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Scriven, F. B.Sports Facilities for Schools in DevelopingCountries. An Inventory of Experience and Proposalsfor Future Projects. Educational Studies andDocuments No. 8._United Nations Educational, Scientific, and CulturalOrganization, Paris (France).7345p.; Also published in FrenchUNIPUB, Inc., P.O. Box 443, New York, New York 10016($1.00)

MF-$0.65 HC Not Available from EDRS.Bibliographies; Costs; *Developing Nations;Elementary Schools; *Physical Education; *PhySicalEducation Facilities; *Planning (Facilities);*Recreational Facilities; Secondary Schools

Aimed at encouraging developing countries to makebetter use of local sporting traditions and locally availablematerials, this study 2eviews existing information on the design offacilities for sport and physical education programs and outlines a.handbook that could serve as a guide_to the production of thosefacilities. The assessment of the existing knowledge of the planningand design of spprts facilities included, in part,_ a questionnairesurvey of the problems facing constructors of these facilities (sentin 1963 and 1967-68 to correspondents in 43 countries);. the technicaldetailing of several installations of particular interest thatrepresent solutions to the problems outlined; a review of theliterature on the subject; the identification, classification, andannotation of relevant documentation; and the compilation of documentavailability. This publication is meant as a blueprint for futureresearch, publications, and pilot projects in member States indrawing up national gUidelines or directives for sports facilitiesplanning and for identifying desirable experimental undertakings.Appendixes contain addresses of organizations where technicalinformation may be obtained and a bibliography. (Photographs mayreproduce poorly.) (Author/MLE)

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No.8

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH,EDUCATION &WELFARENATIONAL INSTITUTE OF

EDUCATIONTHIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRODUCED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROMTHE PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIGIN

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EDUCATION POSITION OR POLICY

MAY 2 91973

Sports facilitiesfor schoolsin developingcountries

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FILMED FROM BEST AVAILABLE COPYUnesco

EDUCATIONAL STUDIES AND DOCUMENTSNew series

Published in English, French and -for titles marked withan asterisk- in Spanish.

List of titles published or in preparation.

1. Education in the Arab region viewed from the1970 Marrakesh Conference

2. Agriculture and general education3. Teachers and educational policy4.*Comparative study of secondary school

building costs-5. Literacy for working: functional literacy

in rural Tanzania6. Rights and responsibilities of youth (also

available in Russian)7. Growth and change : Perspectives of

education in Asia8. Sports facilities for schools in developing

countries9. Possibilities and limitations of functional

literacy : the Iranian experiement10. Functional literacy in Mali: training for development11. Anthropology and language science in educational

development

In the field of education, Unesco also publishes thefollowing periodicals:

Prospects. Quarterly Review of EducationLiteracy NewsletterEducational Documentation and

Information: Bulletin of the IBE

Sports facilities(NJ

(1 -for schoolsin developingcountries

An inventory of experienceand 'proposals forfuture' projectsby F. B. Scriven

Unesco

Printed in 1973 in the Workshops of theUnited Nations Educational,Scientific and Cultural Organization,Place de Fontenoy, 75700 Paris, France

LC No. 72-96367ISBN-92-3-101049-2

ED/72.XXIV.8 APrinted in FranceO Unesco 1973

US $1; 30p (stg.); 4F/B7Plus taxes, if applicableISBN - 92-3-101049-2

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"PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THISCOPYRIGHTED MATERIAL BY MICRO-FICHE ONLY HAS BEEN GRANTED BY

TO ERIC AND ORGANIZATIONS OPERAT.ING UNDER AGREEMENTS WITH THE NA.TIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION.FURTHER REPRODUCTION OUTSIDETHE ERIC SYSTEM REQUIRES PERMIS.SION OF THE COPYRIGHT OWNER."

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PREFACE

Two of Unesco's operational concerns - with youthactivities and 'with the provision of educationalfacilities - are reflected in the present study. TheOrganization, while, recognizing the importance ofsport in educational systems, also recognizes thatthe progressive internationalization of sport in-volves financialproblems for the less economicallydeveloped countries. Many of the games whichhave been imported into the tropicalregions whereso many developing countries are found can onlybe enjoyed if special facilities are constructed.As a result, a number of sports are accessible tothe wealthier sections of thecommunity alone.

The present study is aimed at encouraging de-veloping countries to make better use of localsporting traditions and locally available materials.To this end, it reviews existing information on thedesign of facilities for sport and physical education(including "sports'' not covered by the classicaldefinition of the word e. g. , traditional dances andteaching techniques requiring physical expression)andoutlines a handbook which could serve as aguide to the production of those facilities.

It is not intended as a reference .vork but ratheras a review of the present situation - one which isunsatisfactory in many respects - and at the sametime as a blueprint for future research, publica-Ations and pilot projects.

