Daily quizzes Understand the material Read the text Study frequently for short periods Find a study buddy

Classroom Etiquette and rules:Turn off cell phones !

No chewing gums Be considerate of others:

Take out what you bring in. Be ontime, No late more than 5-

10m Talk to me, NOT your

neighbor!No absence from exams without prior excuse

Do not ask for grades over the phone or internet.

Use Professional ethics NO:

PlagiarismCheatingAllowing others to copy from you

Penalties can be severe !!

Pathology – focus on physical changes in diseased organs and tissues

Pathophysiology – abnormal functioning of diseased organs and how it applies to medical treatment and patient care

Disease – loss of homeostasis, or when physical or mental capacities cannot be fully utilized (interuption, cessation or disorder in the function of an organ or system).

Etiology = cause of the diseaseWhen the etiology is unknown, the disease is

said to be idiopathic.

Genetic disease– genes are responsible for a structural or functional defect

Congenital disease– genetic information is intact, but the intrauterine environment interferes with normal development

Acquired disease – disease is caused by factors encountered after birth (biological agents, physical forces, and chemical agents)

Clinical manifestations – indications that the person is sickSymptoms – unobservable effects of a disease reported by the patientSigns – observable or measurable traits

Syndrome - a characteristic combination of signs and symptoms associated with a particular disease.

Diagnosis – identification of the specific diseaseTherapy – the treatment of the disease to either effect a cure or reduce the patient’s signs and symptomsPrognosis – prediction of a disease’s outcome

The cell is the building block of each living organism. Each cell is a self-contained system that undergoes the functions of energy production and usage, respiration, reproduction, and excretion

Reproduction Growth Differentiation Respiration Secretion Excretion

Organization Metabolism

◦ Catabolism◦ Anabolism

Responsiveness◦ Conductivity

Movement

All cells composed internally of cytoplasm and nucleus, and surrounded externally by cell membrane.

The cytoplasm includes everything inside the cell but outside the nucleus

mitochondria ;energy endoplasmic reticulum

and ribosomes; protein synthesys

Golgi apparatus; secretion of proteins synthesized on the ribosomes.

lysosomes ; digestive enzymes.

Cytoskeleton.

Amino Acids -> Proteins◦ Structure & Function

Nucleic Acids -> DNA / RNA◦ Information Transmission, energy storage

Simple Sugars -> Polysaccharides◦ Energy Sources, structure

Fatty Acids -> Lipids◦ Structure, Energy Source

Composed of lipid molecules in bilayerPhospholipids have hydrophobic tailPhospholipids have hydrophilic headsAlso contains embedded proteins

proteins are important for cell-cellcommunication:

receptors for hormonescell recognition

also important for metabolic processes inside the cell:

channelspumpsenzymes

Phospholipid bilayer

Membrane proteins

Cytoplasm Nucleus Ribosomes

Mitochondria Endoplasmic

Riticulum Golgi Apparatus Lysosomes

Generic CellGeneric Cell

Cytosol – aqueous gel-like mediumImportant metabolic processes occur here

Organelles – membrane bound structuresMembranes provide compartments forseparation of chemical reactions

large, membrane-bound organelle that contains deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), the genetic material of the cell.

the DNA is folded up inside the nucleus

Human Genome as a Book Human Genome as a Book

There are 23 chapters, called CHROMOSOMES Each chapter contains several thousand

stories, called GENES Each story is made up of paragraphs, called

EXONS Each story is interrupted by advertisements

called INTRONS Each paragraph is made up of words, called

CODONS. Each word is written in letters called BASES

Movement Through the Membrane Lipid-soluble substances, such as oxygen,

carbon dioxide, alcohol, and urea, move across the lipid bilayer by simple diffusion

Other substances that;not lipid soluble, i.e most small ions, glucose, amino acids, and proteins, move between the extracellular and the intracellular compartments through pores provided by the integral proteins or through carrier-mediated transport systems.

Simple diffusion: osmosis,

Atrophy = shrinkage = decrease in cell size. Due to :

decreased use decreased blood supplydecreased nutrition

Of tissues or organs may be due to cell shrinkage or due to cell death.

Cellular AdaptationMechanisms of Cell InjuryManifestations of Cell InjuryCellular Death

AtrophyHypertrophyHyperplasiaDysplasiaMetaplasia

Sizeof organelles

Sizeof organelles

Workload(or disease state)

Workload(or disease state) Size

of organelles

Sizeof organelles

Energy Usage Energy Usage Efficiency

-OR-

Efficiency-OR-

Functionalityin disease state

Functionalityin disease state

Size # of organelles

Size # of organelles

Size # of organelles

Size # of organelles

Workload(or disease state)

Workload(or disease state)

contractility contractility

ability to meet demands!

