The End of German Hyperinflation | Thorsten Polleit." Mises Institute. November 14, 2013. Accessed April

07, 2018. https://mises.org/library/90-years-ago-end-german-hyperinflation. 40 ibid. 41 Kitchen, Illustrated History of Germany, Cambridge University Press, 1996, p 241 42 Dunlap, Annette B. (2016). Charles Gates Dawes: A Life. Evanston, Illinois: Northwestern University Press and the Evanston

History Center. p. 215. 43 Willoughby 2000, p. 72

After stabilising the economy to an extent, Stresemann tried to fix Germany’s diplomatic

relations. Germany, with the Treaty of Rapallo in 1923, became the first country to recognize

the Soviet Union and two countries mutually cancelled debts and war claims.44 Germany signed

the Treaty of Locarno with the Great Britain, France, Belgium and Italy in 1925. The treaty set

Germany’s borders with France and Belgium and ensured that Germany would not make an

effort to retake its lost territories, and the treaty also enforced the demilitarisation of Rhineland.

Despite further damaging Germany’s sovereignty, the treaty led to Germany’s admission into

the League of Nations in 1926.45 Although some of Germany’s international reputation was

being rebuilt, a large number of Germans thought that it was weak to agree not to wage war to

regain their lost territories.

The efforts of Gustav Stresemann helped inflation and unemployment levels decrease.

While the reforms did not resolve the foundational problems of the Republic, they did

somewhat stabilise the system. However, despite the initial stabilisation, the political system

forced the parties to form unstable coalitions that led to a vacuum of power towards the end of

1920s. In addition to the political instability, the large amount of dependence on American

capital and financial aid was to hit Germany very hard as the Great Depression loomed ever

closer.

C) The Decline of the Weimar Republic (1930-1933):

The Great Depression of 1929 hit Germany more than any other European country, due

to Germany’s dependence on American financial assistance and the Dawes and the Young

plans. Unemployment grew at unprecedented rates, with 4 million new unemployed people just

in 1930.46 Between 1930 and 1932, finance expert Heinrich Brüning tried to reform the

Republic’s finance and employ a policy of deflation.47 However, Brüning’s efforts proved to

be futile in a couple of years and led to his resignation from the position of the Chancellor.

Political problems added to the growing economic problems during early 1930s. In

between 1930 and 1933, the Weimar Republic witnessed even more political turmoil than ever

before due to coarse political rivalry, constant conflict of interests and political intrigue.

44 League of Nations Treaty Series, vol. 19, pp. 248-252. 45 Wolfgang Elz, "Foreign policy" in Anthony McElligott, ed., Weimar Germany (2009) pp. 50–77 46 "Unemployment in Nazi Germany". Spartacus Educational. 47 Thomas Adam, Germany and the Americas: Culture, Politics, and History, 2005, p. 185

Heinrich Brüning’s chancellorship, who had no majority support in the Parliament, saw an

extensive use of the Article 48 of the German Constitution which gave the Chancellor

emergency powers that allowed the Chancellor operate independently of the Parliament and

rely on the approval of the President.48 Brüning’s rule saw the rise of the NSDAP and he was

replaced in 2 years by Franz von Papen. Von Papen had to cooperate with Hitler extensively to

gain popular support, which further boosted Hitler’s struggle for power.49 Von Papen’s rule

lasted for only 169 days. His successor, Kurt von Schleicher remained as the Chancellor only

for 56 days. The end of his term signalled the end of the Weimar Republic, the beginning of

Adolf Hitler’s chancellorship and the transformation of the country into Nazi Germany.50

4-) Rise of Mussolini and Italian Fascism:

A) Formation of Italian Fascist Party:

The National Fascist Party (Partito Nazionale Fascista in Italian, PNF) was a fascist

political party created by Benito Mussolini. The party came to power after the March on

Rome in 1922. Mussolini had previously formed the Fascist Revolutionary Party (Partito

Fascista Rivoluzionario, PFR) in 1915 but after a defeat in the 1919 elections, the party was

reformed into the PNF during the Third Fascist Congress in Rome on 7-10 November 1921. 51

52

The National Fascist Party desired to restore former Italian territories and expand upon

them.53 Italian Fascists claimed that the Kingdom of Italy was the heir to the Roman Empire and

its legacy and wished to create a new Italian Empire to provide spazio vitale ("living space")

for colonisation and to control the Mediterranean Sea. 54

B) Historical Background of the Party:

The Kingdom of Italy, despite being part of the Allied Powers in World War One, felt

cheated in the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye which was signed with former Austria-

Hungary.55 Italy was further forced to give up on more territories by the Allies at the Paris Peace

48 ibid. 49 Evans, Richard J. (2004). The Coming of the Third Reich. New York: The Penguin Press. 50 ibid. 51 Charles F. Delzell, edit., Mediterranean Fascism 1919-1945, New York, NY, Walker and Company, 1971, p. 26 52 Joel Krieger, ed. (2012), The Oxford Companion to Comparative Politics, Oxford University Press, p. 120 53 Aristotle A. Kallis, Fascist ideology: territory and expansionism in Italy and Germany, 1922–1945. London, England,

UK; New York City, USA: Routledge, 2000. Pp. 41. 54 Aristotle A. Kallis. Fascist ideology: territory and expansionism in Italy and Germany, 1922–1945. London, England,

UK; New York City, USA: Routledge, 2000. Pp. 50 55 "Mussolini and Fascism in Italy". FSmitha.com. 8 January 2008.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Rome

Conference in 1919, where they had to give up on the Croatian seaport of Rijeka to Yugoslavia.

In addition to this, territories claimed by Italy and was promised by the Allies at the secret

Treaty of London in 1915 were also taken away by them; despite the fact that Italy had kept its

promise to leave the Central Powers, join the Allies and declare war on the German Empire and

Austria-Hungary. 56

In September 1919, the outraged war hero Gabriele D'Annunzio was declared the Italian

Regency of Carnaro as a nationalist response directed to the unfair treatment of Italy and the

kingdom’s inability to respond.57 He installed himself as the Regent Duce (Leader) in his

independent state and promulgated a charter that largely inspired the development of Italian

Fascism; despite the fact that in the development of the his model of government, D’Annunzio

was more of a nationalist, not actually a fascist; and the charter included political views of many

ideologies such as left-wing anarchism. The Italian military eventually deposed the Regency

of Duce D’Annunzio on Christmas 1920. Although he was a former war hero and a staunch

nationalist, D’Annunzio and his short-lived experience led to inspire Italian Fascism greatly.58

The PNF, founded in Rome during the Third Fascist

Congress on 7-10 November, 192159, wished to exploit this

resentment towards the Allied Powers and D’Annunzio’s

experiment by tarnishing liberalism and socialism all the while

promoting Italian nationalism with an underlying fascist

sentiment. The Fascist Party was instrumental in directing and

popularizing support for Mussolini's ideology. In the early

years of the party, groups within the PNF

called Blackshirts (squadristi) violently

attacked socialists and their institutions in the Po Valley, to

increase their power base and gain support of the anti-socialist

bases of the Italian society.

C) March on Rome:

The fascists of Italy had signed a temporary truce with the socialists by signing a "Pact

of Pacification" in summer 1921. This act led to the protests of more radical members of the

56 The Fascist Experience by Edward R. Tannenbaum, p. 22 57 Macdonald, Hamish (1999). Mussolini and Italian Fascism. Nelson Thornes. 58 Macdonald, Hamish (1999). Mussolini and Italian Fascism. Nelson Thornes. 59 Charles F. Delzell, edit., Mediterranean Fascism 1919-1945, New York, NY, Walker and Company, 1971, p. 26

https://books.google.com/?id=221W9vKkWrcC&pg=PT16&dq=Gabriele+d%27Annunzio+paris+peace

https://books.google.com/?id=221W9vKkWrcC&pg=PT16&dq=Gabriele+d%27Annunzio+paris+peace

Fascist movement, the Blackshirts and their leaders. The contract with the socialists was

annulled during the Third Fascist Congress, where Mussolini announced the party’s

nationalist program and renamed his political party the National Fascist Party, which consisted

of "2,200 fasci (fighting members of the party) and 320,000 members" by late 1921.60 With

fascist power largely concentrated in the party and the Blackshirts, leaders of the party decided

to arrange a march on the capital of Italy, Rome to take complete control of the Italian state. A

few days before the march, Mussolini discussed with the U.S. Ambassador Richard Washburn

Child on a future Fascist Italian government and whether the U.S. government would object to

it or not. Child encouraged him to go ahead.

Mussolini declared before 60,000 people at the Fascist Congress on October 24, 1922,

in Naples: "Our program is simple: we want to rule Italy."61. The Blackshirts meanwhile, had

taken control of the Po plain and occupied all strategic points of the country. Former Prime

Minister Antonio Salandra warned current Prime Minister Luigi Facta on 26 October that

Mussolini demanded Facta’s

resignation and that he was preparing

to march on Rome. However,

believed that Mussolini would be

settled to govern quietly at his side

and refused to believe in Salandra.

The fascists, on the other hand, were

actually on the move to Rome and

were soon to surround the city. To

counter the fascist threat which was now gathering outside Rome, Luigi Facta, who resigned

but still held power, ordered a state of siege for Rome. Facta was certain that the King would

agree to take repressive action against the fascists, with whom he had discussed about the

looming threat.62 However, King Victor Emmanuel III refused to sign the military order 63 due

to fears of a civil war and because Fascism was no longer really seen as a threat to the

establishment.

The March itself only consisted of fewer than 30,000 men, but the King had feared that

reaction against the Fascists would light up a civil war. The March on Rome did not result in

60 Charles F. Delzell, edit., Mediterranean Fascism 1919-1945, New York, NY, Walker and Company, 1971, p. 26 61 Carsten (1982), p.62 62 Chiapello (2012), p.123 63 Carsten (1982), p.64

the seizure of power which Fascism later enjoyed, but rather hastened the transfer of power

within constitutional framework. This transition was basically made possible by the surrender

of public authorities in the face of fascist threat. On 29th of October, the King handed power to

Mussolini, who was supported by the military, the business class, and the right-wing. Mussolini

formally came to power after his arrival to Rome (who stayed in Milan during the March) on

October 30.

D) Mussolini’s Appointment as Prime Minister and Acerbo Law:

After being appointed as the Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Italy on October 29,

1922, Benito Mussolini formed his first government with a

right-wing coalition composing of Fascists, nationalists,

liberals, and two Catholic clerics from the Popular Party.

Interestingly, the Fascists had originally consisted of a small

minority in his early cabinets. This was possibly due to the

reason that Mussolini aimed to establish a totalitarian state

with himself as supreme leader (Il Duce) and until then he

would’ve needed popular support. Mussolini had managed to

attain dictatorial powers for a year, which the Italian

Constitution had allowed to do so. 64 Benito Mussolini then

gradually dismantled all democratic mechanisms and institutions in Italy and proclaimed

himself as Il Duce in 1925.

The Acerbo Law was an electoral law that meant to give Mussolini’s fascist party the

majority of the deputies and was proposed by Baron Giacomo Acerbo. The law came to force

in 1924 and was used in the elections of the same year and was never used again. The reason

that Mussolini required this law was that Fascists held only 35 seats, and with only 10 more

seats from the nationalists, Mussolini’s coalition was in a weak spot which put him in a situation

where he could be easily ousted from office. The law changed the system to a format that he

party gaining the largest amount of the votes – given that they had already gained at least 25

percent of the votes – would gain two-thirds of the seats in parliament. The remaining third of

the votes would be shared amongst the other parties proportionally.65 66

64 Tonge, M.E.; Henry, Stephen; Collins, Gráinne (2004). "Chapter 2". Living history 2: Italy under Fascism (New ed.) 65 Boffa, Federico (2004-02-01). "Italy and the Antitrust Law: an Efficient Delay?" 66 DeGrand, Alexander (1995). Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany. New York, New York: Routledge. p. 26.

5-) The Great Depression (1929)

A) The Wall Street Crash

The Stock Market crash of 1929, more commonly known as the Wall Street Crash, did

not cause the Great Depression but was an indicator of a much larger and widespread problem;

it is also widely accepted as marking the beginning of the Great Depression. 67

Most Americans were quite oblivious to any imminent issues with regard to the

economy; they had been told by President Coolidge just a year earlier: “The country can regard

the present with satisfaction, and anticipate the future with optimism.”68 However, in September

1929, the buying shares of the New York stock exchange began to lose momentum and rumours

spread of how the boom may have reached its end.69 As a result, people rushed in mass to sell

their shares before the prices dropped too low; by October 29 — also known as “Black

Tuesday” — thousands who had bought shares while prices were soaring were now devastated.

70

There was a dramatic fall of $30 billion in the value of listed stocks and the effects of

the Crash spread at an exponential rate.71 The number of people who hurried to the banks in

hopes of withdrawing their savings was so high that thousands of banks ended up shutting

down.72 With the fall in demand for goods, factories shut down and the levels of unemployment

skyrocketed.73

The crisis can be said to have commenced on October 24 — “Black Thursday” — with

the market plummeting by 11%.74 A meeting took place in the offices of J.P. Morgan Ltd on

Thursday the afternoon, with each of the six bankers present agreed to put up $40 million to

shore up the market by buying stocks and shares.75 In a press conference held by Thomas W.

67 Nick Shepley, The Roaring 20's and the Wall Street Crash: Good Times, Deep Pockets and Poverty (Andrews

UK Limited, 2011), 20. 68 Norman Lowe, Mastering Modern World History (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), 489. 69 Nick Shepley, The Roaring 20's and the Wall Street Crash: Good Times, Deep Pockets and Poverty (Andrews

UK Limited, 2011), 19. 70 Norman Lowe, Mastering Modern World History (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), 489. 71 Ibid. 72 Norman Lowe, Mastering Modern World History (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), 490. 73 Ibid. 74 Larry Elliott, “Crash course: what the Great Depression reveals about our future,” last modified March 4,

2017. https://www.theguardian.com/society/2017/mar/04/crash-1929-wall-street-what-the-great-depression-

reveals-about-our-future. 75 Nick Shepley, The Roaring 20's and the Wall Street Crash: Good Times, Deep Pockets and Poverty (Andrews

UK Limited, 2011), 19.

Lamont, senior partner at J.P. Morgan Ltd, technical difficulties were blamed for the “distress

on the stock market”76 and it was suggested that the situation was improving.

Meanwhile, the vice-president of the Stock Exchange was buying stock above current

prices in lots of 10,000 in an attempt to restore confidence in the market. The bankers having

come to the rescue, confidence returned and the situation improved. At the close of the day, the

market had fallen by 33 points to 299.5, or 9% of its value. 77

Black Thursday was proceeded by a 13% decrease on the following Monday, and a 12%

fall on the next day, October 29;78 this time no bankers intervened — it was not their business,

they explained, to protect stock market prices, just to ensure the market was orderly.79 By the

time that early November came around, there was a downward spiral of the stock market, which

would get to its lowest in June 1932; the New York stock exchange’s listed companies had

already by then lost 90% of their value.80 In 1933, Roosevelt, in one of his famed “fireside

chats” — comforting radio broadcasts directed towards the American public — had said:

Some of our bankers have shown themselves either incompetent or dishonest in

their handling of the people’s funds. They had used money entrusted to them in

speculations and unwise loans. This was, of course, not true of the vast majority of

our banks, but it was true in enough of them to shock the people for a time into a

sense of insecurity. It was the government’s job to straighten out this situation and

do it as quickly as possible. And the job is being performed. Confidence and

courage are the essentials in our plan. We must have faith; you must not be

stampeded by rumours. We have provided the machinery to restore our financial

system; it is up to you to support and make it work. Together we cannot fail.81

Though the target in the President’s address are that of banks partaking in irresponsible

lending and speculation, the role of the ‘democratisation’ of finance must also be addressed.82

76 Peter Clements, The Great Depression and the Americas 1929–39 (London: Hodder Education, 2012), 23. 77 Ibid. 78 Larry Elliott, “Crash course: what the Great Depression reveals about our future,” last modified March 4,


reveals-about-our-future. 79 Peter Clements, The Great Depression and the Americas 1929–39 (London: Hodder Education, 2012), 24. 80 Larry Elliott, “Crash course: what the Great Depression reveals about our future,” last modified March 4,


reveals-about-our-future. 81 Nick Shepley, The Roaring 20's and the Wall Street Crash: Good Times, Deep Pockets and Poverty (Andrews

UK Limited, 2011), 16. 82 Ibid.

As the 1920s approached, it became increasingly difficult to preserve the exclusivity of the

stock market as a haven of the upper classes. An increase in the competitiveness within industry

indicated that new share issues needed to be produced and that a steady stream of capital was

required; selectivity regarding the source of the capital could not be exercised by the stock

market.83 The financial innovation of selling shares on a margin though, was about to become

addictive for many ordinary investors, and lead to no one particular entity being able to control

the results. Through the selling of shares on a margin, an ordinary investor who could

previously afford few shares was all at once capable of dramatically increasing this number;

this was made possible as a result of now being able to take out short-term loans in order to

purchase shares.84

Other segments of the economy abruptly began to stall, and people started to channel

all of their faith into the stock market for financial restoration. Some comprehended the

intricacies of the stock market, but for many others it continued to be a mystery. A significant

amount of the population held the conviction that the stock market would never crash and that

it would continue to gain value indefinitely. Additionally, a large number of Americans were

unaware of the rising value of stocks being attributable to speculation, and not because their

investment was actually becoming more profitable.85 Investors would also frequently hoard

shares for ‘non-rational’, more sentimental reasons, such as it being an heirloom of sorts from

a deceased parent, when they did not fully understand the mechanisms behind when to buy and

sell.86

i) Causes

The causes of the Great Depression can be generally divided into four categories:

domestic overproduction, inequality in the distribution of income, the cycle of international

debt, and speculation.87

a. Domestic Overproduction

With motivation provided by high profits and assisted by rising technical productivity

due to mechanisation, American industrialists were producing an excessive amount of goods

which surpassed the absorption capabilities of the domestic market.88 Though not immediately

83 Nick Shepley, The Roaring 20's and the Wall Street Crash: Good Times, Deep Pockets and Poverty (Andrews

UK Limited, 2011), 16. 84 Ibid, 17. 85 Ibid, 18. 86 Ibid, 18. 87 Norman Lowe, Mastering Modern World History (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), 490. 88 Ibid.

visible in the 1920s, as the 1930s came around, unsold stocks of goods started to accumulate,

and manufacturers lowered production. Since less workers were needed, many were dismissed

from their jobs; and due to the lack of unemployment benefits, those who were now unemployed

and their families were able to purchase less; this created a vicious cycle.89

b. Unequal Distribution of Income

Though very large amounts of profit were being made by industrialists, there were not

equally shared amongst the workers. The 1920s had been beneficial for owners of assets but

not for workers.90 The average wage for an industrial worker increased by approximately 8%

between 1923-1929; however, during the same time period, industrial profits increased by 72%.