Unesco believes that it will be of value to, anumber of Member States in drawing up nationalguidelines or di-ctives for the planning of sportsfacilities and f entifying desirable experimen-tal undertakinL ; is cilso hoped that(Other agen-cies and non -govt.nmental organizations will followthe recommendations concerning the preparation ofa handbook. This would be beyond Unesco's meansand could only be successfully carried out if avariety of agencies and organizations participated.

The author of this study, Mr. F.13. Scriven,United Kingdom, is an architect with an intimateknowledge of many developing countries which hevisited in his capacity as a Unes co consultant on theprogramming and planning of low cost" educationalfacilities. While members of the Secretariat pro-vided him with advice and guidance: his paper doesnot reflect any official position of the Organization.

SECTION I

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Terms of reference

SECTION II - Problems

SECTION III - Recommendations

5

SECTION IV The framework for a handbook on sports facilitiesfor schools in developing countries 13

A. Introduction 13

B. The objectives of physical education and sportin schools 14

C. Scope 16.

D. Curriculum 18

E. Existing conditions

F. The construction of facilities

APPENDIX 1 Addresses of organizations where technicalinformation may be obtained . .

19

22

33

APPENDIX 2 Bibliography 35

SECTION I

TERMS OF REFERENCE'

The terms of reference for this study were:

To prepare an assessrnelit of existing knowledge ofthe planning and design of sports facilities for pri-mary and secondary schools, with particular empha-si. on the developing countries. This assessmentincludes the following:

(a) A reasoned survey of the problems facingconst?Uators--dfS-pOrtsfac-ilities for schools indeveloping countries, based on answers to a ques-tionnaire(1) and on'personal experience.

(b) A list of books and documentation availablefrom developed countries that could be useful todeveloping countries.

( c ) A method of classifying and annotating docu-mentation so that useful information may easily bedrawn "from it, the classification to include shortrésumés.

(d) A collection of all the documentation listed

for the use of libraries'of the regional centres andheadquarters. A list of addresses where copies ofthe documentation may be obtained.

(e) Technical details of several installationsthat are of particular interest and that representa solution to the problems outlined in paragraph (a).

(1) Recommendations to Unesco on what sub-sequent steps should be taken toward stimulatingpilot projects or a report for wide distribution,or both.

1. Questionnaires were sent only to the Unesco-sponsored regional centres for educationalbuilding. Questionnaires, sent by the Inter-national Council on Health, Physical Educationand Recreation, (ICHPER) in 1963 and 1967-68to correspondents in 43 countries, formed theprincipal basis for this assessment.

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SECTION II

PROBLEMS

The main problems facing the constructors of phys-ical education and sports facilities for schools indeveloping countries can be summed up as follows:

Lack of money now and in the foreseeable future tobuild facilities and buy equipment (see p. 19).

Very few instructors ; facilities should be so design-ed as to use the few available instructors to thebest advantage (see p. 20).

Inadequate appreciation of the objec,ives of physicaleducation in a developing country. There,hasbeen very little study of the relationship betweensport and development. It is essential to knowwhat it is hoped to achieve through sport befdrebuilding facilities (see p. 14).

Inadequate appreciation of the historic and socialdifferences between a developed and a developingcountry, which indicate that physical educationand sport should be giyen a different form in adeveloping country. Programmes and facilitiestend to be based on inappropriate' Europeanmodels (see p. 21).

Limited view of physical education. It is a con-tinuous process that cannot be put in compart-ments. Physical education includes movementin all its forms - the walk to school, writingwith a pen, play (seep. 16).

Lack of technical information. There is no book ordocumentation that deals with the construction ofphysical education facilities in developing coun-tries or inthe tropics. The necessary informa-tion is either scattered through a number of booksand brochures, available in developed countries,or simply does not exist (see p. 22).

Difficult climates. The problem of climate has beenexaggerated : it is possible for physical educa-tion to take place out f doors in most areas ofthe tropical developing world (see p. 28). Never-theless it is true that there are areas of thehot-dry tropics where this is impossible in themiddle of the day but even with liinited meansoutside areas can be adapted so that gymnasticscan take place continuously (see p. 31).

SECTION III

RECOMMENDATIONS

As a way of overcoming these problems and in thehope of encouraging achievement of the goals setfor physical education, the following ideas areproposed:

Preparation of a construction handbook (a frame-work for this handbook is contained in Section IV).

Establishment of self-help facilities pilot projectsand instruction manuals - for playing fields ,

swimming pools, limited shelter gymnasiums,changing rooms, showers 'and gymnasium ap-paratus.

Establishment of an open-air school pilot projectto study outdoor facilities - gymnasiums, dancearenas, and patio extensions to classrooms.