-OR-

ability to meet demands!

-OR-

Functionalityin disease state

Functionalityin disease state

rate of cell division

rate of cell division

WorkloadPhysiological state

WorkloadPhysiological state

functionality functionality

ability to meet demands!

...

ability to meet demands!

...

2 types:Compensatory &

Hormonal

2 types:Compensatory &

Hormonal

tissue sizeby # of cells

PathologicalPathologicalPathologicalPathological

Normal CellsNormal Cells

Epithelial Tissue

AbnormalAbnormalShape & SizeShape & Size

Mutation

Normal Tissue

AbnormalTissue

PathologicalPathologicalPathologicalPathological

Normal CellsNormal Cells

Ex: CigaretteSmoking

AbnormalAbnormalCellsCells

Replacement

HypoxicChemicalStructural

◦(trauma…tons next semester)!InfectiousImmunologic / Inflammatory

Atmospheric Oxygen Atmospheric Oxygen

Loss of HbLoss of Hb

Hb function (CO) Hb function (CO)

erythropoiesis erythropoiesis

Respiratory Function Respiratory Function

Cardiovascular Function Cardiovascular Function

Most Common Cause of Cellular Injury!

Most Common Cause of Cellular Injury!

Loss of Phospholipids

Loss of Phospholipids

MembraneDamage

MembraneDamage

Release ofEnzymes

Release ofEnzymes

ElevatedElevated““Markers”Markers”

ex CK, CKMBex CK, CKMB

ElevatedElevated““Markers”Markers”

ex CK, CKMBex CK, CKMB

Hypertrophy = increase in cell sizeWe'll see this in heart, kidney (and others) w/ pathologyNOT due to increased cell volume or fluidRather, due to increased protein synthesis within the cell, or decreased protein breakdownResult is increased protein in organelles

Hyperplasia = increase in cell numberDue to increased cell division

Uterus and breast tissueParathyroid gland in kidney failureLiver (compensatory hyperplasia)

Metaplasia = replacement of one cell type with anotherReversible

An example: ciliated columnar epithelium replaced by

stratified squamous epithelium

Dysplasia = change in cell resulting in abnormal cell size, shape or organizationWe'll see this in respiratory tract, cervix w/ pathologyIn mature cells only

Immature cells would be expected to change in size, shape as they grow and mature

Considered a reversible change

Neoplasia = associated with a malignant tumor

Buildup of substances the cell can’t use or dispose of.

◦Normal body substances◦Abnormal products from inside the body (inborn

errors of metabolism)◦Substances from outside the body (transient or

permanent)

Causes of cell injury:Deficiency – lack of a substance necessary

to the cellIntoxication or poisoning – presence of a

toxin or substance that interferes with cell functioning

Trauma – physical injury and loss of cell’s structural integrity

Deficiencies:

Deficiency in oxygen most important

Hypoxia = deficiency in oxygen at cellDue to :

Decreased oxygen in airDecreased hemoglobin or decreased oxygen transported to cellsDiseases of the respiratory and/or

cardiovascular system

Important to cell because of oxidative phosphorylation, which results

in the production of ATP

Oxidative: need oxygen to produce ATP

ATP: needed by cell for metabolism, cell life

Cellular response to hypoxiaDecreased mitochondrial reactions

decreased ATP produced decreased energy

Ion pumps cease, so can't regulate ions into/out of cell (ATP needed for this)

Can't pump Na+ and water out of cell, so get cell swelling organelle swelling

cell death

Ischemia is inadequate blood supply to a cell or tissue.

Ischemia can cause hypoxia.

Intoxication (or introduction of toxins into the cell)Effect on cell depends on toxin and on cell

Some examples:Lead -- injures nervous systemCO -- deprives body of oxygenEthanol -- effects central nervous system

Trauma -- physical disruption of cells

Ex: abrasion, cutting, burns, microorganisms etc.

Free radicals :uncharged atom or group of atoms with an

unpaired electronFormed by radiation, redox reactions, chemicals

Atom is unstable needs to gain or lose an electroncan alter chemical bonds in proteins, lipids, carbohydrates and nucleic acidscan cause chain reaction in cell

“fallen apart”Regulated cell deathDuring developmentWorn out cellsDiseased cells (tumor suppressor p53 gene,

natural killer or Tc cells)

Messy cell deathInitiates inflammationGangrene – large mass of tissue undergoes

necrosis

Infections agentsMicroorganisms can invade and harm cells

Cell injury can have effects on the entire bodyExamples: fever, pain, increased heart rate

Programmed change theoriesError theoriesTelomerase