A rise of 8% in wages (only 1.4% in real terms) indicated the general public possessed an

inadequate amount of purchasing power to sustain the boom;91 they were capable of absorbing

goods produced for a specific amount of time, with the assistance of credit, but by 1929 this

absorption capacity was approaching its limit. Nevertheless, manufacturers, usually mega-

corporations, were not ready to decrease prices or to raise wages significantly, and thus

consumer goods accumulated.92

The imprudent attitude of manufacturers in their refusal to make certain compromises

on this matter proved quite detrimental. Had employers allowed greater increases in wages and

settled for a decreased amount of profit, the boom could have lasted a number of more years

during which its benefits were more widely distributed. Nevertheless, the Depression was still

not unavoidable if the U.S, could export its surplus production.93

c. The Cycle of International Debt

The Debt Funding Commission was established by Congress in February 1922. It

suggested that the final deadline for repayment of debts should be 1947, with an interest rate of

4.25%.94 Regardless, the basic fact of the matter was that European nations did not have the

necessary resources to pay back their loans. American exports then began to to decrease because

89 Lionel Robbins, The Great Depression (Ludwig von Mises Institute, 2007), 19. 90 Larry Elliott, “Crash course: what the Great Depression reveals about our future,” last modified March 4,


reveals-about-our-future. 91 Norman Lowe, Mastering Modern World History (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), 490. 92 Ibid. 93 Ibid. 94 Peter Clements, The Great Depression and the Americas 1929–39 (London: Hodder Education, 2012), 34.

foreign countries were either hesitant and/or unable to purchase American goods when the U.S.

itself placed tariffs to protect its industries from imports.95

The Fordney-McCumber tariff of 1922, as a result of its acting like a barrier for foreign

goods, kept foreign states, especially European ones, from making incredibly necessary profits

via trade with the United States. Lacking these profits, European states were not capable of

affording American products. This led to them struggling to repay their war debts to the United

States. To further exacerbate matters, many countries retaliated by establishing tariffs targeting

exported American goods.96

d. Speculation

The situation was worsened by a great rush of speculation on the New York stock

market, which began to gather momentum in approximately 1926. Increasingly, people

purchased stocks and shares not to invest in a company but as a speculation. If the price

increased shares were sold, thus resulting in a fast and simple profit-making mechanism.97

Individuals with adequate money to spare had two possible motivations to engage in

speculation: to obtain the dividend — the yearly distribution of a company’s profits amongst

its shareholders — or to make a profit quickly by selling the shares for more than their original

price.98 By the middle of the 1920s, it was the latter motive which gathered up the most

investors; as the profits of a company got higher and higher, and increasing number of people

wished to purchase these shares, which in turn led to share prices rising even further. This model

created various opportunities to make rapid profit through dealing in shares; the average price

of a share increased from $9 in 1924 to $26 in 1929.99

ii) Effects

a. Domestic

Overall, the domestic impacts of the Great Depression can be seen as the implementation

of protectionist measures, the surge in unemployment and general drop in living standards, and

the instability of the banking system.

The passage of the Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act took place in 1930 with the intention of

encouraging consumption of domestically produced goods; however, it resulted in the

95 Ibid. 96 Norman Lowe, Mastering Modern World History (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), 490. 97 Peter Clements, The Great Depression and the Americas 1929–39 (London: Hodder Education, 2012), 32. 98 Norman Lowe, Mastering Modern World History (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), 491. 99 Ibid.

deepening of the Depression and leading to stagnation in world trade. 100Nevertheless, this Act

was in line with the recent history of protectionism policy in the U.S. — its manufacturing

capabilities had been established through a 40% tariff in the latter half of the 19th century. 101

The number of those unemployment surpassed 13 million people, with many living in

harsh conditions resembling famine; one family in New York relocated their living

arrangements into a cave in Central Park. Over a thousand people in St. Louis were using shacks

made from scrap metal and boxes as shelter. Approximately one to two million people were

wandering the nation in a desperate attempt to find employment.102

The banks were in no better state; those that weren’t going bankrupt were foreclosing

on debtors.103 Additionally, there was no softening of the impact by a welfare state for those

such as the farmers trapped between increasing debt and plunging prices of commodities. It is

estimated by one source that 34 million Americans had no income to speak of.104 by the middle

of 1932 though, the laissez-faire approach of President Herbert Hoover was disproven and the

Franklin Roosevelt seemed to be on his way to the office of the President of the United States.105

b. Global

The average rate of unemployment between the years of 1921-1929 was 8% in the U.S.,

while it was 9% in Germany and 12% in the United Kingdom106 and was quite indicative of the

international dimensions of the Great Depression. Germany was especially impacted by the

Great Depression, having been hit by its second financial disaster within a period of less than

ten years; hyperinflation had ensued in 1923, contributed to by the harsh terms of the Treaty of

Versailles, where $1 was equivalent to 4.2 trillion marks. Brutal austerity measures in 1932 led

to unemployment soaring to 6 million people.107 The nation’s incredibly high levels of foreign

debt also eliminated devaluation as a possible solution and left Chancellor Heinrich Brüning’s

cabinet forced to decide between defaulting and deflation; Brüning decided on implementing a

100 Cory Gunderson, Great Depression (ABDO Publishing Company, 2010), 27. 101 Larry Elliott, “Crash course: what the Great Depression reveals about our future,” last modified March 4,


reveals-about-our-future. 102 “The Wall Street Crash and Depression,” BBC online, last updated 2014.

http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/history/mwh/usa/walldepressionrev1.shtml. 103 Norman Lowe, Mastering Modern World History (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), 491. 104 Larry Elliott, “Crash course: what the Great Depression reveals about our future,” last modified March 4,


reveals-about-our-future. 105 Ibid. 106 Ibid. 107 Peter Temin, Lessons from the Great Depression (USA: MIT Press, 1991), 104.

further round of austerity measures.108 Over 40% of German industrial workers were

unemployed and Nazis were in conflict with the communists for authority in the streets. By

1932, the policies of austerity measures headed by Brüning were discredited and Adolf Hitler

began his rise to power.109

Recovery in the U.K. was focused on southern England and was not strong enough to

have a significant impact on the deep-rooted unemployment witnessed in old industrial areas.

Sir Winston Churchill in fact described the period of 1914-1945 as the “Second Thirty Years’

War.”110 In Britain, automatic stabilisers had intervened during the early stages of the crisis.

Tax revenues decreased due to weaker growth, while spending on unemployment benefits rose;

public finances thus went into a dangerous zone. As opposed to encouraging increased

borrowing as a buffer against the recession getting worse, the government took action to balance

the budget.111 Britain shocked the world when it abandoned the gold standard in September

1931. With the fall of the pound, British exports witnessed a boost; this boost was strengthened

half a year later as a result of the declaration by the coalition government that a policy of

imperial preference would be established, entailing the formation of tariffs around both current

and former colonies (e.g. Australia, New Zealand)112

The demise of internationalism came about the the beginning of the 1930s, since it

became intrinsically linked to the disproven policies of unchecked speculation, mass

unemployment, unending austerity measures, and declining living standards.113 In such an

atmosphere, totalitarian states advertised themselves as replacements for the unsuccessful

liberal democratic structures.114 One such state was Germany under Hitler, while another was

the USSR under Stalin. As the first age of globalisation was disintegrating, Moscow was

furthering its policies of agricultural collectivisation and fast-paced industrialisation. In

addition to this disillusionment with liberal democracy, the economic track records of

totalitarian nations in the 1930s were also much more successful than those of liberal

108 Ibid, 69. 109 Norman Lowe, Mastering Modern World History (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), 492. 110 Peter Temin, Lessons from the Great Depression (USA: MIT Press, 1991), 1. 111 Larry Elliott, “Crash course: what the Great Depression reveals about our future,” last modified March 4,


reveals-about-our-future. 112 Ibid. 113 Norman Lowe, Mastering Modern World History (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), 492. 114 Larry Elliott, “Crash course: what the Great Depression reveals about our future,” last modified March 4,


reveals-about-our-future.

democratic nations: while annual average growth in the U.K., U.S., and France was 0.3%, it

was 3.1% in Germany, Italy, Japan, and the USSR.115

6-) Rise of Adolf Hitler and German National Socialism

A) Timeline (1923-1934)

1923

November: The Beer Hall Putsch is attempted by Adolf Hitler and is a failure.116

1924

April: Hitler’s punishment for his part in the Beer Hall Putsch — 5 years’ imprisonment

in the Bavarian fortress of Landsberg am Lech — begins; he is released just nine months later.117

1929

October: The stock market crash, commonly dubbed the Wall Street Crash, takes place

in New York.118

1930

September: 107 seats in the Reichstag are won by the Nazis (18.3% of the vote).119

1932

April: Hitler is defeated in the presidential elections by Paul von Hindenburg. 120

June: Heinrich Brüning is replaced in his role as chancellor by Franz von Papen.121

115 Larry Elliott, “Crash course: what the Great Depression reveals about our future,” last modified March 4,


reveals-about-our-future. 116 Allan Todd and Sally Waller, Authoritarian and Single-Party States (United Kingdom: Cambridge University

Press, 2011), 63. 117 Ibid. 118 “Adolf Hitler: Man and monster.” BBC online. Last updated 2018.

http://www.bbc.co.uk/timelines/zsmm6sg#zs76pv4. 119 Allan Todd and Sally Waller, Authoritarian and Single-Party States (United Kingdom: Cambridge University

Press, 2011), 63. 120 Ibid. 121 Ibid.

July: The Nazis win 37% of the popular vote122 (230 seats) in the Reichstag elections

becoming the single largest party.123

November: The Nazis win 196 Reichstag seats — a decline in support since the last

election.124

December: Kurt von Schleicher is appointed chancellor.125

1933

January: Hitler is appointed chancellor by President Hindenburg. 126

February: The Reichstag building is burned down.127

March: Nazis win 288 Reichstag seats.128

The Enabling Act is passed, giving Hitler dictatorial powers for four years.129

April: The enactment of the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service

takes place.130

May: Workers are required to join the German Labour Front (DAF) with the dissolution

of all trade unions.131

122 “Adolf Hitler: Man and monster.” BBC online. Last updated 2018.


Press, 2011), 63. 124 Ibid. 125 Ibid. 126 “Adolf Hitler: Man and monster.” BBC online. Last updated 2018.




Press, 2011), 80. 131 Ibid.

July: Through the conclusion of the Concordat, the Catholic Church is forbidden from

engaging in political activity, but is guaranteed freedom when it comes to its religious

practices.132

The establishment of new political parties is banned through the passage of a

new law; with the KPD/SPD being banned and the self-dissolution of other political parties, a

de facto single-party state is established in Germany.133

November: 92.2% of the vote is won by Nazi candidates in the elections.134

1934

June: The purge of the SA by the SS — known as the Night of the Long Knives —

takes place, where SA leaders, as well as other opponents of Hitler are killed.135

August: With the death of President Hindenburg Hitler becomes the head of state –

Führer and Reich chancellor; the army also swears an oath of personal loyalty to Hitler.136

B) Beer Hall Putsch

Hitler can be seen as having gained national levels of recognition after November 1923,

with the failed attempt to take over the Bavarian government preceding the march on Berlin.137

On the evening of November 8, Hitler arrived at the Bürgerbräu Keller and started the Beer

Hall Putsch by firing his weapon into the air and proclaiming that the “national revolution”138

had begun.

The three Bavarian nationalist leaders, Gustav von Kahr — whose rally it was that Hitler

interrupted — along with Otto von Lossow and Hans Ritter von Seisser, were convinced under

gunpoint to join the march on Berlin and the subsequent formation of a new government.139

132 Ibid. 133 Allan Todd and Sally Waller, Authoritarian and Single-Party States (United Kingdom: Cambridge University


http://www.bbc.co.uk/timelines/zsmm6sg#zs76pv4. 136 Ibid. 137 Allan Todd and Sally Waller, Authoritarian and Single-Party States (United Kingdom: Cambridge University

Press, 2011), 67. 138 United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, “Beer Hall Putsch (Munch Putsch),” Holocaust Encyclopedia.

https://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10007884. 139 Ibid.

However, once the Putsch commenced, a number of critical mistakes were made. First,

though the rebels had temporarily established their control in various vital locations, such as

the police headquarter in Munich, they had neglected to secure other vital state offices and

centres of communication.140 The second erroneous decision was that made by von Ludendorff,

when he let Kahr, Lossow, and Seisser — who had been left under his supervision — to leave

the beer hall. They had claimed they wished to participate in the putsch, however, once released

Kahr immediately condemned the rebellion and contacted the police and army.141 The final

mistake was that of Hitler’s indecision; he did not immediately conclude that they would

continue with their march on Berlin, and this gave the Bavarian authorities the time needed to

prepare their defence of Munich.142

On November 9, Hitler and General Ludendorff lead approximately 2000 Nazis through

Munich.143 The marchers and Munich police clashed; the ensuing conflict resulted in the death

of 14 Nazis and four law enforcement officials, effectively halting the attempted coup. While

Ludendorff was arrested, Hitler fled; however, he was also located and arrested on November

11.144

i) The Coming of the Putsch

In the preceding four years since the establishment of the Weimar Republic, Germany

had what could best be described as having an atmosphere of national instability about it.

Alongside the economic problems and national trauma incurred by Germany’s defeat in the

First World War, there were also the weaknesses of the Weimar constitution, the general

inexperience of political parties when it came to the functioning of a democratic parliamentary

system, as well as the legacy of having accepted the humiliating and what many considered to

be the overly harsh terms of the Treaty of Versailles.145 The Beer Hall Putsch was by no measure

the first rebellion to have taken place in the newly formed Republic. There had been both left

and right wing uprisings, such as the Spartacist Rising of 1919 by communists and the Kapp

140 Ibid. 141 Ian Kershaw, Hitler: 1889-1936 Hubris (W. W. Norton & Company, 2000). 142 United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, “Beer Hall Putsch (Munch Putsch),” Holocaust Encyclopedia.

https://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10007884. 143 United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, “Beer Hall Putsch (Munch Putsch),” Holocaust Encyclopedia.

https://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10007884. 144 Allan Todd and Sally Waller, Authoritarian and Single-Party States (United Kingdom: Cambridge University

Press, 2011), 67. 145 United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, “Beer Hall Putsch (Munch Putsch),” Holocaust Encyclopedia.

https://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10007884.

Putsch of 1920 by the right-wing Freikorps, not to mention the string of political assassinations

targeting various ranks of government officials.146

By 1923, when the Beer Hall Putsch was attempted, there were over 50,000 Nazi

members and most had enlisted with taking action against the republic in mind. Having been

inspired by the success of Mussolini’s march on Rome, Hitler’s plans were to conduct a similar

march on Berlin in order to take over the national government.147 Simultaneously, there was

much public disgruntlement in Bavaria towards the French occupation of the Ruhr, with the

Bavarian government declaring a state of emergency in protest to the decision of Berlin to stop

the passive resistance against the aforementioned occupation.148

ii) Trial

In March 1924, the trial of Hitler and various other leaders of the putsch commenced

and was led by a panel of five judges, chaired by Georg Neithardt.149 Similar to most judges of

the time, Neirhardt would, in such cases of high treason, demonstrate a more tolerant attitude

for right-wing perpetrators who asserted that they had patriotic motivations for their actions.150

Hitler’s claims were quite in line with this, as he stated that he had acted “out of patriotic

concern for his country.”151 Though convicted of high treason, he was only condemned to the

lightest allowable sentence of five years, thanks to the sympathetic right-wing panel.

Hitler ended up serving just nine months of this five years sentence; he was also

imprisoned in Landsberg Fortress, which according to the historian Ian Kershaw was, “more

akin to a hotel.”152 He was permitted to wear civilian clothes, interact with other prisoners as

he so wished, and to write and receive a significant amount of letters.153 He was additionally

allowed to meet with his private secretary, Rudolf Hess, also charged with high treason; during

146 Norman Lowe, Mastering Modern World History (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), 310-311. 147 Ian Kershaw, Hitler: 1889-1936 Hubris (W. W. Norton & Company, 2000). 148 Ibid. 149 United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, “Beer Hall Putsch (Munch Putsch),” Holocaust Encyclopedia.

https://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10007884. 150 Ibid. 151 Allan Todd and Sally Waller, Authoritarian and Single-Party States (United Kingdom: Cambridge University

Press, 2011), 67. 152 Allan Todd and Sally Waller, Authoritarian and Single-Party States (United Kingdom: Cambridge University

Press, 2011), 67. 153 Jan Friedmann, “Adolf Hitler’s Time in Jail: Flowers for the Führer in Landsberg Prison,” trans. Christopher

Sultan, Der Spiegel online, last modified June 23, 2010. http://www.spiegel.de/international/germany/adolf-

hitler-s-time-in-jail-flowers-for-the-fuehrer-in-landsberg-prison-a-702159.html.

his time at Landsberg, Hitler dictated the first part of his semi-autobiographical book, “Mein

Kampf” to Hess.154

iii) Mein Kampf

A combination of autobiography and ideology can be located in Hitler’s “Mein Kampf”

(My Struggle), which he wrote at Landsberg Fortress, serving out his prison sentence.155 It can

be characterised as being less a calculated plan of action and more a sentimental call directed

at the German public to mobilise in discerning their enemies and joining the Nazis to eliminate

them.156

Hitler’s core political ideas were expressed in the book. These included his belief in the

dialectical nature of politics, the power of the state as the central social organisation, and the

subordinate nature of women to men, along with how women should not be included in

politics.157 Some of his much more prominent convictions, though, were those of the need to

establish Lebensraum (living space) in the east in order to ready the population for war,

eliminate the Jewish population and establish racial unity, fight against communism in order to

reestablish the powerful global standing of Germany.158

Though the ideological learning of the Nazi Party in the immediate years after its

formation were much friendlier towards socialism — with demands for the nationalisation of

big businesses and eradication of large department stores in favour of small business owners —

this did not continue much longer. After the decision was made to oppose all elections of the

Reichstag 1924 and onwards, Hitler came to the conclusion that the Nazis could only succeed

through allying with big businesses and the middle classes.159

154 John L. Heineman, “The Appeal of National Socialism: 1923-29,” Boston College.

https://www2.bc.edu/john-heineman/Appeal.html. 155 Michael Lynch, Origins and development of authoritarian and single-party states (London: Hodder

Education, 2013), 65. 156 Ralph Flenley, “The National-Social Revolution in Germany,” University of Toronto Quarterly 3, no. 1

(October 1933): 23. 157 Michael Lynch, Origins and development of authoritarian and single-party states (London: Hodder

Education, 2013), 65. 158 Allan Todd and Sally Waller, Authoritarian and Single-Party States (United Kingdom: Cambridge University

Press, 2011), 76. 159 Ibid, 77.

iv) Appointment as Chancellor

After the expiration of Hindenburg’s time as president came about in April 1932, he

once again put forward his candidacy as the only individual capable of defeating Hitler.160

Though reelected, this outcome was largely made possible not through the backing of

conservative-nationalist groups — whom Hindenburg felt were his closest allied but who now

supported Hitler — but as a result of the support of Brüning’s Catholic Centre Party and the

Social Democrats.161 His voters relied on him to serve as a defence against the chaos and

brutality characteristic of Nazi rule. However, the Nazis — though displeasing — were seen as

a group that was useful and with whom cooperation would be possible. Brüning was seen as a

barrier when it came to be tolerating the Nazis, and thus Hindenburg was convinced to dismiss

the Chancellor and appoint von Papen in his place.162

During the time period in which von Papen was Chancellor, the attempt was made to

persuade Hitler into becoming Vice-Chancellor, however, he would accept nothing less than

the post of Chancellorship itself.163 Both the governments headed by von Papen and Schleicher

failed in gaining the backing of the Nazis, with Hitler’s insistence on being Chancellor himself

continuing in any government his party was a part of. However, Hindenburg was wary of

Hitler’s aggressive nature and denied him that post.164

In the Reichstag elections of July 1932, the Nazis increased their number of seats from

107 to 230, making them the largest single party; Hindenburg, however, continued to refuse

Hitler Chancellorship. The Nazis, in retaliation, backed the Communists in the vote of No

Confidence and led to the dissolution of the Reichstag. In the elections of November 1932,

though, the Nazis actually lost 10% of their votes (35 seats) while the Communists reached over

100 seats for the first time. Following these developments, Schleicher was appointed

Chancellor;165 von Papen and Hitler, though, were nevertheless able to come to the agreement

— behind the scenes — that Hitler would become Chancellor with von Papen as his Vice-

160 Andreas Dorpalen, “Paul von Hindenburg,” Encyclopædia Britannica, last updated December 15, 2016.

https://www.britannica.com/biography/Paul-von-Hindenburg. 161 Ibid. 162 Andreas Dorpalen, “Paul von Hindenburg,” Encyclopædia Britannica, last updated December 15, 2016.

https://www.britannica.com/biography/Paul-von-Hindenburg. 163 Ralph Flenley, “The National-Social Revolution in Germany,” University of Toronto Quarterly 3, no. 1

(October 1933): 28. 164 Andreas Dorpalen, “Paul von Hindenburg,” Encyclopædia Britannica, last updated December 15, 2016.

https://www.britannica.com/biography/Paul-von-Hindenburg. 165 Ralph Flenley, “The National-Social Revolution in Germany,” University of Toronto Quarterly 3, no. 1

(October 1933): 28.