Establishment of a mobile swimming instructionunit.

Use of physical education instruction aids, a studyof devices that could be used to palliate the lackof physical education teachers. This would in-clude a study of mechanical sports training de-vices and audio-visual methods of instruction.

These projects need not be separate entities ; theycould overlap. For example, an open-air gymna-sium could be part of a self-help project.

CONSTRUCTION HANDBOOK

The idea implied in articles (b) and (c) of the termsof reference was that the Unesco Educational Faci-lities Section should distribute existing documen-tation, together with some sort of user guide orindex, to interested authorities.

It was found that existing handbooks on sportsground construction in developed countries sufferfrom certain faults and omissions which make themonly marginally useful to developing countries.

The books concerned are :"Playing Fields and Hard Surface Areas'", and

"Secondary School 'Design - Physical Education",both published by the Department of Education -andScience , England and Wales.

"Amenagement Sportifs - 1960", "Etablissement

et Entretien des Sols en Plein Air'", "Gymnase,Salles de Sport" and "Piscines Couvertes et en PleinAir'', all published by the Ministere de la Jeu-nesse et des Sports, France.

"Shelter for Physical Education", published bythe Architectural Research Group, the A and MCollege of Texas, U. S. A.

"Planning Areas and Facilities for Health, Phys-ical Education and Recreation'", published by theAmerican Association for Health, Physical Edu.-a-tion and Recreation, U. S. A.

All these books deal with conditions iw'richcountries in temperate zones ; whereas, most de-;veloping countries are poor and tropical.

The French book "Amenagement Sportif - 1960"contains useful construction details of goal posts,jumping h,,rdles, basketball rings, etc. , in thefdrm of detachable sheets that can be given tc localcraftsmen to copy - these are items that in a de-veloped country would normally be purchased froma manufacturer's catalogue, but that in a develop-ing country are more conveniently and cheaplymade locally. This book is unfortunately out ofprint ; neither the English nor the American bookcontains details of this sort.

The English books do not mention the landscap-ing of sports areas. Planting in a tropical area,however, is not only an aesthetic consideration butcan be used to control the effects of a difficultclimate. The French book "Etablissement etEntretien des Sols en Plein Air" contains an excel-lent chapter on landscaping, but the plants and treescited are not suitable for tropical areas.

The dimensional data, giving standard sizesfor pitches and apparatus, is unclear in the Eng-lish books. The data in the French books is muchclearer but there are naturally no details for gamesplayed only in English-speaking countries - e. g.baseball and cricket.

The American book, "Shelter for Physical Edu-cation", now out of print, promotes, the idea of thelimited-shelter gymnasium, which is certainlyrelevant to developing countries, The other Ameri-[can book "Planning Areas and Facilities for Health,

Physical Education and Recreation" is generallytoo specialized to be useful to a developing country.

There is little information for schools in Spanish.CONESCAL bulletin 9 "Escuela y EducaciOn Fisica"is useful but is not a handbook for constructors.

There is a clear need for a handbook specifical-ly intended for planners and constructors of sportsfacilities in developing countries. The study inSection IV could be the basis ,for such a handbook.It would be, first and foremost, a tool for the useof constructors. It would contain all dimens'^naland technical data necessary to construct facilitiesadapted to conditions in developing ,countries.

In addition to its usefulness as a working tool,the handbook could be used to stimulate new think-ing and to propagate new ideas on sports facilities.It would state the objectives of physical education.It would point out the differences between physicaleducation in a developed country and in a devciop-ing country. It would illustrate new technical solu-tions, such as limited-shelter gymnasiums, `entstructures for sports halls, solar heated showers,sectional swimming pools, etc.

The handbook would necessarily be produced bya team. In addition to the architect, this teamshould include a physical educationist who has hadexperience of teaching under tropical conditionsand who is capable of putting forward ideas forfacilities and at the same time measuring thepracticality of the ideas put forward by other mem-bers of the team. There should be a landscapearchitect with a knowledge of tropical vegetationand soils. Other experts, on lighting and filtration,for example, could be employed as consultantswhen required.

The handbook should be the standard work onsports facilities for schools and no facilitiesshould be constructed without reference to it. Apublication may reach a large number of peoplebut by itself can hardly inspire the necessary in-novations. Sponsoring projects in different partsof the world would be a more positive way of get-ting ideas acros'§Nsince administrators who mightbe wary of innovatiriVrould not be afraid of copy-ing a successful pilot project.