Chancellor, and with most other posts occupied by non-Nazis.166 Hindenburg was persuaded to

invite Hitler to become Chancellor under these arrangements and under the assurance made by

von Papen that Hitler could be kept under control. Von Papen sincerely believed in this, stating

that, “In two months we’ll have pushed Hitler into a corner so hard he’ll be squeaking.”167

Following the failure of Schleicher in getting support in the Reichstag for his government,

Hindenburg requested his resignation and on January 30, 1933 appointed Hitler as Chancellor,

under the aforementioned arrangements.168

There were numerous reasons for this decision on Hindenburg’s part. First was, based

on the past actions of Hitler: he was apprehensive of the Nazis attempting to take over via a

Putsch.169 They also were of the opinion that they could more effectively control Hitler when

he was within the government than if he was outside of it; they thought that having an

experience of being in power would lead to the Nazis keeping their extremist tendencies in

check.170 Another reason can be found in the Reichstag elections of 1932, where the Nationalists

only won 37 seats; allying with the Nazis, who though losing 10% of their vote, had 230 seats

would give them a significant advantage in establishing a majority in the Reichstag. The

Nationalists were also not ardent supporters of a democratic governmental structure and

believed that restoration of the monarchy could be made possible through cooperation with the

Nazis. Even though this would result in the destruction of the Weimar Republic, many right-

wing members of government were ready to proceed with this plan of actions in order to have

a better chance at opposing the communists who had had their highest electoral results by

obtaining 89 seats in the Reichstag.171

It must also be noted that there were a significant number of right-wing individuals who

did not agree with the appointment of Hitler to the post of Chancellorship. A significant figure

who held these views was General Ludendorff who had been an ally of Hitler during the Beer

Hall Putsch. Ludendorff even wrote to Hindenburg: “I solemnly prophesy that this accursed

166 I Ralph Flenley, “The National-Social Revolution in Germany,” University of Toronto Quarterly 3, no. 1

(October 1933): 29. 167 Norman Lowe, Mastering Modern World History (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), 316. 168 Michael Lynch, Origins and development of authoritarian and single-party states (London: Hodder

Education, 2013), 70. 169 Norman Lowe, Mastering Modern World History (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), 316. 170 Ibid. 171 Norman Lowe, Mastering Modern World History (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), 316.

man will cast our Reich into the abyss and bring our nation to inconceivable misery. Future

generations will damn you in your grace for what you have done.”172

C) The Reichstag Fire

i) Arson

On the night of 27 February 1933, the Reichstag building incurred heavy damages due

to a fire attributed to arson. The Nazis alleged this fire to be started by a young Dutch

communist, Marinus van der Lubbe, who was acting as a part of the KPD; he was arrested,

tried, and executed due to these claims.173 Along with the absence of reliable evidence

indicating his guilt, there has also been questions of whether elements within the Nazis, such

as Hitler or Goering and the SA, could have played a part in this arson in order to create a reason

to attack their political rivals.174 The answers to this question have varied. While some accounts

acknowledge that this did indeed play into the hands of Hitler, they establish that there is no

conclusive evidence to ascertain his or the Nazis’ direct involvement in the arson.175 Other

sources, however, take a more explicit approach in suggesting that the Nazi’s are most definitely

the perpetrators of arson; the rationale for this is usually that such an enormous task could not

be done by one man alone, personal accounts stating admission of responsibility by Nazi

officials such as Goering, and the immediate timing of arrests.176

Many foreign media outlets, such as the US independent Fox Movie Tones newsreel,

furthered the official German government accounts of the fire. Though there were no concrete

Communist plans for a coup, a significant number of Germans were convinced, through the use

of propaganda and the exploitation of pre-existing fears, that a Communist uprising was

imminent, and it was only the determined course of action on Hitler’s part that had saved them

and the nation.177

172 Ibid, 317. 173 United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, “The Reichstag Fire,” Holocaust Encyclopedia,

https://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10007657. 174 Allan Todd and Sally Waller, Authoritarian and Single-Party States (United Kingdom: Cambridge University

Press, 2011), 71. 175 Norman Lowe, Mastering Modern World History (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), 319. 176 William L. Shirer, The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich (New York: RosettaBooks, 2011). 177 United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, “The Reichstag Fire,” Holocaust Encyclopedia,


ii) 1933 Elections

The burning of the Reichstag took place in the midst of the 1933 Reichstag elections.

With the Nazis now in government, they were able to utilise to the fullest extent the resources

of the state, such as the press and the radio, in order to achieve a majority government. Meetings

of the Nazis and Nationalists were permitted to proceed, but the political gatherings of

Communists and Socialists were forcibly disrupted, and speakers were beaten up, while law

enforcement turned a blind eye. The Nationalists were willing to be complicit in the actions of

the Nazis in order to permanently bring an end to Communism.178

The elections took place on March 5, 1933, and despite the resources and tactics utilised

by the Nazis, they still were not able to establish a majority government on their own. The Nazis

had gained 44% of the vote, corresponding to 17,277,180 votes — an increase of more than

five million votes.179 The Nationalists also did not perform as well as they had hoped, only

gaining approximately 3 million votes, or 8%. The Centre party had gotten over 4 million votes,

while the Social Democrats maintained their standing as Germany’s second largest party with

approximately 7 million votes.180 The Communists lost about a million voters, but still managed

to claim nearly 5 million votes. Despite not being able to form a majority independently, the

Nationalist-Nazi coalition was able to establish a 16 seat majority in the Reichstag, with the 52

seats of the Nationalists and the 288 seats of the Nazis. Nevertheless, it was still far from the

two-thirds majority that Hitler needed.181

iii) Reichstag Fire Decree

With the passage of the decrees of February 4 and 28, 1933, basic constitutional rights

were suspended.182 Hitler’s cabinet put to use the emergency powers afforded to them by the

Constitution in order to promulgate the Decree for the Protection of the German People on

February 4, 1933. Through this decree, there was a serious limiting of the freedom of press and

an extension on the authorisation of law enforcement in suspending political gatherings, which

then successfully impeded election campaigns.183

178 Norman Lowe, Mastering Modern World History (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), 319. 179 William L. Shirer, The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich (New York: RosettaBooks, 2011). 180 Ibid. 181 Ibid. 182 Head of the Press and Information Office of the State of Berlin, “Hitler’s rise to power,” The Governing

Mayor of Berlin. https://www.berlin.de/berlin-im-ueberblick/en/history/berlin-in-the-national-socialist-

era/artikel.452964.php. 183 United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, “The Reichstag Fire,” Holocaust Encyclopedia,


Though initially put forward as a temporary decree, a much more extreme version of it

was subsequently issued, permanently suspending civil rights.184 This was done through the

exploitation of the Reichstag fire on February 27, used to obtain President Hindenburg’s

consent to pass the Decree for the Protection of the People and the Reich, which became more

commonly known as the Reichstag Fire Decree.185

This Decree had a number provisions within that suspended significant sections of the

Constitution. Through these regulations those sections concerned with the protection of

individual liberties and the due process of law were effectively suspended. Restrictions of the

rights to assembly, freedom of speech, freedom of press, as well as numerous other rights were

implemented, whilst removing all limitations on investigations by the police.186 Some of the

ways in which the Decree gave the state a free hand were with its removal of limitations on the

incarceration of political rivals who were not charged with a specific crime, the dissolution of

political organisations, and the repression of publications. 187

These powers were maintained after cabinet members changed. The state were also

given the power to change the laws at a state and local level, as well as overthrow governments

at these levels.188 Additionally, various states, provinces, and municipalities that used to be in

possession of semi-autonomous powers now effectively became the administrative bodies of a

centralised state apparatus.189 Through the passage of the Reichstag Fire Decree, a police state

was established in Germany under which the public were not ensured fundamental rights and

where the SS were afforded an increasing amount of power as a result of their command over

law enforcement.190

D) Hitler’s Consolidation of Power

The guarantees made by von Papen on being able to restrain Hitler proved to be

unfounded. There was a rapid consolidation of nearly unrestrained political power by Hitler

through use of terror tactics, manipulation, and the making of false promises. Hindenburg did

184 Ibid. 185 United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, “Reichstag Fire Decree,” Timeline of Events.

https://www.ushmm.org/learn/timeline-of-events/1933-1938/reichstag-fire-decree. 186 Ibid. 187 United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, “Background: Decree of the Reich President for the Protection

of the People and the State,” Holocaust Encyclopedia.

https://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10007888. 188 Ibid. 189 The Avalon Project, “The Reich Cabinet,” Yale Law School: Lillian Goldman Law Library.

http://avalon.law.yale.edu/imt/chap15_part03.asp 190 United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, “Reichstag Fire Decree,” Timeline of Events.

https://www.ushmm.org/learn/timeline-of-events/1933-1938/reichstag-fire-decree.

not take long to become comfortable with Hitler, and was largely supportive of his rule, despite

partaking in intermittent harmless acts that at a surface-level distinguished him from the Führer

and the Nazis.191

i) Enabling Act

Following the inability of the Nazis to establish a majority government, Hitler put

forward a bill granting his government legislative authority, pursuant to his conviction that the

Nazi party must establish and maintain its independence. In the aftermath of the Reichstag fire,

Hitler allegedly was able to convince President Hindenburg to approve of the emergency bill in

order to quell a communist uprising. The bill was additionally supported by the Conservatives

and the Catholic Centre Party and became known as the “Enabling Act”.192

It granted the government the authority to create laws without the Reichstag’s approval

for four years’ time, could circumvent the Constitution, and make agreements with foreign

countries. All legislation would be constructed by the Chancellor and come into effect on the

day of publication; these measures effectively set the stage for the granting of a legal

dictatorship to Hitler, which could be indefinitely extended since he had the authority to make

laws. However, such a constitutional change required a two-thirds majority, and the Nazis on

their own could not even claim a simple majority.193

On the day of the vote on the bill, the SS surrounded the Kroll Opera House, where the

Reichstag had been meeting since the destruction of the parliament building. There was a mass

arrest of Communist and many Socialist opponents preceding the vote on this bill; 81

Communist MPs had been arrested or were in hiding, while a number of Socialist MPs were

not allowed to enter the premises.194 While the SA were present inside the building, the SS

members outside were chanting, “Full powers, or else!”195 Under such circumstances of

intimidation and terrorisation, the Nazis were able to establish the necessary two-thirds

majority; the only opposition came from the remaining Socialist Democrats in the Reichstag,

resulting in the passage of the bill on March 23, 1933 by 441 votes to 94.196

191 Andreas Dorpalen, “Paul von Hindenburg,” Encyclopædia Britannica, last updated December 15, 2016.

https://www.britannica.com/biography/Paul-von-Hindenburg. 192 William L. Shirer, The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich (New York: RosettaBooks, 2011). 193 Ibid. 194 Ibid. 195 Ibid. 196 United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, “Nazi Rule,” The Holocaust: A Learning Site for Students.

https://www.ushmm.org/outreach/en/article.php?ModuleId=10007669.

ii) Gleichschaltung

Gleichschaltung, literally meaning forcible coordination,197 refers to a coordination

process through which the totality of German institutions were made to conform to the ideals

of the Nazis, turning Germany into a totalitarian state.198 The state attempted to exercise as

much control as possible throughout as many facets of life as possible; the Gestapo — or the

Secret State Police — were especially utilised in achieving this end. There were a number of

significant measures in establishing this Nazification of the state, such as the establishment of

a single-party state, the purge of the civil service, and the abolishment of trade unions, as well

as the exercise of state control over religion.199

iii) Single Party State

A ban of all political parties, except the National Socialists, was enacted making

Germany a single-party state. Prior to this legislation, the Social Democratic Party had already

been dissolved due their being, “subversive and inimical to the State.”200 The Communists had

already been destroyed, which resulted in the the only remaining parties being those of the

middle class. However, this would not last; the Catholic Bavarian People’s Party declared its

own dissolution on July 4, and the Centre Party did so as well the following day. The Nationalist

allies of the Nazis, the German National Party, also announced their “voluntary” dissolution on

June 29 after their offices were raided by the police and storm troopers on June 21.201 Finally,

on July 14, the law establishing Germany as a single-party totalitarian state was decreed:

The National Socialist German Workers’ Party constitutes the only political party in

Germany.

Whoever undertakes to maintain the organisational structure of another political party

or to form a new political party will be punished with penal servitude up to three years or with

imprisonment of from six months to three years, if the deed is not subject to a greater penalty

according to other regulations.202

iv) Civil Service Purge

This purge of the civil service consisted of the removal of all Jewish people and various

other suspected “enemies of the state” from the civil service with the goal of making it

197 Norman Lowe, Mastering Modern World History (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), 320. 198 Allan Todd and Sally Waller, Authoritarian and Single-Party States (United Kingdom: Cambridge University

Press, 2011), 72. 199 Norman Lowe, Mastering Modern World History (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), 321-324. 200 William L. Shirer, The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich (New York: RosettaBooks, 2011). 201 William L. Shirer, The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich (New York: RosettaBooks, 2011). 202 Ibid.

completely reliable.203 This purge was achieved through the enactment of the Law for the

Restoration of the Professional Civil Service, also known as the Civil Service Law, a week after

the national boycott of Jewish-owned businesses on April 1.204 It signified the first extensive

law on occupational discrimination targeting Jewish citizens. With the so called “Aryan

Clause”,205 a race-based requirement for continued profession involvement in the civil services

was legally put into place:

(1) Civil servants who are not of Aryan descent are to be retired (§ 8 ff.); if they hold

honorary posts, they are to be dismissed from their official duties.

(2) Section 1 does not apply to civil servants who were already in office on 1 August

1914 or who fought at the front for the German Reich or its Allies in the World War, or whose

fathers or sons fell in the World War. Further exceptions for civil servants working abroad may

be permitted by the Reich Minister of the Interior in consultation with the Minister concerned

or with the highest state authorities.206

This legislation effectively excluded Jewish people from government and administrative

station while simultaneously establishing a standard which would soon be adhered to in other

professional areas. The only exception made, as can be seen above, was for individuals who

had begun their employment in the civil service before the First World War and/or for Jewish

people who had fought in the War on the German side.207

v) Abolishment of Trade Unions

With the view of trade unions as a potential source of resistance, the state decided to

abolish such entities, confiscate their funds, and to arrest their leaders.208 This was achieved

through the use of traditional May Day celebrations. May Day 1933 was declared as the “Day

of National Labour” and cooperation with trade union leaders ensued in celebration of this day.

Labour leaders were transported from throughout Germany to Berlin, so that they could

participate in the massive rally. The next day, on May 2, trade union headquarters across the

nations were taken over and the aforementioned measures of abolishment, confiscation of

203 Reichsgesetzblatt, “Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service (“Civil Service Law”),”

University of Oregon. http://pages.uoregon.edu/dluebke/Holocaust444-544/Arierparagraph.html. 204 William L. Shirer, The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich (New York: RosettaBooks, 2011). 205 Reichsgesetzblatt, “Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service (“Civil Service Law”),”

University of Oregon. http://pages.uoregon.edu/dluebke/Holocaust444-544/Arierparagraph.html. 206 Ibid. 207 Ibid. 208 Norman Lowe, Mastering Modern World History (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), 321.

funds, and arrest of leaders took place. A large number of them were also physically assaulted

and placed in concentration camps.209

However, a vacuum was not left in its place; the Nazis at first tried to reassure the

workers that there would be protection of their rights. Despite this, within three weeks,

legislation was passed making it so that strikes were outlawed, and the government dealt with

all complaints, such as those regarding wages and working conditions,210 through “labour

trustees”. The replacement for trade unions was established through founding the German

Labour Front (DAF) under Robert Ley, to which all workers automatically belonged.211

vi) Concordat

Since the churches were perceived as a source of possible opposition, the process of

bringing religion under state control was commenced.212 The Concordat was the agreement

signed in 1933 by Hitler with the Pope, in which the guarantee was given to the Catholic Church

that there would be no interference in any way with German Catholics and that the right of the

Church “to regulate her own affairs”213 would be ensured. Hitler was, in return, given the

agreement for the dissolution of the Catholic Centre Party and to no longer participate in

politics.

Tensions arose though, on July 25, merely five days after the ratification of the

Concordat, with the publishing of a sterilisation law which the Catholic Church found especially

offensive.214 The state then went back on their word five days later, via the dissolution of the

Catholic Youth League, since it posed a rival to Hitler Youth; Catholic schools were also closed

amid protests by Catholics at the dissolution of their Youth League.215

vii) Night of the Long Knives

The Night of the Long Knives, also known as the Röhm Purge216 or the Blood Purge,217

was ruthless in nature and launched in the summer of 1934 by Hitler against elements within

his own party that he perceived as being against the achievement of Gleichschaltung. Ernst

Röhm, the leader of the SA, was one of many who were arrested and executed; 80 leaders of

209 William L. Shirer, The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich (New York: RosettaBooks, 2011). 210 Allan Todd and Sally Waller, Authoritarian and Single-Party States (United Kingdom: Cambridge University

Press, 2011), 82. 211 Norman Lowe, Mastering Modern World History (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), 321. 212 Ibid, 324. 213 William L. Shirer, The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich (New York: RosettaBooks, 2011). 214 William L. Shirer, The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich (New York: RosettaBooks, 2011). 215 Norman Lowe, Mastering Modern World History (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), 324. 216 Ibid, 327. 217 William L. Shirer, The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich (New York: RosettaBooks, 2011).

the SA were arrested and shot without trial, while it is estimated that a minimum of 400 others

were executed — the maximum estimates range in the thousands.218 Hitler later provided

justification for his actions by claiming that all those who had been executed were plotting to

overthrow the government.219

Though the actual objectives of Röhm were not ascertained, rather than waiting for him

to act, a group of generals in the army forged a fake order, making it look as if Röhm had

ordered the SA to ready themselves for a strike against Hitler and the army. This behaviour of

the military was quite important and telling; through their support of Hitler, the army wished to

establish control over their main opponents: the SA.220 The intentions of the army to form an

alliance with Hitler can be seen during the voyage in the cruiser Deutschland, as described by

Shirer:

The Army and Navy commanders were told of Hindenburg’s worsening condition and

Hitler, backed by the compliant Blomberg, bluntly proposed that he himself, with the

Reichswehr’s blessing, be the President’s successor. In return for the support of the military,

Hitler offered to suppress Röhm’s ambitions, drastically reduce the S.A. and guarantee the

Army and Navy that they would continue to be the sole bearers of arms in the Third Reich.221

Hitler then effectively addressed the concern of the army with regards to the paramilitary

forces;222 Röhm had wished to replace the army and his removal won Hitler an even larger

backing by the armed forces.223 Though the SA had had a central position in the rise of Nazism,

they were no longer useful for Hitler. Röhm was a socialist and wanted society to be led by the

workers and soldiers; he thought he had Hitler’s support in his goal of taking action to destroy

the structure of privilege in German society. However, due to establishing his authority through

legal methods, Hitler wished to further consolidate his power by bringing the established ruling

classes of Germany on to his side, not eliminating them.224 After the Night of the Long Knives,

the SA were not disbanded right away, but its role was taken over by the stronger SS.225

218 Norman Lowe, Mastering Modern World History (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), 328. 219 Ibid. 220 William L. Shirer, The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich (New York: RosettaBooks, 2011). 221 Ibid. 222 “Adolf Hitler: Man and monster,” BBC online, last updated 2018.

http://www.bbc.co.uk/timelines/zsmm6sg#zs76pv4. 223 United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, “Nazi Rule,” The Holocaust: A Learning Site for Students.

https://www.ushmm.org/outreach/en/article.php?ModuleId=10007669. 224 Michael Lynch, Origins and development of authoritarian and single-party states (London: Hodder

Education, 2013), 75. 225 Ibid.

viii) Hindenburg’s Death

President Hindenburg died aged 87 in August 1934, and upon his death Hitler merged

the presidency with his Chancellorship; the army also swore an oath of personal loyalty to

Hitler.226 Hitler’s dictatorship was thus established and maintained via his role as Reich

President (head of state), Reich Chancellor (head of government). and as the Führer (leader of

the Nazi party), making his official title that of, “Führer and Reich Chancellor.”227 In the

following two weeks, a plebiscite was conducted in Germany, with the question of whether or

not the people approved Hitler’s extension of power; 92% of the electorate — corresponding to

30 million Germans — responded, positively, stating that they did.228

7-) Empire of Japan

A) From Meiji to World War I

Meiji, who was the emperor of Japan from 1867 to 1912 was the actor of drastic

transformation that Japan had from being a feudal country into being a modern and powerful

one. Though his original name was Mutsuhito, he owned the name Meiji after he came to the

throne as the second son of his father, Kōmei. He has ended the “Tokugawa Shogunate” also

known as the Edo Period which was the last feudal Japanese military government in power.

Standing in front of what was supported for centuries, different from other emperors he

supported the need Japan has been having for modernization which was arisen as an outcome

of cultural and political isolation lasted for 250 years. The biggest step that he took on

modernization process was the launch of “Charter Oath of Five Principles” in 1868 just after a

year he was acceded229. This charter has made a big restoration in the direct participation of

imperial family to government matters and stood out as a brief introduction to Western

parliamentary constitution. His next step has stroked out feudal law in 1871 and brought cabinet

system to government in 1885. Japan had its first proper constitution in 1889.230

After all these improvements on both the culture and governance, in 1904 Russo-

Japanese War has broken out between Russia and Japan. The war was declared by Japanese

226 Allan Todd and Sally Waller, Authoritarian and Single-Party States (United Kingdom: Cambridge University

Press, 2011), 83. 227 United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, “Nazi Rule,” The Holocaust: A Learning Site for Students.

https://www.ushmm.org/outreach/en/article.php?ModuleId=10007669. 228 Michael Lynch, Origins and development of authoritarian and single-party states (London: Hodder

Education, 2013) 229 Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "Meiji Restoration." Encyclopædia Britannica. July 26, 2017. Accessed April 09, 2018. 230"Taisho Emperor." Taisho Emperor - World War I Document Archive. Accessed April 09, 2018. https://wwi.lib.byu.edu/index.php/Taisho_Emperor.

Government in order to stop the expansionist policies of Russia in Far-East region; specifically

in Korea and Manchuria. While the celebration for the new constitution in Japan was taking

over, in 1989 Russia has made China to grant a lease for itself on the Liaodong Peninsula which

is located in southern Manchuria. One of the most important motives for Japan to declare such

war was its success on the first Sino-Japanese War it has entered with China for the Korean soil

between the years of 1894-1895. Russia already had the access to the majority of Manchurian

territory and seaport via its extended Trans-Siberian Railroad came off by his alliance with

China. However, Russia still could not succeed on the reinforcement process of Russian army

and supplies. But Japan was having the upper hand due to the great amount of development and

troops that Japanese army had after Sino-Japanese War. Russian troops were inferior to

Japanese. Although having this information, Russia did not keep its withdrawal promise given

on a signed agreement and this has led Japan to declare the war in 1904.231

The war began with the attack of Japanese fleet to the Port Arthur in China which was

having the Russian naval squadron. During this surprise attack, the second part of Japanese

army was sent to Korea for invasion and it was successful. Third part was sent to Liaodong

Peninsula which was taken over after 2 months of Russian combat and caused the cut of

communication between Russian army’s main body and its rest. Finally, Russian army has

fallen back after losing variety of important fields. Although Russia had reinforcements to its

army via the Trans-Siberian railroad, the attacks were still not sufficient due to poor leadership

in military. On the 2nd of January 1905 Russian commander in Port Arthur has surrendered with

an unexpected corruption by without asking the opinions of its officers and ammunition still in

the fortress. The ultimate battle was fought at Mukden between Russia and Japan with a total

of 600.000 soldiers, Japan having the inferior number. The battle has ended with the force

withdrawal of Russian commander accompanied with more than 100.000 casualties.

A period to Russo-Japanese War was put with The Naval Battle in Tsushima. It has concluded

with Japan’s powerful attack on the Russian Baltic Fleet which has been already in the battle

for a long time. This naval victory of Japan has accompanied with Russia’s latest internal

political unrest and Russia has sat on the peace table. Treaty of Portsmouth was signed with the

mediation of President Roosevelt. Russia has withdrawn from China and Japan’s control over

231 "The Russo-Japanese War Begins." History.com. Accessed April 09, 2018. http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/the-russo-japanese-war-begins.

Korea was recognized. With this victory, Japan has become the first Asian power which

defeated an European power in modern history.

After 9 years from Russo-Japanese War, First World War was erupted in 28th of July, 1914.

B) From World War I to 1930’s

The first reaction to breakout was to evaluate its possible outcomes for Japanese economy. And

it was uncertain since the war between European countries was preventing the international

trade that supplies textiles, chemicals to other states. The risk of Japanese investments to get

effected was high and the economy actually suffered from a few shortages by high-quality

machines as their request for it was growing. This change in balances has caused the increase

of global demand for Japanese products. The export levels are boomed because of two reasons.

First, the new demand direction towards Japan by Europe and the fact that US economy was in

expansion. Although Japanese products were less qualified, they still could be used as

substitutes to unavailable EU products. 232 Japan was also in a pre-WW1-economcal-crisis since

it has just got out of a big war; and this new export demand has saved the country’s financial

status. Between the times of WW1, every industry has nearly doubled its manufacture; most

benefited ones were marine transportation as well as shipbuilding.

After considering the economical aspect, Japan decided to go into the war as the ally of Great

Britain, answering with respect to Britain’s helps to Japan in 1902. It declared was on Germany

although there was a deep concern in both government and army about Germany would prevail.

European part of the war has come to dead-end just after the war has started and there seemed

no one to be in the victory line. In the Western Front millions of soldiers were dying but this

situation has not reached to Japanese public yet. In 1914, Japan succeeded to capture a German

colony in China and trailed the German East Asiatic Squadron out of the Pacific Ocean. Even

though there were no major battles, Japanese navy also took the control of South China Sea.

Until the time Britain asked for additional help from Japan, there was no extra troops or navy

sent to Europe. The reason why Britain wanted help was that it was fighting back in more than

3 territorial waters, its resources were nearly finished and moreover the declaration of

unrestricted warfare done by British government. In April 1917, Japan has decided to send 14

destroyers and a flagship cruiser to back up British ship from German submarines in the

Mediterranean Sea. Finally, on eleventh day of eleventh month, 1918 the war has ended with

232"Taisho Democracy in Japan: 1912-1926." Facing History and Ourselves. Accessed April 09, 2018. https://www.facinghistory.org/nanjing-atrocities/nation-building/taisho-democracy-japan-1912-1926.

Germany signing an armistice prepared by Britain and France.233 The impacts of World War 1

on Japan was the increase of territorial interest in the mainland which was going to be the

primary flame of second Sino-Japanese war in 1937. The country was also reached to be a

Pacific Island Empire. Post-war era of Japan was totally dedicated to liberalization of political

institutions. In the cabinets, the voices that wants an expansion to abroad were raising; they also

wanted liberalism inside. This has led all men to be granted with a right of vote in 1925. And

for the first time in Japan, new Western style political parties have begun to be established in

the cities and citizens were choosing them over weak Parliament. Trade Unions started to gain

reputation and power. However, a big clash between two group were about to rise in politics.

After WWI, the political power in the county was in the hands of soldiers and navy

officers which were previously from feudal class but this group hated the current liberal civilian

government existing at the moment. They were supporting the idea of this new kind of

liberalization was harming the provision of their divine-righted Emperor as well as his political

infallibility. After all of these controversies and clashes, finally a military dictatorship has broke

out in Japan during 1930s. The results of elections were disregarded but the fear and profit-wise

view has made the liberal businessmen to support this new regime. A great amount of Emperor

worship has grown and even led to the creation of “thought police”s which were charged with

suspecting people with “dangerous thoughts”.234 Between two World Wars, Japan now had a

government which uses Japanese traditions in an exploited way and adapting European

totalitarianism. Citizens were not making much noise due to the sustained period of rapid

economic and population growth soared from 32 million to 84 million because the world was

facing a big depression which has damaged international trade as well as caused problems in

providing food. Additionally, racism had a big growth in Japan between 1920s and 1930s

towards Koreans, Chinese and Western people. Even this racism had led to the death of 6.000

Koreans by Japanese people after the Great Kanto Earthquake in Tokyo with its rage and

frustration.

233 Anderson, Marge. "Japan After World War One | The Non-Western World." Big Site of History – History of Civilization. June 15, 2008. Accessed April 09, 2018. https://bigsiteofhistory.com/japan-after-world-war-one-the-non-western-world/. 234 "Japan Profile - Timeline." BBC News. February 20, 2018. Accessed April 09, 2018. http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-15219730.

C) Mukden Incident and Invasion of Manchuria (1931)

Mukden Incident (also called Manchurian Incident) was the capturing of Manchurian

city of Mukden by Japan and a series of invasions ended with the establishment of a Japanese-

dominated state in the area called Manchukuo. This incident has led to the isolation of Japan

on an international level as well as paved the path through the outbreak of World War 2.In the

beginning of 20th century, Japan had special rights in Manchuria due to its invasion and the

area was carrying high importance for the defence of their Korean colony but with the stable

increase of success of a unification in China by the late 1920s via a nationalist leader; Japan

was alarmed by the current situation as well as the future of Manchuria.235 The pressure of

Russians coming from North has contributed to this fear too. In response to this situation,

without the permission of current civil government, Japanese army have initiated an incident to

Mukden. On 18th of September 1931 a planned explosion in South Manchurian Railway has

been set in order to occupy Mukden. Although the planted explosive had a little damage in the

railway and trains continued to their route; in response to this attack made by “the Chinese”,

Japan started to attack the nearby Chinese garrison with heavy weapons.236 Just after three days,

current Japanese army have received reinforcements from Korea and started to expand its

incidence through the North of Manchuria. Meanwhile in Tokyo neither the high command of

Japanese army nor the Prime Minister could restrain the army in the field and eventually

Japanese troops have taken all over the Manchuria just in three months. In December, Prime

Minister Wakatsuki’s cabinet has fallen and the next Prime Minister has reacted with

sanctioning the current invasion to gradually growing public opinion.

The responsible Kwantung Army did not encounter with a big resistance in the period of

invasion because politician Chiang Kai-shek who had intents to expand his control over China

has ordered the commander of Chinese forces to imply the non-resistance and withdrawal

policy. At the time, League of Nations has decided to investigate the case with the assumption

of considering Japan as the provoker, but Japan left the LON and kept on invading Manchuria

until 1945. Although this leave may seem like an individual situation, League’s actions and

slowness in taking actions have showed Mussolini and Hitler that League’s weakness. And

235 Swift, John. "Mukden Incident." Encyclopædia Britannica. May 17, 2017. Accessed April 09, 2018. https://www.britannica.com/event/Mukden-Incident. 236 "The Manchurian Incident, the League of Nations and the Origins of the Pacific War. What the Geneva Archives Reveal." The Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus. Accessed April 09, 2018. https://apjjf.org/-Yoshizawa-Tatsuhiko/2593/article.html.

triggered Mussolini to invade Abyssinia as well as Hitler to take back the Germany taken off

by Treaty of Versailles after World War 1. Aftermath shows us that while China had lost 500

of their soldiers Japan only lost 2.

8-) Europe Towards War (1933-1936)

A) Third Reich from 1933 to 1936

i) Economic Growth and rearmament

When Hitler was selected as the Prime Minister in 1933, German economy was a mess,

and this was one of the biggest tactics Hitler used in the election process. Citizens had no hope

and unemployment was already reaching to 33% of working population.237 Various policies

were introduced in order to decrease the unemployment rates. And they were useful, but only

in charts. Because women were no longer included to the figures of employment. In 1935, Jews

dismissed from being a German citizen and their unemployment rates were exerted from the

charts as well. In the country, there were 2 options for people who want to work. First, doing

whatever they were given at the time or getting classified as “work-shy” and being sent to

concentration camps. Just after 6 years from Hitler being the Prime Minister, German army was

1.4 million strong and in order to equip all the soldiers, new factories were opened and

unemployment rates decreased even more. The citizens were also aware of the situation with

numbers, but no one could pass negative comments to published figures due to the fear of

Gestapo. New work schemes were created for the workers in the National Labour Service who

are assisting irrigation on farms, constructing new roads etc. However, against all the untold

criticism, when compared to the previous government of 1931-32 citizens were thinking that

economy was improving. The German Labour Front led by Robert Ley was established with

the aim of protecting the working citizens. It took the place of banned trade unions. GLF ordered

that one cannot quit his job unless government lets to and decided on that only government

would be capable of doing such exchange. The working hours of the ones in factories have been

increased from 60 to 72 per week, but no one resisted even though they had concerns because

now the factory workers were earning 10 times more than others.

A new plan that aimed to decrease imports, unemployment, making new trade agreements with

other countries and directing the spending of government into wide range of industries has been

introduced by the Minister of Economy, Mr. Schacht. He called this self-sufficiency aimed

237 “The Nazis and the German Economy." History Learning Site. Accessed April 09, 2018. https://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/nazi-germany/the-nazis-and-the-german-economy/.

strategy the “New Plan”. 238 But by 1939, Germany was still importing 33% of its raw materials.

Although government income has increased by 5 billion, government spending has increased

by 18 billion and this situation of government spending more than it makes have led to a gigantic

debt 40 billion Reichsmarks worth. In 1939, the trade figures were going red, but

unemployment had fallen by 5.5 billion and industrial production was greater than ever. Also,

real earning was the same as 1927. Besides changes in economy, the rearmament period of new

Germany has started too. The rearmament has officially started in 1935, when Hitler has

delivered his speeches and stated that he was going to break the “unjust” terms that Germany

had to accept in Treaty of Versailles as well as he will unite the Germans again into one nation.

According to him East Europeans and Jews had no place in his dreamed future and they were

sub-humans. Since Hitler was seeing Germany as the capital of Europe, he believed that this

capital should own a strong military. Hitler was seemingly act accordingly to the Treaty of

Versailles but, he was just using the missing points in the conditions. For example, in the treaty

there were no restrictions for submarine training or pilots from German Air Force to train with

civilian planes. He was trying to gain the right of control its own military again. His first orders

were to treble the size of army to 300.000 men and having 1.000 war planes. With an instant

act, he decided to withdraw from Geneva Disarmament Conference since his requests of France

to disarm as much as they do or Germany to re-arm as much as France to balance two main

powers of Europe. Hitler already knew that this request was not going to find a positive answer,

but he did it on purpose. France started to be the country who caused Germany to leave. In

following 2 years, there was a secret expansion in the German army and in 1935 he revealed

this expansion to public even though it was against to the Treaty of Versailles. All the intel of

what Germany was capable in terms of weapon and soldiers was spread all around the Europe.

But surprisingly, two of the biggest powers back in that time Britain and France react big to this

threat Britain was still trying to recover from the Great Depression it has faced and it had no

power to face another crisis. France took the threat seriously and found the solution in building

up a vast Maginot Line in its borders to Germany by spending money and time. There was no

other big reactions from other countries as well. For example, Italy was still trying to face post-

Abyssinia. Eventually, the only collective thing that Europe did was to build the Stresa Front

and issue protests. In June 1935, a new Anglo-German Agreement was signed by both

countries. The conditions was letting Germany to be able to have 1/3 of British Navy’s surface

238 "GCSE Bitesize: Summary." BBC. Accessed April 09, 2018. http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/history/mwh/ir1/hitlersaimsandactionsrev1.shtml.

fleet and equal tonnage of submarines. 239 The reason why Britain has accepted this agreement

which is contra to what have been accepted by Germans in Versailles was the strategy called

“appeasement”. It was obvious that Hitler was going to keep on expanding his navy and Britain

wanted to foster their relations. Also, Treaty of Versailles was started to be seen as a very harsh

treaty and Europe wanted to lose its terms so that all the countries could keep on living together.

This new peace step taken by Britain was thought to end all the anger that Nazi Germany as

well as to stabilise the current situation. But this new agreement had no benefits but give a

confusion to the British citizens’ minds. What will happen next was going to change the fate of

the world.

ii) Remilitarization of Rhineland

According to the Treaty of Versailles signed in 1919, besides a lot of heavy sanctions

Germany promised to reduce its military as well as demilitarize the Rhineland. After 4 years,

in 1925 the Locarno Pact was signed in Switzerland as a result to an European peace conference

and ensured the new boundaries set by Treaty of Versailles with approving Germany to enter

into League of Nations. In 1930, after Germany’s withdrawal, there was nearly zero Allied

troops in demilitarized Rhineland. The reason why the demilitarization of this specific region

was important is that it was acting as a “safety barrier” between France and Germany. 240 French

government thought that this region could provide them safety geographically. Meanwhile

Britain was insisting on rethinking of the clauses in the Treaty since they were no longer suitable

for the atmosphere of 1930s. However, after reaching to its full power Hitler and its Party have

already promised an extensive revenge against all Allied nations that made them to sign such a

heavy treaty. On 12th of February 1936 Hitler talked to his Field Marshall about his intentions

and got an negative answer since the German army was not ready to fight with French army in

any situation at the moment. That’s why a negotiation was needed. He took a second opinion

from his Chief of General Staff Mr. Beck and he also cautioned him about Gemany’s possible

inefficiency in defending. But Hitler said if there were such situations, he would order all forces

to withdraw. Although these answer and warnings, in 1936 Hitler pulled the pin out of grenade

and cancelled all the military-based clauses of the Versailles. He denounced the Locarno Pact

and started to militarize Rhineland again with 32.000 soldiers.241 This operation had the code

239 "German Rearmament." History Extra. January 18, 2018. Accessed April 09, 2018. https://www.historyextra.com/period/second-world-war/german-rearmament/ 240 “Hitler Reoccupies the Rhineland." History.com. Accessed April 09, 2018. https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/hitler-reoccupies-the-rhineland. 241 “Remilitarization of the Rhineland (Mar. 7, 1936) Summary & Facts." Totally History -. January 09, 2014. Accessed April 09, 2018. http://totallyhistory.com/remilitarization-of-the-rhineland/.

name of “Operation Winter Exercise” and the first time that Germans was in the field after

WW1. When the army come to border, they found out several thousand French troops were

planted and that’s why General Pleaded requested a withdraw from the area, but Hitler objected.

He was only accepting the withdraw after French had crossed the borders. He changed his route

to eastern areas of Europe in order to make France to participate in less militarily. This action

was condemned heavily by France and Britain but neither took any military action for

prevention. Since France had to deal with its own political crisis during those times, there was

no other political leaders to take care of this situation of Rhineland. The reason why Britain did

not react was the thought of Rhineland was the backyard of Germany already and there was no

need to Versailles’ clauses to come into effect. But still, Britain expressed frustration over this

situation since they have been proposing a negotiation for the remilitarization of the same area.

The success of the remilitarization of Rhineland has contributed to Hitler’s popularity with

whole German nation. He even delivered a speech on how much he wants peace throughout all

of the Europe and his request for non-aggressive pacts with France. Just in two years, Hitler

took majority of the territories including Austria and a part of Czechoslovakia. And lastly in

1939, he invaded Poland and caused the outbreak of World War II.

B) Kingdom of Italy

i) The Second Italo-Ethiopian War

Italo-Ethiopian (Abyssinian) War has broken out in 1935 and lasted only one year. It

was an armed conflict resulted from Ethiopia’s resistance to Italian rule. It was one of the most

important milestones in the way through WW2 because this war has revealed how weak is

League of Nations is since no big powers have supported it’s taken decisions. Although the

LON had previously taken rules and promised concrete protections, this could not stop Italian

invasion or the Ethiopian forces. This ineffectiveness would merge with the outcomes of the

Mukden Incident in the future and effect the interstate situation of LON. 242 However, it was

not the first attempt of Italy to conquer the area; in 1890 there was another invasion attempt but

it was not successful. Mussolini wanted to take the control over Ethiopia for its resources but

also in order to erase the shame of last failed attempt as a European nation. Owning the area

also could complete the Italian domination over the Horn of Africa. In the year of 1934, Ethiopia

242 “Second Italo-Ethiopian War." Second Italo-Ethiopian War - New World Encyclopedia. Accessed April 09, 2018. http://web.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Second_Italo-Ethiopian_War.

has managed to stay as one of the few states which are exerted from European-dominated

Africa. The war broke out from a conflict on borders between two countries and this has given

a reason to Mussolini to intervene. He added 685.000 troops, heavy artillery, ground and air

vehicles, and extensive supplies to this invasion since the last attempt has failed. Italian army

did not have a hard time while capturing the region since they were successful fighting back to

poor-trained Ethiopian army. Area was totally invaded after just a year with both troops and

chemical weapons. There were 150 Ethiopian soldiers were dead in return to only 2 Italian

soldiers and Mussolini has announced Victor Emmanuel III as the new emperor of Ethiopia.

After this quick invasion and victory, League of Nations has condemned Mussolini for their

instant act and proposed putting sanctions on Italy in 1935. The only real react was from Britain

which has a lot of colonies in East Africa, but no other disfavouring’s were present. Italy has

even signed agreements with Britain and France who were afraid of Italy being the new ally of

Nazi Germany. Another after effect it had was to increase the tension between fascist states and

Western democracies as well as increasing the future African nationalist movements.

Mussolini’s victory has boomed his popularity although the war nearly ruined the economy of

the country. WW2 has started in 1939 and Great Britain has declared war on Italy. After 6 years

from invasion, in 1941 British and Ethiopian troops have took Italians out of territory and

restored the Emperor Haile Selassie as the new head of the Government. Contrary to this,

Ethiopia was the first nation to gain its independence from Axis Powers in World War 2. At the

end, Italy has lost all of the overseas possessions, undergone invasions by both sides and lost

500.000 Italian lives.243

C) Situation in Other Great Powers

i) The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland

Throughout the 1920s, the United Kingdom has long tried to cope with the aftershocks of

the World War I in various fields, ranging from the economy to military. Nevertheless, the war

had also brought a certain degree of profit and prosperity to particular British industries (e.g

military goods manufacturers, industry goods exporters etc.) and resulted in the emancipation

of women, whose labor force had become a necessity while men were at fronts. In the last year

of the World War I, House of Commons passed “The Representation of the People Act” that

243 Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "Italo-Ethiopian War." Encyclopædia Britannica. February 03, 2017. Accessed April 09, 2018. https://www.britannica.com/event/Italo-Ethiopian-War-1935-1936.

allowed women over 30 to vote in British elections.244 A year later, first woman British MP

entered into the House of Commons. In 1928, the age limit for voting of women was decreased

to 21, equalizing the age constrain with that of British men.245

The 1920s also witnessed the bittering of the British politics especially with the rise of

Labor Party, replacing the Liberal Party as the main opposition party to the Conservatives. The

increase in the political tension also stemmed from the question of how to respond the

developments in the British Commonwealth. By the time World War I ended, The British

Empire had reached its territorial peak; yet, the clashes between Jewish settlers and Arab

population in Palestine and demands of independence in India kept 10 Downing Street busy in

terms of policy-making to address such situations.

Despite the military victory in WWI, British economy started stagnating by the mid 1920s.

The United States and Japan had emerged as solid and stable financial markets after the Great

War, mostly due to increasing efficiency and mass production, threatening the British global

economic domination. Excluding the year 1927, unemployment rate gradually increased to

approximately 10% until the Great Depression.246 High unemployment rate was particularly a

concerning issue for the British society since the British servicemen who returned from their

missions on the fronts experienced unemployment. This situation worsened by the Great

Depression.

a. Great Depression

Although the causes of Great Depression of 1929 are usually attributed to the collapse of

the Wall Street stock markets, the London Stock Exchange had crashed a month before, prior

to Black Thursday. Thus, the footsteps of Black Thursday were already signaled by the London

Stock Exchange’s crash, and the upcoming waves of crises. Yet, the crash of American stock

exchange markets implied a prominent problem for the major economies of the world: the USA

to impose greater tariffs on foreign goods, halt certain imports and increase the taxes on

imported goods. In other words, the British manufacturers lost its vital trade partner, and as

244 Myers, Rebecca. "General History Of Women’S Suffrage In Britain". The Independent, 2013,

https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/general-history-of-women-s-suffrage-in-britain-

8631733.html.

245 Ibid. 246 Pettinger, Tejvan. "UK Economy In The 1920s". Economicshelp.Org, 2017,

https://www.economicshelp.org/blog/5948/economics/uk-economy-in-the-1920s/.

other economies underwent this deprivation, export-oriented economic strategy quickly

deteriorated.

The United Kingdom is particularly known for its centuries-long policy of protecting the

value of the Sterling, its official currency. To do so in 1920s, the British government had

reintroduced the “gold standard”, a policy that envisioned the conversion of money into gold

(fixing the value of money into a certain amount of gold) under British government’s

guarantee.247 This not only boosted people’s trust in British Pound, but also prevented inflation

since the government would not be able to print money under this gold standard.248

Furthermore, the gold standard meant stability for the investors operating in British markets as

the pound is not subject to fluctuations. Nevertheless, many countries had abandoned this

system for the sake of printing money to compensate the expenditures resulted by the war. For

example, Germany under Weimer Republic had printed vast sums of money to meet the fiscal

needs, such as war reparations and public expenditures, which led to hyperinflation and

dramatically devaluing German mark. When the UK reintroduced the gold system in 1925, this

fiscal policy brought an embedded problem for the British exporters; the British goods were too

expensive to be bought at foreign markets given the expensive value of pound. In details, 1

Pound was equal to 4.85 US Dollars when the gold system was reintroduced and the demand

for British goods lessened at foreign markets.249 This resulted in British manufacturers’ loss of

profit, if not going out of business. Coinciding with the Great Depression, many industries went

247 Johnson, Ben. "The 1920s, The Roaring Twenties, In Britain". Historic UK, https://www.historic-

uk.com/HistoryUK/HistoryofBritain/The-1920s-in-Britain/.

248 Pettinger, Tejvan. "Gold Standard Explained". Econ.Economicshelp.Org, 2009,

http://econ.economicshelp.org/2009/02/gold-standard-explained.html.

249 Ibid.

bankrupt, especially in the field of heavy industry. Proud British industrial sectors, ranging from

coal, iron and steel, went out of business.

Given the context, unemployment rate went up significantly, almost doubled, and reached

to approximately 20 percent.250 Thus, the UK government was also hit by labour marches,

strikes, hunger strikes, demonstrations and never-ending petitions from the public.251 Adding

to this scene, the British patriots who had served in the army during WWI were experiencing

dismissal from their jobs. The British government responded deteriorating economic conditions

of Depression by abolishing the gold system in 1931; yet, such move did not foster British

exports as the crisis had already loomed the world markets. In the very same year the British

government decided to cut the public spending significantly, as a result of which the workers’

unemployment benefits were cut off by 10 percent. Moreover, if an unemployed person remains

as unemployed for six consecutive months,

that person was to lose unemployment

benefit. At this point, the government

unintentionally restrained people’s buying

power, which could have helped the re-

stimulation of the economy. Evidently, such

moves were not enough to prevent the shocks

of the crisis. Pound was devalued by 25

percent in order to boost the British exports

abroad in accordance with the British

manufacturers’ demands.252 In 1932, the

government raised taxes for imported goods

like every state affected by the Depression did

and raised the income tax.253

250 "The Great Depression". British Library, http://www.bl.uk/learning/timeline/item107595.html.

251 Gardiner, Juliet. "Are The 2010s Really Like The 1930s? The Truth About Life In The Great

Depression". The Guardian, 2017, https://www.theguardian.com/society/2017/mar/04/2010s-like-

1930s-look-facts-unemployment-healthcare. Accessed 6 Apr 2018.

252 "The Great Depression". British Library, http://www.bl.uk/learning/timeline/item107595.html.

253 "The Depression Of The 1930s". British Broadcasting Corporation ,

http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/history/mwh/britain/depressionrev3.shtml.

An Unemployed British Veteran Taking Himself

to Street

The Great Depression also blighted economic inequality among the states composing the

United Kingdom. The Welsh economy was damaged to its core, with unemployment among

insured men reaching 42 percent. In 1935, 300,000 Welsh people took to the streets to protest

the situation; furthermore, almost 400,000 Welsh emigrated to wealthier or relatively job-secure

cities between 1925 and 1939.254

It is crucial to mention the UK went through the Depression and its effects in relatively

better conditions compared to many other countries, including the United States, France,

Belgium and Germany. From 1922 to 1929, the Conservative Party had come first in every

single election. In 1929 elections, the Labour Party captured the majority despite a hung

parliament; yet, the Labour-led coalition collapsed amid the shocks of Depression within two

years and the Conservative Party consolidated its electorate significantly for years to come,

until 1945. The Labour lost 235 seats at the 1931 elections, which gave the Tories enough

number of MPs to form the government without the help of any other parties.

c. Dominions and Foreign Policy

1920s

At the end of the World War I, the entire world has witnessed the dissolution of four great

empires; namely, the Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, German First Reich and the

Ottoman Empire. Such collapse brought a power vacuum in their respective locations

(excluding the Soviet Union) and the question how to approach these developments became

one of the main concerns of the British Foreign Office. Particularly the ideologies which were

flourished during the Great War itself, such as national consciousness, nationalism and

independence within British dominions posed a grave question to the British governments of

the time being.

Paris Peace Conference of 1919 led to the creation of mandate system upon the suggestion

of US President Woodrow Wilson’s demand of not to change territorial status quo. With

victorious states unable to make territorial gains out of war255, British and French governments

unwillingly accepted the American president’s proposal upon the compromise of Wilson,

conceiving a new system known as “mandate system”. The Mandate System was imposed upon

254 War And Depression: The Rise Of Unemployment". British Broadcasting Corporation, 2014,

http://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/history/sites/themes/guide/ch20_part2_war_and_depression.shtml.

255 "League Of Nations". The President Woodrow Wilson House,

http://www.woodrowwilsonhouse.org/league-nations

the Middle Eastern territories that were disintegrated from the Ottoman Empire, and the term

were to refer superior nations’ guidance for the newly formed, so-called immature nations, until

such nations fulfill their process of becoming nation-states that could handle their political,

social and economic affairs by themselves. In order for mandate system to work, two elements

were essential: a ground of legitimacy that would justify British or French presence in a

mandate and an international organization that would solve the disputes in a peaceful manner

with collective diplomacy. The League of Nations emerged after aforementioned needs, not

necessary solely from such concerns, by the suggestion of Woodrow Wilson to ensure collective

security with a supranational organization. The League of Nations was mentioned at the last of

Wilson’s Principles that he had announced at the Paris Peace Conference. The United Kingdom

became one of the founding members of the League of Nations along with France, unlike the

United States and the Soviet Union.

In 1920, Britain was given

mandates in Transjordan and

Mesopotamia, along with sharing

Togo and Cameroon with the

French in the following years. In

1921, Iraqi Kingdom was

established followed by the

establishment of Hashemite

Kingdom of Jordan in 1923.

Kings of such kingdoms had

proved their allegiance to the Britain during the Great War by revolting against the Ottoman

rule. Thus, the British governments gave special importance to the friendly relations with their

wartime allies, often cooperating and consulting with them in their internal affairs. Nonetheless,

British administration in Palestine had hard times to cope with the domestic developments and

increasing tension due to Aliyahs (i.e Jewish vast migrations to Palestine), especially after the

announcement of Balfour Declaration in 1917, in which the British Foreign Secretary

announced his and the government’s official support for a Jewish state in Palestine. In 1922,

Secretary of State for the Colonies Winston Churcill announced a white paper on Palestine,

which reaffirmed the British support for a Jewish home in Palestine, but also underlined it

would not mean all of Palestine to be Jewish.256 The paper also argued that Jewish immigration

to Palestine should be restricted; yet, no concreate step was taken by the British authorities to

do it by then. The situation would become more vital and lethal at the same time particularly

when Hitler took office and began purging the Jewish population.

By 1919, Britain had already started witnessing growing demands for self-rule by its

dominions. In India, declaration of martial law to maintain order in the country had angered the

Indians who had provided thousands of soldiers for the British cause at the Great War and

unlike the predictions of many, Indians had not revolted against the British rule despite the

Ottomans’ call for jihad against the Allied powers. Nevertheless, the imposition of martial law

would lead to a catastrophic event for the Indians that would result in severing of ties with the

British for many.

Having the authority to arrest activists without trial, British authorities in India utilized the

martial law in the country and purged the political activists whom posed a threat to British

interests, along with the journalists and press members who tried to spread the news. In

Amritsar, British Colonel Reginal Dyer opened fire and ordered to open fire on Sikhs who were

gathered the celebrate their religious festival as mass gatherings were unlawful due to the

martial law.257 According to the British reports, more than 300 people were killed whereas the

Indian claims indicate more than double of that of the British. Colonel Dyer was forced to retire,

nonetheless, no judicial charge was opened upon him. Inevitably, this ignited an outburst among

Indian people against the British. Thereafter, Gandhi began his movement for independence for

India. British attempts to suppress such developments became clear with the introduction of

Government of India Act of 1919, which divided the political power in India in half.258 The Act

envisioned the execution of policies in India by an elected Indian parliament and an appointed

British viceroy. It devoted certain law-making powers to Indian provinces including education

and health system while the British would continue to hold its domination on taxation and fiscal

policies. Despite granting certain powers to the locals, Gandhi had already started his Non-

256 "British White Paper Of 1922 On Palestine (Churchill White Paper)". Ecf.Org.Il,

https://ecf.org.il/issues/issue/248.

257 "Massacre Of Amritsar". Encyclopedia Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/event/Massacre-of-

Amritsar.

258 "Government Of India Act 1919”. The Open University,

http://www.open.ac.uk/researchprojects/makingbritain/taxonomy/term/476.

Cooperation Movement against the British, with boycotting the British goods and conducting

strikes against the British. It would path the way of Gandhi to prison a year after.

British policy for other dominions involved increasing autonomy gradually to avoid

possible conflicts with its dominions and third parties. In 1923, Britain accepted a dominion’s

rights to make treaties with sovereign nations. Three years later in 1926, the British

administration recognized the autonomy of Canada, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa.

259

During post-WWI period, the United Kingdom embraced a conflictual foreign policy. On

the one hand, the UK desired to retain its naval supremacy especially while the American and

Japanese naval forces were rapidly advancing; on the other hand, the British also wanted to

maintain its friendly relations with its Great War allies, the US and France.260 The question of

post-war Germany posed another question. How different the new Germany was from the old

one? To erase its suspicions of Germany and to bring the Germans closer to its side, rather than

alienating it and pushing them under the Soviet influence, Britain sought increasing economic

ties with the Germans. At this point, France’s hostile attitude toward Germany caused

disaccords between France and the UK. British concerns about Germany were partly resolved

with Locarno and Kellog-Briand Pacts signed in 1925 and 1928 respectively. While the initial

envisioned normalizing relations with Germany, a seat for Germany in the League of Nations

and ratifying the status quo of Western borders of Germany with France, the latter denounced

war as a mean to bring political change and pressurizing other nations with the threat of war.

Both of the pacts’ signatories included Britain, France and Germany; and the tensions between

France and Germany lessened particularly with the French withdrawal from Rhineland and

Germany’s unhalted payments of reparations. Yet come 1930s, this optimistic atmosphere

would quickly deteriorate.

1930s

In 1932, Iraq became independent upon King Faisal’s assurance of the British that the

Britain could maintain its military presence in the country. Yet, hundreds of kilometers to the

259 "British History Timeline". Bbc.Co.Uk,

http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/timeline/worldwars_timeline_noflash.shtml.

260 Sharp, Alan. "Adapting To A New World? British Foreign Policy In The 1920S". Contemporary

British History, vol 18, no. 3, 2004, pp. 74-86. Informa UK Limited,

doi:10.1080/1361946042000259314.

east, Palestine was the hotbed of the conflicts between the Jewish and Muslim populations.

Clashes between the populations alarmed the British government and in 1930 Secretary of State

issued a White Paper in which the administration put prominent limitations on Jewish

immigration and purchase of land.261 However, this decision was met with fury by the Jewish

communities, who was then starting to perceive the British unreliable for the idea of

independent Jewish homeland. Throughout 1930s, British policies in Palestine neither pleased

both of the communities nor appeased the tension. By getting the mandate rule of Palestine, the

United Kingdom had inadvertently inherited a huge burden on its shoulders. While the British

government were trying to respond various international developments, such as the Italian

invasion of Abyssinia, Hitler’s occupation of Saar and Rhineland and Japanese invasion of

Manchuria, The Great Revolt of the Arab population began in Palestine in 1936.

The revolt stemmed from many causes. Despite the legal constraints, the Jewish persons

fleeing from increasing fascist and Nazi pressure made their way to Palestine, altering the

population ratio. Moreover, increasing Jewish economic power in Palestine constituted another

problem for the Arabs. Given these, the Jewish community had already started to organize

militia forces to be able to defend their population, and to respond to possible conflicts. The

Great Revolt lasted three years to 1939 and ended with thousands of deaths, executions, more

than a hundred executions and political exiles. The revolt signaled a policy change, mentioned

in the White Paper of 1939, that would indicate the establishment of an independent state of

Palestine, with Jews and Arabs sharing the branches and the government. Hence, Britain left its

policy to support partition of the mandate; rather, decided to set it free within ten years.

1930s were marked by increasing worldwide aggressions. Japanese invasion of Manchuria

in 1932 led to withdrawal of Japan from the League of Nations at the same year. The protest of

the invasion by the League underlined League’s lack of sanctionary power to deter a member

state from aggression. The United Kingdom did not respond to this invasion with use of force

or with imposing economic sanctions, which could endanger the British trade in Far East.

Italian aggression has been another concern. Upon border disputes between Italian

Somaliland and Abyssinia, Italy responded with embarking a portion of its military force on

261 "British White Paper Of 1930 On Palestine (Passfield White Paper)". Ecf.Org.Il,

https://ecf.org.il/issues/issue/1428.

Abyssinia and invading the country officially.262 The British and French response was not to

intervene, rather joining the decision to impose economic sanctions suggested by the League of

Nations. However, the economic embargo did not include contain crucial commodities sale to

Italy; for example, the oil.263 Besides, despite imposing economic sanctions against Italy for a

while, Britain revoked the sanctions shortly after. Taken together with the Japanese aggression,

League of Nations’ reputation quickly diminished with the Italian invasion of Abyssinia in

1935.

The United Kingdom of late 1930s implemented the policy of appeasement in its foreign

affairs. By making concessions to aggressor states, the UK aimed at refraining further conflicts.

In other words, Britain found any excuse to avoid war especially in the aftermath of the Great

War’s tragedies. The policy appeasement might be criticized as ineffective since one concession

would be followed by another one and the aggressor states would not yield their endless

demands. Yet, the policy of appeasement also provided great amount of time for Britain to

modernize, mobilize and to expand its military.

Coming to power in 1933, Hitler’s Germany has mostly utilized this policy of

appeasement vis a vis the British and French. Hitler initially left the League of Nations and

revoked the Treaty of Versailles, followed by remilitarizing the country. Germany left the

disarmament conferences on various occasions before leaving the League of Nations and did

not become a part of a conference of such type for the following years. As Hitler’s actions

alarmed the British, the UK has respectively pursued a soft policy on Germany. The British

responded the actions of Germany with protests; yet, also appeased the German remilitarization

of Rhineland in 1936.

During this period, one of the major criticisms to the British Cabinet derived from the

Prime Ministers’ increasing intervention to the affairs of the Foreign Secretary.264 Many argued

262 Trueman, C.N. "Abyssinia". History Learning Site, 2015,

https://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/modern-world-history-1918-to-1980/italy-1900-to-

1939/abyssinia/.

263 Ibid. 264 Sharp, Alan. "Adapting To A New World? British Foreign Policy In The 1920S". Contemporary

British History, vol 18, no. 3, 2004, pp. 74-86. Informa UK Limited,

doi:10.1080/1361946042000259314.

that the PMs, especially Neville Chamberlain, overshadowed the Foreign Secretary in foreign

policy-making processes.

d. London Naval Treaties and Anglo-German Naval Agreement

First London Naval Treaty

Signed in 1930, the main aim of the Treaty for the Limitation and Reduction of Naval

Armament was to prevent the naval armament between the signatory countries; namely, the

United States, British Empire, France, Italy and Japan. Concerned of the rapid arms race on the

seas, the delegations of the aforementioned countries agreed to discuss the situation in a

conference prior to signing the treaty. For the British, its naval supremacy was deeply

endangered by the rapid increase of American and Japanese fleets, and its three prominent naval

bases, Gibraltar, Malta and Cyprus, were within the Italian aspirations regarding the Italian

domination of the Mediterranean. The treaty put tonnage restrictions to light cruisers, and it

further established a ratio of 10:10:7 ratio on light cruisers and destroyers, 10:10:6 ratio on

heavy cruisers.265 These are, for every 10 American and British destroyers, Japan was allowed

to have 7 destroyers. For every 10 British heavy cruisers, Japan could have a maximum of 6

heavy cruisers. France and Italy eventually opposed to the ratio system and put reservations on

the ratio clauses. Yet, all nations taking part agreed to build no new capital ships nor to convert

ones into aircraft carriers. Given the horrors of the Great War that was mainly stemmed from

the arms race, the treaty was welcomed by the publics.

Second London Naval Treaty

A year before the expiration of the first London Naval Treaty, the signatories of the first

treaty delegations gathered at another conference in London to extend the naval treaty in 1935.

Having concerns of the ratio-based restrictions, Japan withdrew from the conference and did

not sign the Second London Naval Treaty. Italy also did not sign the treaty, largely due to the

League of Nations’ embargo on the country. However, the signatory countries did mention to

increase their limits on heavy guns for naval use if Japan and Italy were to denounce the terms

of the treaty.

Anglo-German Naval Agreement of 1935

When Hitler’s populist claims of revoking the terms of Versailles and establishing a

superior German navy was overheard in the British mainland, Great Britain once again

265 "London Naval Conference". Encyclopedia Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/event/London-

Naval-Conference. Accessed 8 Apr 2018.

responded with the policy of appeasement. In 1935, two states signed a bilateral naval

agreement, in which they agreed upon the establishment of the German navy but limiting it to

a maximum of 35 percent of the size of the Royal Navy. Although such term might seem as a

disadvantage to the German efforts of creating a major fleet, the treaty provided a ground of

legitimacy for the German to establish a naval force, which was an indication of British

recognition of revoking the limits of Versailles.266 Eventually, Anglo-German Agreement

sparked a crisis in British-French Relations

e. Abdication Crisis

In 1936, the newly coroneted king of Great Britain Edward the Eighth abdicated the throne

for the sake of getting married to

his American mistress Wallis

Simpson. Edward VIII had fall in

love with Simpson while Ms.

Simpson was married to an

American citizen.267 Waiting for

Simpson’s divorce -in fact it

would be her second divorce-

Edward VIII was warned by the

many, including the PM, not to

marry a divorcee which could

mean the end of the monarchy. Moreover, there were many objections to such marriage as

Edward was subject to Anglican Church, which did not then approve marriage of divorced

people if their spouses were still alive. After almost a year of his reign, Edward yielded the

throne to this brother George VI and officially announced his abdication.

ii) The United States of America

The United States of 1920s and 1930s sought staying committed to its policy of isolation

from the global affairs. Despite signing multilateral treaties regarding the limitation of naval

arms (such as Washington Naval Treaty and London Naval Treaties), Washington remained

266 Pike, John. "London Naval Conference (December 1935 - March 1936)". Globalsecurity.Org,

https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/naval-arms-control-1935.htm.

267 "Edward VIII". Encyclopedia Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Edward-VIII.

Edward VIII Announcing His Abdication on the Radio

distant from the world’s agenda items unless such agenda items directly concerned the United

States. At this period, the President of the United States (POTUS) during the Great War,

Woodrow Wilson, was the most apparent exception of the execution of policy of isolation.

Wilson not only breached the policy of isolation by joining to the War, but also his idealism

envisioned a collective international body to prevent further conflicts among the states.

Although the League of Nations was born under Wilsonian Principles, the United States have

never become a member of its initiative since the Congress dominated by the Republicans

rejected breaching the policy of isolation. Wilson received the Nobel Peace Prize two years

before he stepped out of office in 1921.

The Great War boosted the United States’ reputation as the world’s number one credit-

provider country.268 The post-war U.S. pursued the return of its wartime loans provided to its

allies and sought Germany’s payments of the reparations. Struggling with post-war financial

syndrome, Germany requested an ease in paying its reparations. Parallel to this need, Dawes

Plan came into effect in 1924. Named after American diplomat and finance expert who chaired

the negotiations, Dawes Plan lightened the German efforts to pay its reparations by providing

a year of postponement to Germany’s payment in 1924.269 Stronger German economy would

mean the safety of financial transactions from Germany to the U.S. For the following years,

Germany managed to pay war reparations to the U.S, until the Great Depression of 1929.

Amid rising French concerns about a possible German aggression, Kellogg-Briand Pact of

1928 was initiated by the Secretary of State of the U.S. Frank Kellogg and French Minister of

Foreign Affairs Aristide Briand. As aforementioned, the pact renounced the war as a mean to

resolve international disputes. Although the pact was initiated by the U.S. along with France, it

did not necessarily mean the violation of isolationism. Rather, such initiative was to appease

the American public who were not pleased by the U.S. failure to join the League. Hence, the

United States implicitly cooperated with the League of Nations when it came to promotion of

world peace. Moreover, the U.S. attended to disarmament conferences in several occasions.

Yet, the U.S. refrained from taking a stance on conflictual matters, such as the invasion of

268 Peoples, Scott. "United States Foreign Policy In The 1920S And 1930S: Road to

WWII". Fairviewhs.Org, https://www.fairviewhs.org/staff/scott-peoples/classes/ib-history-of-the-

americas/files/46945.

269 Trueman, C.N. "The Dawes Plan Of 1924". History Learning Site, 2015,

https://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/modern-world-history-1918-to-1980/weimar-germany/the-

dawes-plan-of-1924/. Accessed 9 Apr 2018.

Abyssinia by Italy or German rearmament and annexation of Rhineland. At this point in 30s,

Stimson Doctrine defined certain pillars of the U.S foreign policy.

In mid 1930s, the United States under FDR administration embraced “good neighbor

policy” to resolve the disputes with her neighbors through peaceful resolutions.270

Consequently; during this period, the States withdrew their military forces from Nicaragua and

Haiti and stayed out of conflicts in Cuba.

Named after the Secretary of State Henry Stimson under President Hoover, Stimson argued

that territorial changes through the usage of military force, contradicting the values of Paris

Peace Conference, shall remain unrecognized and invalid.271 Thus, the United States did not

recognize the invasion of Manchuria by Japan in 1931. Given that Herbert Hoover was

isolationist in foreign policy and remained as passive during the years of Great Depression, the

United States mostly focused on resolving its domestic problems at the beginning of 1930s.

The FDR administration officially recognized the U.S.S.R in 1933 and sought to be on the

same page with the Russians against further Japanese aggressions.272 Moreover, the

establishment of diplomatic channels with the U.S.S.R opened a new market for the American

capital. Yet, the United States have long been hesitant whether to give credits to the Soviet

Union, as the country did not a bright credible credit rating which could endanger the

repayment, nor it showed the signs of camaraderie to the U.S.

a. The New Deal The Great Depression hit the U.S on October 29,1929 when the Wall Street crashed on a

Tuesday which became known as Black Tuesday. It is estimated that investors in the stock

exchange lost 14 billion US Dollars273, which led to the collapse of the financial system; many

banks went bankrupt, companies went out of business, unemployment rate reached to its peak,

270 "Good Neighbor Policy". Encyclopedia Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/event/Good-

Neighbor-Policy-of-the-United-States.

271 "Stimson Doctrine". U-S-History.Com, http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h1500.html. Accessed 9

Apr 2018.

272 Peoples, Scott. "United States Foreign Policy In The 1920S And 1930S: Road to

WWII". Fairviewhs.Org, https://www.fairviewhs.org/staff/scott-peoples/classes/ib-history-of-the-

americas/files/46945. 273 Amadeo, Kimberly. "New Deal Summary, Programs, Policies, And Its Success". The Balance, 2018,

https://www.thebalance.com/fdr-and-the-new-deal-programs-timeline-did-it-work-3305598

the Federal Reserve lost vast amounts of monetary supply for the sake of stimulation.274 A crisis

followed another. During the four days of the clash, American investors lost more money than

the U.S. spent on World War I. In following fifteen days, 100 billion US Dollars vanished from

the American economy.275

In the aftermath of following catastrophes for the American economy and the society,

Franklin Delano Roosevelt become elected as the 32nd President of the United States in 1933.

Gradually, Roosevelt managed to reverse the bad atmosphere with continuous recovery and

relief acts. The term New Deal underlined the start of a new era in the establishment, that was

damaged to its core. Hence, the New Deal indicates fresh start, a slogan associated with FDR’s

entrance to the White House. Roosevelt

promoted the relief for the jobless, a relief of

which reached to approximately 5 million

families.276 Such act was followed by

National Industrial Recovery Act that aimed

at increasing the jobs and prices, as well as

raising wages and fostering fair competition.

Furthermore, employees were given the right

to form labour unions. In 1935, Social

Security Act legislation came into effect. The

Act created benefits for elderly workers,

unemployment insurance, and financial aid

for dependent mothers, children and

handicapped persons. The Social Security Act

led to a new era of the New Deal, which

became known as the Second New Deal.

274"New Deal". HISTORY.Com, 2009, https://www.history.com/topics/new-deal. Accessed 9 Apr 2018.

275 Amadeo, Kimberly. "New Deal Summary, Programs, Policies, And Its Success". The Balance, 2018,

https://www.thebalance.com/fdr-and-the-new-deal-programs-timeline-did-it-work-3305598

276 "FDR and the New Deal". The Economist, 1999, https://www.economist.com/node/346942.

Unemployed Workers, Registering for Jobs and

Unemployment Benefits at State Employment

Office

b. Second New Deal

Having introduced bills to fix the ridged economy and banking system, FDR’s proposals of

new rounds of bills are known as the Second New Deal that took place between 1935 and 1936.

The visionary president introduced National Labour Relations Act along with Social Security

Act. While the initial brought bargaining and trade union rights for the workers, the latter

ensured financial aids to the unemployed elders and to those who were financially dependent.

The defining characteristic of the New Deals signified increasing Federal regulations and

interventions upon the constituent states to strengthen the Union’s structural and economic

unity. In this sense, the New Deals underlined the federal government’s intervention to the

national economy to stimulate it, especially when the states’ financial fragility had become

highlighted. Thus, the America after the New Deals are thought to be dominated by the stronger

type of federalism vis a vis the anti-federalism. FDR’s initiatives, approved by the Congress,

seem to have normalized the economic and political atmosphere in the U.S and FDR got elected

for a second term in 1936, getting the 60 percent of the popular vote.

11) Soviet Union

A) Stalin

To understand process that Soviet Union has passed within the interwar period, we must

understand the life of the man who ruled Soviet Union nearly for 30 years with an iron fist.

In 1878, a small town in Georgia, Gori became the birthplace of a man who will become

one of the most prominent and important premiers of the Soviet Union. Joseph (losif)

Dzhugashvili, his mother called him.277 In autumn 1888 Stalin went to Gori spiritual school and

in 1894 he finished it and entered Orthodox spiritual seminary in Tbilisi.278 In Tbilisi, his life

was changed with the revolutionary mood within the Russian Empire at that time. He wanted

to combine his activities with the revolutionists and with that aim, he began to collect Marxist

works by Marx, Engels, Lassalle and Dickstein as well as Georgian ones such as Plekhanov

and Bogdanov.279 Marxists ideas had spread across Russian Empire in 1880’s and with that

influence the first major confrontation emerged within 1905. In St. Petersburg, the heart of the

Empire, there were huge political demonstration on 9 January. Security forces was ordered to

fire to demonstrators and many were dead at that day. The Emperor, Nicholas II, was not to

277 Radzinskii, Edvard, and H. T. Willetts. Stalin. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1997. 278 Service, Robert. Stalin: A Biography. London: Pan, 2010. 279 Ibid

blame for the carnage but across the empire, he was held responsible.280 Romanov’s saw their

first important challenge since 1773 and they seemed failed.

At that time, Dzhughashvili, was not within the Bolshevik groups who joined protests

in Georgia because he had still his doubts about this revolutionary movement. Also, at that time,

Lenin was in Switzerland and fate of the movements was still uncertain. But after the bloody

Sunday, 9 January 1905, he also joined the movements step by step. He began to write down

about the revolution and the situation of Bolsheviks in Georgia and also, he became the leader

of the Bolshevik Tiflis Committee whose policy was an armed uprising. That separated them

from the Mensheviks within the city.281 While he was hiding from one of the safehouses in

Tiflis he found Yekaterina Semyonovna Svanidze, and then they married secretly, and in

church. It was secret because church wedding was disgrace for the revolution.282 After that

period, Stalin, went to the London to join the 5th Congress of the Russian Social Democratic

Labour Party in May-June 1907.283 From that time he joined from Congress to congress in order

to establish a Bolshevik governance through the Russian Empire. His chance was created by

the Bolshevik in October 1917 and with the Revolution, civil war between Red and Whites had

started.

By the end of 1919, civil war nearly came to an end. Red Army driven out Mensheviks

in most places and the last Menshevik army was driven into Crimean Peninsula. With the end

of the civil war, Soviet Union now pursue their expansionist policies to the West, mainly Poland

and Germany.284 Communist International (Comintern) formed in March 1919 and began to

active cooperation with the communist throughout the world.285 After the humiliating defeat in

the Soviet-Polish war in 1920, Soviets stops their military advance to the west and continue to

make a power base within their country.

In 1922, Lenin appointed Stalin as General Secretary to run the party. With that

appointment it can be seen that Stalin become the Lenin’s successor but there were also Trotsky.

This important question arose when Lenin was felled by a fatal stroke on 21 January 1924. 286

At that point, when we looked from outside, anyone can say that Trotsky would succeed Lenin.

280 Ibid 281 Ibid 282 Edvard Radzinsky-Stalin (1997) 283 Conquest 1991, p. 41; Service 2004, p. 65; Montefiore 2007, pp. 168–170. 284 Robert Service-Stalin_ A Biography-Belknap Press (2005)_20_3 285 Ibid 286 [Simon_Sebag_Montefiore]_Stalin_the_court_of_the_(b-ok.xyz)

He was the commander of the Red Army during the civil war, he was very close to Lenin both

in terms of personality and in terms of his ideas. Important problem for Trotsky is that, his ideas

were radical. He wanted a world-wide revolution, and, in his dreams, he was seeing that Soviet

Union was the first round of this greater plan. People within the Communist Party saw this ideas

as a form of radical advance to Communist thought and some sort of utopia. On one hand,

situation looked confusing for Trotsky’s side, on the other hand, Stalin was using his influence

to promote his allies, Molotov, Voroshilov, and Sergo within the secretariat. Also, he had a

more reasonable plan at hand, “Socialism in One Country”.287 Other members of the Politburo,

led by Grigory Zinoviev, and Kamanev, also saw Trotsky as a threat. The first surprise came

with Lenin’s will. In this letter Lenin propose to remove Stalin from his position as General

Secretary and named Trotsky as a better choice for Soviet Union. Stalin acted quickly and

threaten the Communist Party to resign. Seen that after Stalin there will be Trotsky regime who

favours continuous revolution, Communist Party members approved the “the lesser evil” and

omit Lenin’s will by letting Stalin to remain as General Secretary. Until 1927-1928 period, he

consolidated his power by defeating Zinoviev and Kamanev who saw Stalin as real threat. After

that, he began to implement his policies to industrialise Soviet Union with collectivisation and

massive projects which led disputed success and serious trouble within the Soviet Union.

B) Collectivization and Kulaks

Idea of collectivization rose in the end of 1920’s within the Soviet Union. At the

beginning of 1928, there was a huge grain crisis. This crisis can be solved easily at the beginning

if normal formalities executed by the leadership. But party’s inherent distrust or ignorance of

the market system and wrong price policies brought destruction to the system.288

Destruction were hard indeed. In 1928, grain export literally stopped. Before the Great

War, landlords and kulaks were produced over 71% of the grain available for the market and

export. Important thing is that, non-kulak peasants produced higher amount of grain, but they

also consumed higher. 289Problem in this situation, solving the question of how state can get

hold of the grain. There were two options; one, is a new economic policies and measures in

order to fix the reserves, or waging war against kulaks to take their grain away.290

287 Ibid 288 Conquest, Robert. The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-famine. London: Pimlico,

2002. 289 Ibid 290 Ibid

When party committee looked the figures, Stalin was angry. His claim was that,

although the grain which may go to the market is its half level before the war, the grain

production rose pre-war levels and “kulaks” are responsible for this situation. Solution was

simple. State would declare war on kulaks by turning them into collective, socially conducted

agricultural centres and by doing that, state gave his response in the struggle against the

capitalist elements within the peasantry, within the kulaks.291

Stabilizing the grain prices and gathering grain reserves was not the only goal of this

campaign. Stalinist ideology saw this as an opportunity to launch an ideological crusade against

peasantry. Idea which were echoed from Leningrad to Vladivostok was “We must strike the

kulak such a blow that the seredniak will bow to us.”292

During the civil war, Lenin implemented NEP (Novaya Ekonomiçeskaya Politika). This

policy allows small-scale businesses in order to save the Soviet economy from its downfall. At

that time, collectivization was not more than utopia even the Stalinist side of the party. With

the grain crisis and report given by political commission of the party led by Molotov in 1927

opened the way for collectivization policy. Its status rose to “main task” for the party in the

following years while Stalin tried to mention about it every speech of his. In his Siberian tour

on January 1928, Stalin told people that huge collective farms are the only solution for the grain

crisis.293 Then the campaign started.

For the beginning, Cadres were mobilized. 30.000 people sent to grain growing regions,

emergency troikas set-up and they could overrule local authority decisions. Grain markets were

closed. Grain which was produced taken from peasants’ hands and only a very limited amount

was left to peasants for them to survive.294 These extraordinary measures also includes searches

and confiscation of the property. Also, Article 107 was used against the peasants although its

main aim was to use against speculator middle-class people. Article 107 had involved poor

peasants in 25% of the cases and middle peasants in 64%, with 'kulaks' proper only accounting

for 7% !34 -And a published poll of poor peasants later in the year showed clearly that the

expected support for government measures was not forthcoming from them295 Even under these

291 Conquest, Robert. The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-famine. London: Pimlico,

2002. 292 Hughes, James R. Stalinism in a Russian Province: A Study of Collectivization and Dekulakization in Siberia.

Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave, 2001. 293 Ibid 294 Ibid 295 Ibid

conditions Stalin believed that peasant class can survive this process without huge damage to

its production and healthcare. He stated that:

“Are the peasants capable of bearing this burden? They undoubtedly are: firstly

because this burden will grow lighter from year to year, and secondly, because this additional

tax is being levied . . . under Soviet conditions, when exploitation of the peasants by the Socialist

State is out of the question, and when this additional tax is being paid in a situation in which

the living standards of the peasantry are steadily rising.”

But even with these measures, levels were still not good. Many places increased its grain

stocks, but industrial production and efficiency fell at the same amount. Especially in Siberia,

promises given to the party committee were never met by the local authorities. This led another

wave of measures such as rationing. In major cities and towns rationing system was

implemented to increase grain stock and production.

To conclude, peasant economy and its dynamics were the only barrier between huge

soviet industrialization leap and party with collectivization, still not found the way to

breakthrough or a strategy to overcome this problem. NEP was adequate for this

industrialization project, but it was against Stalinist socialism, although he supported it at the

beginning, and radical side of the party never forgot the treason of peasantry against country’s

advancement within industrial sector.296

C) Moscow Trials

After the mass collectivization and industrialization attempts, Stalin is now known as

ingenious man of steel and proudly boost his achievements. In January 1934 he convened the

Communist Party namely within “Party congress of victorious”. While delegates praise Stalin

they also praised another person, Stalin’s close friend and Head of the Leningrad party, Sergey

Kirov. He was also very famous, intelligent, handsome and, most important, he was Russian

whereas Stalin was Georgian. Also, members of Communist Party after the industrialist policies

and collectivization madness, favour softer kind of communism. They supported Kirov and

elected him to central committee with huge supports. This came as shock to Stalin. Even some

of the party members offers Kirov the position of the Secretary General. Kirov refuses the offer

but after that time he became a threat to Stalin’s power.

296 Hughes, James R. Stalinism in a Russian Province: A Study of Collectivization and Dekulakization in Siberia.

Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave, 2001.

On 1st of December 1934, Kirov was assassinated. Immediately after assassination,

People’s Commissariat of Internal Affairs (NKVD) opened investigation. At the beginning, the

facts clearly showed that a Trotskyists conspiracy to Kirov. Facts include:

1. During 1936, after the murder of S. M. Kirov, a host of terroristic groups made up of

Trotskyists and Zinovievists has been exposed by organs of the

NKVD in Moscow, Leningrad, Gorky, Minsk, Kiev, Baku, and other cities.

The overwhelming majority of members of these terroristic groups admitted

under investigation that they considered the preparation of terroristic acts

against the leaders of the party and government to be their fundamental task.297

2. The Trotskyist and Zinovievist groups that have been exposed and all of

their terroristic activity298

On the 19th day of August 1936, Military Collegium of the Supreme Court of the USSR

was presented by the prosecution and brought charges under Article 58 of the Criminal Code

of the R.S.F.S.R against these people:299

1. Grigory Zinoviev

2. Lev Kamenev

3. Grigory Yevdokimov

4. Ivan Bakayev

5. Sergei Mrachkovsky, a hero of the Russian Civil War in Siberia and the Russian

Far East

6. Vagarshak Arutyunovich Ter-Vaganyan, leader of the Armenian Communist

Party

7. Ivan Nikitich Smirnov, People's Commissar for communications

297 Getty, J. Arch, Oleg V. Naumov, and Benjamin Sher. The Road to Terror: Stalin and the Self-destruction of the

Bolsheviks, 1932-1939. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999. 298 Ibid 299 Heisler, Francis. The First Two Moscow Trials: Why? Chicago: Socialist Party U.S.A., 1937.

8. Yefim Dreitzer

9. Isak Reingold

10. Richard Pickel

11. Eduard Holtzman

12. Fritz David

13. Valentin Olberg

14. Konon Berman-Yurin

15. Moissei Lurye

16. Nathan Lurye300

Indictment mainly focuses on three parts:

I. The Trotskyite-Zinovievite United Terrorist Centre.

II. The United Trotskyite-Zinovievite Centre and the Assassination of Comrade S.

M. Kirov.

III. Organization by the United Trotskyite-Zinovievite Centre of terroristic acts

against Comrade Voroshilov, Zhdanov, Kaganovich, Kossior, Orjonikidze and

Postyshev.

Most of the defendants were sentenced to death and their executions were done in a

hurry. These trials were the start of troubled time within Soviet Union both for Red Army and

Communist Party members.

D) The Great Purge

Red Army was a considerable fighting force in 1936. In September, many western

military diplomats were invited to Byelorussia to watch large-scale Red Army manoeuvres.

Many observers can easily see that Red Army indeed the strongest army of mainland Europe at

that time. But that glorious times were cut off when Stalin decided to purge most of the Army

in trial and execution series knows as “the Great Purge”. Between 1937 and 1938 Red Army

300 Heisler, Francis. The First Two Moscow Trials: Why? Chicago: Socialist Party U.S.A., 1937.

suffered from a gigantic purge came directly from Joseph Stalin. That purge weakened the Red

Army severely and limit their capacity to affect European affairs. Soldiers, officers, generals

and even marshals accused for high treason, conspiring with the Third Reich. Perhaps one of

the most famous victim was Marshal Mikhail Tukhachevsky, who had served to the Red Army

during the civil war, Polish-Soviet War and reached the rank of marshal. He was charged for

plotting against Kremlin and conspiring with Third Reich. His execution took place on 12 June

1937 with a secret trial.301

The purge of the Red Army and Military Maritime Fleet removed three of five marshals

(then equivalent to five-star generals), 13 of 15 army commanders (then equivalent to three-

and four-star generals), eight of nine admirals (the purge fell heavily on the Navy, who were

suspected of exploiting their opportunities for foreign contacts),302 50 of 57 army corps

commanders, 154 out of 186 division commanders, 16 of 16 army commissars, and 25 of 28

army corps commissars.303

At first it was thought 25–50% of Red Army officers had been purged; the true figure is

now known to be in the area of 3.7–7.7%. This discrepancy was the result of a systematic

underestimation of the true size of the Red Army officer corps, and it was overlooked that most

of those purged were merely expelled from the Party. Thirty percent of officers purged in 1937–

39 were allowed to return to service.304

The purge of the army was claimed to be supported by German-forged documents (said

to have been correspondence between Marshal Tukhachevsky and members of the German high

command).305

The claim is unsupported by facts, as by the time the documents were supposedly

created, two people from the eight in the Tukhachevsky group were already imprisoned, and by

the time the document was said to reach Stalin the purging process was already underway.

However, the actual evidence introduced at trial was obtained from forced confessions.306

301 Lukes, Igor. Czechoslovakia between Stalin and Hitler: The Diplomacy of Edvard Benes in the 1930s. New

York: Oxford University Press, 1996. 302 Conquest, Robert. The Great Terror: A Reassessment. London: Pimlico, 2008. 303 Courtois, Stephane. Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression. Place of Publication Not

Identified: Harvard Univ Press, 2015. 304 Lee, Stephen J. European Dictatorships, 1918-1945. London: Routledge, 2016. 305 Conquest, Robert. The Great Terror: A Reassessment. London: Pimlico, 2008. 306 Ibid

12) On the Road of War (1936-1939)

A) Spanish Civil War (1936-1939)

The relatively new Spanish republic was plagued by various issues ranging in their

severity during the lead up to the civil war of 1936. The first of these areas of concern revolved

around the Catalonia and Basque provinces, which were vying for independence. There was

major right-wing opposition when Catalonia was permitted a certain degree of autonomy by the

socialists and middle-class radicals who dominated parliament. However, additional tensions

arose when a new right-wing government came to power and started to get more involved in

the functioning of the Catalan government and fully blocked the autonomy of the Basques; this

resulted in the Basques transferring their backing from the right-wing to the left.307

Another problem faced by the republic was that of the mutual resentment between it and

the Roman Catholic Church.308 This resentment manifested itself in the series of limitations

placed on the Church’s power, such as the separation of Church and State, abolishing the state

payments received by priests, and the expulsion of Jesuits. There were also problems with the

armed forces and the worry that they had too much influence and could try to overthrow the

government. The economic depression then combined with the aforementioned problems and

further exacerbated them by increasing hostility between right and left-wing sections of the

nation.309 As the government moved more and more to the right, the left-wing factions in the

government, such as the socialists, anarchists, and syndicalists, came together to form the

“Popular Front” and revolutionary violence increased.310 In this politico-economic situation,

the Popular Front won the elections of 1936. However, this new government was by and large

quite ineffective; with the murder of the central right-wing political figure, Calvo Sotelo, those

on the right were convinced that the sole method to reestablish order was through a military

dictatorship. Using Sotelo’s murder as an excuse, a revolt was started in Morocco which

General Franco took over, signaling the beginning of the civil war.311

Under the name of ‘Nationalists’, the right took over large segments of the north of

Spain. Despite this, Nationalist revolts in Madrid and Barcelona failed and effectively led to

the downfall of the plan to take over the entire nation in one maneuver. This paved the way for

the ‘Republicans’ to control north-eastern and central Spain and a violent conflict ensued.

307 Thomas, Hugh. The Spanish Civil War. New York: Harper & Row, 1963. 308 Norman Lowe, Mastering Modern World History (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), 342. 309Thomas, Hugh. The Spanish Civil War. New York: Harper & Row, 1963. 310 Norman Lowe, Mastering Modern World History (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), 344. 311 Thomas, Hugh. The Spanish Civil War. New York: Harper & Row, 1963.

International actors also got involved in the civil war, with the Nationalists receiving assistance

from Italy and Germany — Mussolini contributed with 70,000 troops, while Hitler assisted

through providing tanks and permitting the airforce to bomb civilian targets.312 The Republicans

on the other hand, were supported by the Soviet Union in the form of tanks, airplanes, and

troops and received a further 40,000 volunteers from over 50 miscellaneous nations;313 though

the USSR, Germany, Italy, Britain, and France had all agreed to maintain their neutrality, only

Britain and France ended up actually following through with this agreement.314 The Nationalists

gradually captured the remaining parts of Spain, taking over Barcelona and all of Catalonia in

January 1939 and capturing Madrid — the final Republican stronghold— with the city

surrendering to Franco’s forces in March 1939, effectively ending the war with a Nationalist

victory.315

B) The Second Sino-Japanese War

Since the acceptance of the Twenty-One Demands in 1915 and the alliance with the

Chinese warlord Zhang Zuolin was established, Japan has essentially been in control of

Manchuria.316 However, significant tensions were developing, and, in Manchuria, the Chinese

population was quite hostile to the Japanese due to the privileges that the Japanese enjoyed.

Additionally, though the Chinese population in Manchuria were the majority and the territory

was still legally in the hands of China.317

The initial catalyst was a non-major skirmish between Chinese and Japanese troops at

the Marco Polo Bridge, on July 7, 1937.318 Before the event took place, the Japanese troops had

taken over Fengtai, the railway junction nearby the Bridge. On the night of July 7, a minor

Japanese force near the Bridge insisted on being let in to the small town of Wanping to conduct

a search for a Japanese soldier. The Chinese forces in the town denied entry to the Japanese;

upon this denial shots were exchanged between the two sides. The government of China was

not open to any compromise during the conflict negotiations due to the extreme anti-Japanese

312 Norman Lowe, Mastering Modern World History (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), 345. 313 Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "Spanish Civil War." Encyclopædia Britannica.

September 18, 2017. Accessed April 12, 2018. https://www.britannica.com/event/Spanish-Civil-War. 314 Ibid 315 Norman Lowe, Mastering Modern World History (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), 345. 316 Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "Second Sino-Japanese War." Encyclopædia Britannica.

December 23, 2017. Accessed April 12, 2018. https://www.britannica.com/event/Second-Sino-

Japanese-War. 317 Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "Marco Polo Bridge Incident." Encyclopædia Britannica.

May 05, 2014. Accessed April 12, 2018. https://www.britannica.com/event/Marco-Polo-Bridge-

Incident. 318 Ibid

https://www.britannica.com/event/Spanish-Civil-War

sentiments and pressures upon it; the Japanese side was also quite unyielding and consequently

the dispute escalated and grew out of its originally local context.319

As the fighting extended out into central China, the Japanese experienced a series of

successful operations; moreover, the Japanese government, faced with an increasing amount of

public pressure to hold its ground, was aiming for a speedy victory in China.320 However, this

was not to be the case, with both sides being forced into the Second Sino-Japanese War. The

ultimate conclusion reached by the Japanese was that awaiting cooperation from the Nationalist

government under Chiang Kai-shek was futile, and that, thus, they needed to be eliminated.

Essentially, in July of 1937, the totality of the Chinese armed forces and political factions were

organised in support of Chiang’s Nationalist government and to take all necessary measures in

opposing the Japanese troops; the communist groups also joined this Chinese effort, having

already pushed for a joint struggle against the Japanese forces in 1935, and promised to support

the government and yield their armed forces to government control, at least in formality. 321

When looking through a military perspective, it is evident that Japan’s levels of

preparedness were much above those of their Chinese counterparts, and this imbalance

manifested itself in the successive victories experienced by the Japanese in the beginning of the

war. By 1939, Japan controlled the majority of the ports, chief cities, and railways.322 By mid-

November in 1937, Shanghai was emptied of Chinese forces as a result of the intense conflict;

by mid-December the Nationalist capital of Nanjing had also been captured and the process

used in establishing Japanese control over the city and its residents became known as the

‘Nanjing Massacre’. Approximately 300,000 Chinese forces who had surrendered — in

addition to civilians — were killed; many thousands of women were also raped per the orders

of Japanese commander Matsui Iwane. Subsequently, the Nationalist’s capital was relocated to

Hankow; the Japanese pursued and established their control of that city as well in October 1938;

it was also during this month that the Chinese forces lost Canton (Guangzhou). The Japanese

continued their north and westward trajectory via the railroads, dominating Shantung and taking

over railways in the meantime. They thus established a dominance over railroads, already had

319 Ibid 320 Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "Second Sino-Japanese War." Encyclopædia Britannica.


Japanese-War. 321 Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "Second Sino-Japanese War." Encyclopædia Britannica.


Japanese-War. 322 Ibid

https://www.britannica.com/event/Marco-Polo-Bridge-Incident

https://www.britannica.com/event/Second-Sino-Japanese-War

full control over the seas, and were the superior force in the air as well; this strength of Japanese

military power resulted in an overwhelming number of casualties on the Chinese side.323

C) Anschluss

Having tried and failed in 1934 to take over Austria, Hitler had already made much

progress in establishing Nazi influence in the nation. In July 1936, with the signing of an

Austro-German agreement where Germany reaffirmed its recognition of Austria's

independence; there was a mutual agreement to not get involved with one another's domestic

affairs, and also one stating that Austria would engage in a foreign policy in line with it being

a ‘German state’. Secret clauses also gave prominent Austrian Nazis, such as Arthur Seyss-

Inquart, a government position.

However, the 1938 chance to take over Austria presented itself through the actions of

the Austrian Chancellor Kurt Schuschnigg. Schuschnigg was disturbed by the acts of the

Austrian Nazis and asked for a meeting with Hitler; however, upon his arrival at the meeting in

Berchtesgaden on 12 February 1938, Hitler began a verbal attack on Austria:

“Hitler: “The whole history of Austria is just one interrupted act of high treason.

That was so in the past and is no better today. The historical paradox must now

reach its long-overdue end. And I can tell you here and now, Herr Schuschnigg,

that I am absolutely determined to make an end of all this. The German Reich is

one of the Great Powers, and nobody will raise his voice if it settles its border

problems . . . Who is not with me will be crushed . . . I have chosen the most difficult

road that any German ever took […]”

Schuschnigg: “Herr Reichkanzler, I am quite willing to believe it […] We will do

everything to remove obstacles to a better understanding, as far as possible […]”

Hitler: “That is what you say, Herr Schuschnigg. But I am telling you that I am

going to solve the so-called Austrian problem one way or the other . . . I have only

to give the order and your ridiculous defence mechanism will be blown to bits […]”

After enduring hours of this pressuring, Schuschnigg was forced to agree with a series

of demands, including the release of all imprisoned pro-Nazi agitators, suspension of the ban

against the Nazi Party, and appointment of Seyss-Inquart as interior minister. Pro-Nazis were

also to be appointed the ministers of war and finance and, furthermore, the Austrian and German

323 Ibid

https://www.britannica.com/event/Second-Sino-Japanese-War

economic systems were to be assimilated. These demands would in effect terminate Austrian

sovereignty; Schuschnigg was informed that, in the case of his disagreement, Hitler would enter

troops into Austria.324 Schuschnigg, in a final attempt, announced a plebiscite for 13 March

1938, where Austrians could vote on whether or not they wanted a, “free and German,

independent and social, Christian and united Austria.”325 Fearing that an unwelcome outcome

in this plebiscite could delegitimise his position, Hitler decided to act before this could happen.

Mussolini guaranteed that he would not oppose Anschluss and when Schuschnigg discovered

that no assistance would arrive from Italy, Britain or France, he cancelled the plebiscite and

tendered his resignation.326 Hitler then marched troops into Austria on 12 March 1938. On 13

March, Hitler announced the incorporation of Austria into the Reich; this integration was then

approved by 99% of the population in a retroactive plebiscite held on 10 April, 1938.327

D) Sudetenland and Munich Agreement

In Hitler’s move to take over Czechoslovakia, certain factors played a key role. These

were those of Hitler’s Lebensraum policy, his conviction that Slavs were racially/socially

inferior (or “untermenschen”), and Czechoslovakia being the only successful independent state

created by the Treaty of Versailles— it consisted of many different peoples and had therefore

demonstrated that ethnically diverse people could coexist.

One of the ethnic groups in the new Czechoslovakia was that of Germans. These

Germans had formally lived in the Austro-Hungarian Empire and now lived in the area known

as the Sudetenland, which bordered Germany. The Sudetenland was a mountainous area, rich

in mineral resources, and had been given to Czechoslovakia in order to present the new state

with a strong frontier and ensure its prosperity. The Czechs had then further strengthened this

frontier by building fortifications. Additionally, Czechoslovakia had a strong arms industry and

a well-organised armed forces. However, the Sudeten Germans themselves, numbering around

3.5 million people, had not accepted their position in Czechoslovakia; as part of the former

Austrian Imperial ruling nation, they resented their loss of status and saw themselves as victims

of Czech discrimination. It is true that unemployment was more severe amongst the Sudeten

324 Rogers, Keely, and Joanna Thomas. The Move to Global War. Oxford: Oxford University Press,

2015. 325 "Anschluss." United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Accessed April 12, 2018.

https://www.ushmm.org/collections/bibliography/anschluss. 326 Ibid 327 Ibid

https://www.ushmm.org/collections/bibliography/anschluss

Germans, but this was mainly due to a significant portion of them working in industrial

professions, where unemployment, caused by the Great Depression, was most emphasised.

The leader of the Sudeten Germans, Konrad Heinlein, became the voice of Sudeten

discontent and for demands of autonomy from the Czech government. He led the Sudeten

German Party, which, beginning in 1935, was backed by Nazi Germany. Hitler encouraged

Heinlein to make relentless demands of the Czech government and to maintain an agenda of

agitation and subversion. Hitler was initially reluctant to use force against Czechoslovakia

though; he told Heinlein that he would solve the Sudeten issue” in the not too distant future”328

but did not commit himself to any clear plan on how this would be achieved. Moreover, many

of Hitler's generals advised him o n the matter of Germany unpreparedness for a war at this

point in time.329

Hitler reconsidered taking action against Czechoslovakia as a result of the so-called May

Crisis. On 20 May, rumours started circulating that the Germans were making military

preparations near to the Czech border. As a result, the Czech government ordered partial

mobilisation, and Britain and France sent warnings to Germany. The rumours were, in reality,

unfounded; nevertheless, Hitler had to give guarantees that no such preparations to attack

Czechoslovakia were being made. He found this action to be shameful, since it was perceived

as though he had given in to British and French threats. On 28 May, in what was known as

Operation Green, Hitler told his generals, "It is my unalterable decision to smash

Czechoslovakia by military action in the near future.”330

Throughout the summer of 1938, tensions rose in the Sudetenland as the Sudeten

Germans, based on instructions from Hitler, increased their violence against the Czech

government. On 5 September, the Czech President Edvard Benes conceded to the whole of

Sudeten German demands for autonomy. It was at this point that Britain decided to act;

Chamberlain desperately wanted to avoid a war, and so now flew to meet Hitler at

Berchtesgaden to try to come to an agreement over the Sudetenland. Though Hitler accepted at

first to limit his demands to the Sudetenland, during a following meeting at Godesburg a week

later, he increased them to include more of Czechoslovakia and the immediate entry of German

328 Rogers, Keely, and Joanna Thomas. The Move to Global War. Oxford: Oxford University Press,

2015. 329 Ibid 330 Rogers, Keely, and Joanna Thomas. The Move to Global War. Oxford: Oxford University Press,

2015.

forces into the Sudetenland. Benes rejected this and mobilised the Czech army while also

increasing fortifications along Czech borders with Germany, Austria, and Hungary.

With an outbreak of war seemingly unavoidable, a four-power conference (Britain, Germany,

Italy, and France) was held in Munich, where neither the Czech President, Benes, nor the Soviet

leader, Stalin, were invited. The Czechs were told that if they resisted this agreement they would

receive no help from Britain or France, even though France had guaranteed the Czech borders

at Locarno. The Czechs therefore had no option but to agree and Benes resigned in the days

that followed.

The morning after the Munich Conference, Chamberlain had a private meeting with

Hitler, during which they both signed a statement in which they agreed to settle all matters of

international interest through consultation and renounced warlike intentions against one

another’s nation. Hitler, however, was determined not to be deprived of his war against

Czechoslovakia. On 21 October, he gave orders for the "liquidation of the remainder of the

Czech state.”

E) First Vienna Award

An opportunity for change emerged after the signing of the Munich Agreement; one of

the annexes to the Agreement additionally mentioned the need for negotiations between the

Hungarian and Czechoslovak governments to solve the issue of the Hungarian minority in

Czechoslovakia. Both governments agreed to send delegations for negotiations that took place

in Komárno between 9 and 13 October 1938. If no agreement could be found, they were to ask

the signatories of the Munich Agreement (Germany, Italy, Britain, and France) to arbitrate the

dispute. The Hungarian delegation took an uncompromising position during the negotiations

and pursued firm territorial claims. On these grounds, it was soon clear that mutual agreement

was impossible. As the negotiations failed, the governments of both countries decided to ask

the aforementioned signatories to decide.331 The arbitration took place in Vienna on 2

November 1938. The Foreign Affairs Ministers of Germany and Italy, Joachim von Ribbentrop

and Galeazzo Ciano, decided upon the border demarcations and the size of territory to be given

up by Czechoslovakia. Britain and France did not participate in the arbitration proceedings,

having no central stake in the issues hand.332

331 http://www.upn.gov.sk/data/files/11-2016-EN-1-w-award.pdf 332 Ibid

http://www.upn.gov.sk/data/files/11-2016-EN-1-w-award.pdf

http://www.upn.gov.sk/data/files/11-2016-EN-1-w-award.pdf

F) German Invasion of Czechoslovakia

Czechoslovakia suffered a heavy blow to its industry due to the loss of 70% of its heavy

industry, a third of its population and territory, as well as nearly all of its fortifications against

Germany as a result of the Munich Agreement.333 Early in 1939, Hitler encouraged the Slovaks

to cause disruption and to ask for complete independence. As with Austria, Hitler was given

the excuse to directly get involved when the new Czech President, Emil Hacha, moved troops

into Slovakia to crush this disruption and suppress the expected declaration of independence.

Slovak prime minister and head of the fascist Slovak People's Party, Father Jozef Tiso, was

placed under house arrest and the Slovak government buildings in Bratislava were occupied by

police forces.334

Under these circumstances, Hitler brought Tiso to Berlin and convinced him to declare

full independence for Slovakia; the following day the Slovaks requested German protection,

though as underlined by Ian Kershaw, this only took place, “after German warships on the

Danube had trained their sights on the Slovakian government offices.”335 In the hope of saving

Czechoslovakia, Hacha now asked to see Hitler, where he was told that, so as to safeguard the

German Reich, a protectorate had to be established over what remained of Czechoslovakia.

German forces were ready to enter the nation and Hacha was told to command the Czech army

to stand down; he was also faced with the threat of Prague being bombed if he himself were to

deny them.

On 15 March, 1939, German troops occupied the rest of Czechoslovakia, having left

Hacha with no alternative but to concede to German demands. The Czech President was forced

to sign over Bohemia and Moravia (the main Czech territories) to Germany, with the areas

being declared a protectorate within the German Reich; Slovakia was to be an independent

nation — though under the protection of the Reich — and Ruthenia was occupied by Hungarian

forces. On 16 March, Bohemia and Moravia were declared a protectorate of Germany; Slovakia

was to be an independent state under the protection of Germany; finally, Ruthenia was occupied

by Hungarian troops.336

333 Ibid 334 Chen, C. Peter. "First Vienna Arbitration." WW2DB. Accessed April 12, 2018.

https://ww2db.com/battle_spec.php?battle_id=255. 335 Ibid 336 Ibid

Though these actions were protested by Britain and France, no action was taken by

either. The claim made by Chamberlain was that the guarantee of Czech borders given in

Munich did not apply in this situation because there was no technical invasion of the country:

the German forces had been invited in; Hitler had in fact been welcomed enthusiastically upon

his visit to the Sudetenland. However, this action caused a great deal of criticism and led to a

change in British policy towards Germany, due to their not having been able to justify Hitler’s

behavior for the first time. On 18 March, Chamberlain told the British Cabinet that "no reliance

could be placed on any of the assurances given by the Nazi leaders,” demonstrating a

toughening of Britain’s stance towards Hitler and Nazi Germany.

G) Memel Dispute

Memel, located at the eastern boundaries of the German Empire before the World War I,

has been a crucial naval port for the Prussian and German empires of pre-Great War era. 337The

city was the bridge that connected German Empire to the Baltic Sea; thus, functioning as a

prominent trade centre of the country. Nonetheless, Memel was separated from the German

Reich after the signing of the Versailles Treaty of 1919. Dominated by a large ethnic-German

population, the city was neighbouring to Lithuanian towns, all of which constituted the

independent Lithuanian state that

was established after the World War

I. In 1923, Lithuanian militia

annexed the city and Memel was

granted an autonomous status,

recognizing the religious and

linguistic rights of its German

population.338 For the following

years, the city remained autonomous

under Lithuanian constitution.

With Adolf Hitler’s rise to

power, German nationalist rhetoric

337 Klaipėda&Lithuanian Occupation. http://www.dcstamps.com/klaipeda-memel-lithuanian-

occupation-1923-1925/.

338 "Memel Dispute". Encyclopedia Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/event/Memel-

dispute#ref183692.

concerning the lost territories of World War I rapidly increased. That inevitably brought the

status of Memel into question for the Nazi administration. On March 20, 1939, Germany issued

an official ultimatum to Lithuania, demanding the unification of the city with the Third Reich.

In accordance with the ultimatum, German cruisers sailed across the city, urging Lithuania to

respond immediately. Three days later, Lithuania agreed to cede the city since Lithuania failed

to get any assurances from other world powers.

H) The Status of Danzig

Like Memel, Danzig was disintegrated from the German Empire in the aftermath of the

World War. The city obtained the status of “Free City” under the authority of League of Nations

and it was to govern by appointed High Commissioners of the League of Nations. The 400,000

inhabitants of the city were mostly composed of German ethnicity and their protection and

rights were guaranteed by the League as well. The Treaty of Versailles had also led to the

establishment of so-called the Polish Corridor, diving the unity of German territories and

allowing Poland to reach Baltic Sea shores. Through signing customs union agreement with

Poland, Polish influence in Danzig increased, and that development was followed by Polish

initiatives to establish ties with the city. Poland obtained administrative governance rights, such

as overseeing the city. Rise of the National Socialist German Workers’ Party’s in Germany

reflected upon the political wills of the electorate Germans living abroad. In 1933 parliamentary

elections of the Danzig city, the Nazi Party received the half of the votes. Increasing Nazi

influence within the city sparkled when the Nazi Party received almost 60 percent of the votes

in the elections of 1935. Thus, the domestic politics of Danzig between 1933 and 1939 were

dominated by the Nazi majority within the parliament of Danzig, the Volkstag.

With the increasing Nazi influence in the city, relations between Danzig and Poland

receded. Adolf Hitler himself payed a special attention on the issue of Danzig, desiring the city

to join German Reich by any means. In this direction, German Foreign Minister Ribbentrop

met with the Polish Ambassador to Germany in 1938 and revealed Nazi’s intentions to reclaim

the city within German Reich. Poland not only underlined the impossibility of such action, but

also stated Poland would decline signing Anti-Comintern Pact. For the coming months, German

claims on Danzig was expressed in Hitler’s and Ribbentrop’s meetings constantly. On March

21, 1939 Ribbentrop officially urged Poland to accept the German demands on Danzig, and

threatened Poland to risk German-Polish friendship over Danzig.

Just a day after, Poland officially requested British and French consultations concerning the

issue. The British and French administrations then suggested to sign a formal treaty to show

their willingness to support Poles vis a vis the Germans and to contain the Nazi Germany.

Stating that Poland would never cede Danzig, Polish Foreign Minister signed

British-French-Polish Treaty that mutually guaranteed each other’s’ borders on April 6th.339 By

mid-April, the tension over the Danzig issue was elevated to a significant extent so that the

Italian ambassador to Berlin informed Rome about the possibility of a war between Germany

and Poland.340 A week after, Hitler addressed the Reichstag, during which he renounced Anglo-

German Naval Agreement and declared Polish-German Non-Aggression Pact of 1934 void. As

of 9 May 1939, The French Ambassador to Germany noted that he was suspecting Hitler to

negotiate with Stalin for the partition of Poland.341

İ) Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact

In 1939, a common appeasement policy was adopted against Hitler Germany; the

country who has renewed and empowered all of its army, economy and politics with the revenge

flame of Treaty of Versailles it signed in World War 1. Thus, this new aggression had to be

kept back before it led to something bigger: a second World War. General Secretary of Soviet

Union Josef Stalin has sent its ambassador to Britain in order to discuss upon a possible military

alliance in a case of invasion to Polish and Romanian borders. But, the response was negative

because Britain and France decided to take their anti-Soviet allies’ ideas into consideration

rather than the only possible power that could have a role as deterrent to the foreseen enemy,

Germany.342 In early May 1939, Stalin has brought the military alliance offer back to the table,

but when he got the second rejection he decided to work with Germany in order to secure his

own nation’s interests. There was various meeting held between the diplomats of two countries

and the conclusion was that if Soviet Union was to get into another alliance with Western

Powers it would inevitably be dragged into another war and this was not an update that Stalin

wanted; at least at the time. Considering Soviet’s lost territory in Polish-Soviet War in 1921,

Stalin’s position has started to change, and he decided to enlarge the negotiations.343 He even

339 Chen, Peter. "The Danzig Crisis". WW2DB, https://ww2db.com/battle_spec.php?battle_id=162.

340 Ibid. 341 Ibid. 342 Chen, C. Peter. "Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact." WW2DB. Accessed April 11, 2018.

https://ww2db.com/battle_spec.php?battle_id=90. 343 Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "German-Soviet Nonaggression Pact." Encyclopædia Britannica.

July 22, 2016. Accessed April 11, 2018. https://www.britannica.com/event/German-Soviet-Nonaggression-Pact.

replaced the responsible ambassador who is a Jewish with Vyacheslav Molotov. After finding

out that Soviets were in discussion with Germany, British Prime Minister Chamberlain has

decided to negotiate with Stalin, but this attempt was unreciprocated. His unwillingness made

Stalin’s efforts to reach Chamberlain out a complimentary one.344 This small but remarkable

update made Britain and France to lose their last chance to deter Soviets from an alliance with

Hitler.

Not long after, Reich Foreign Minister Ribbentrop’s arrival to Soviets was confirmed in order

to start the talks for a new non-aggression pact.

J) Soviet-Japanese Border War

In May 1939, near to the frontier of Manchurian-Mongolian area Soviet-Japanese

armies have clashed. Although the effect was little, its consequences were going to get bigger.

The going-on conflict was in the form of an undeclared war with 100.000 troops, 1.000 aircraft

and 30.000 men wounded. War finally started in August, Japan was crushed. The timing of the

was was in perfect accordance with the German-Soviet Nonaggression Pact. This coincidence

has effected the crucial decisions taken in both Moscow and Tokyo as well as the result of this

war. The progress of conflict was provoked by specifically a Japanese officer named Masanobu

which was the ring-leader of Kwantung Army who occupied Manchuria and Georgy Zhukov

who later lead the victory of Red Army over Nazi Germany, commanded the Soviet forces.

Japanese side has failed with its attack and Soviets has wiped out approximately 200-man in

the unit.345 Japanese army has fought back during June and July; a bomb attack was conducted

inside Mongolian territory. After this success, Kwantung Army has kept on their attacks

believing they could beat Moscow. However, Stalin succeeded to beat these attempts with an

instant military and diplomatic counter strike. As the negotiations for Soviet-Nazi Pact was

going on, Zhukov has performed a powerful attack on the Soviet front. Over 75% of Japanese

army, were killed in combat. Meanwhile, the pact decision has come to an end and this left

Tokyo diplomatically isolated and humiliated. In conclusion, Zhukov has caused the war to be

won and therefore he gained the trust of Stalin for further times. Also took role in one of the

most important future decisions ever taken for Soviet Army: moving it to the Far East.

344 Deutsche Welle. "Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact: A 'honeymoon' for Two Dictators | DW | 23.08.2014." DW.COM.

Accessed April 11, 2018. http://www.dw.com/en/molotov-ribbentrop-pact-a-honeymoon-for-two-dictators/a-

17873179. 345 Goldman, Stuart D. "The Forgotten Soviet-Japanese War of 1939." The Diplomat. January 01, 9058. Accessed

April 11, 2018. https://thediplomat.com/2012/08/the-forgotten-soviet-japanese-war-of-1939/.

13) Conclusion

It’s August 1939, and dark clouds are at the top of Europe once again. Although German

demands for Danzig create another international problem which had a significant chance to turn

into another world war, it is important to keep in mind that peace always is an option. In return

for German demands, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland guarantee Polish

independence. In addition to that, although it had its own internal purges and conflicts, Soviet

Union is also another considerable power in terms of European affairs. To reach a solution,

United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland must use their all resources and options,

either for peace or war!

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