SELF-HELP PILOT PROJECTAND INSTRUCTION MANUAL

Facilities for physical education and sports .nschools are low on the list of spending prioritiesin most developing countries. It is difficult to seehow this can be changed - if indeed it shouldbe changed. This situation in regard to low-costhousing is similar, although it is an urgent socialneed. In order to encourage house building, theUnited Nations Centre for Housing, Building andPlaning has supported and sponsored self-helphousing projects in Africa, India, South-EastAsiaand the Philippines, and has published a "Manualof Self7Help Housing". This self-help idea should

10

be extended to the construction of sports facilities.Self-help methods could be used for the construc-tion of playing fields, swimming pools, limited-shelter gymnasiums, changing rooms and showers,and apparatus.

Several schools in various parts of the worldhave already built facilities using student labour.

The methods used should be labour-intensive.Earth could be moved by the techniques that wereused to build the canals in Europe. Large civilengineering works are being undertaken in thisway in several developing countries. Strength,team-spirit and leadership are needed in this sortof work as much as in games. It would be a pro-ject mainly for secondary school students, althoughit should be possible to involve the local. community.The projects could be linked to lessons on com-munity development,- economiZs and-history.

Several pilot projects could be organized, per-haps by the Unesco-sponsored regional centresfor educational building, in collaboration with othercentres oriented towards the creative developmentof sport. The centres, whether national or region-al, should emphasiLe indigenous research. U.tescocould provide technical information and equipment,and pay for materials. Reports on the projectcould be written and printed by the students work-ing on the projects, and these reports (incorpora-ting photographs and perhaps a film) could then becirculated to other schools wishing to build self-help facilities.

Open-Air School Project

The project would demonstrate that physical edu-cation (or any education) can take place out ofdoors in most tropical climates as efficiently andagreeably as indoors. It would also demonstratethat there is a solution midway between "the pieceof rough ground" generally used for physical edu-cz.-,on in developing countries and the fully en-closed gymnasium of temperate zones ; this is theopen air or limited -shelter gymnasium. It issurely more appropriate for physical education totake place in the open air, surrounded by treesand sky, than in the artificial environment of agymnasium.

Unesco, or some other agency, should sponsoror encourage the construction of three types ofspace: outdoor and limited-shelter gymnasiums,arenas for dance and drama, patio extensions toclassrooms.

OUTDOOR AND LIMITED-SHELTERGYMNASIUMS

An outdoor area with a suitable floor with gooddrainage that would dry quickly after storms.Shade and perhaps limited protection from rainshould be provided. This space would be usedmainly for gymnastics; games would not be played;

there be a sepa:ate space for dance.Since this is a space and not a building, it nc.'Pd--

not be limited to a rectangular floor area. Theactual uninterrupted areas required for' gymnas-tics are quite small, although many activities needlength - vaulting, for example. The gymnasiumcould follow the layout of an army assault course,or be hexagonal, as proposed in a recent Dutch"Boowcentrum" study(1).

A certain amount of shade can be provided bytrees which can also reduce heat by vaporizationof moisture from their foliage and reduce dust.If planted judiciously, they need not interfere withphysical education activities.

If protection from rain is thought necessary,roofing or a suitable sheet material can be provided.

Climbing apparatus would have to be three-di-mensional. Showers and changing rooms shouldbe near at hand.

ARENA FOR DANCE AND DRAMA

Dance is a very important part of physical educa-tion programmes in developing countries - bothnational dances and dramatic and classical dancing,ballet and folk dances from other countries.

The sort of space needed for dance is differentto that required for physical education and ideason open-air spaces for dancing will vary, A goodfloor is essential, There should certainly be someform of enclosure - hedges, walls or moveablescreens. The shape of the area will influence theflow of movement - for example, a circular spacemay tend to draw the movement in too strongly ; along narrow space may draw it out too linearly ; acompletely square space may be too static.

The Freinet school at Vence, France, offers agood example of a dance area.

FATIO CLASSROOMS

Photo 6 shows a classroom in an English stateprimary school. What used to be consideredseparate and distinct activities such as reading,music, art and physical education, aretaking placetogether. The teacher is nowhere to be seen:--

Whatever one may think of this way of learninthe choice does not generally exist in a developingcountry, because it is too difficult to apply thesemethods in overcrowded classrooms. It is pos-sible to use them with large class groups but notwhen these are jammed into small classrooms.

More space can beprovided by a patio, an un-covered extension to the classroom. Paved,shaded and equipped, it is ideal for reading circles,painting and crafts as well as for physical educa-tion. It must be an extension of the classroom andnot part of the school playground, and to avoiddisturbance from noise, patios should not be adjacent to each other as shown in the Puerto Rico

example (Photo .7 and sketch). There must be someform of enclosure - hedges or fences - and an easyflow between patio and classroom. The patioshould cost about one-third as much as equivalentspace indoors.

Outdoor spaces have a disadvantage in that theycan only be used during good weather but on mostoccasions, well-designed outdoor spaces are moreagreeable than inside s,--tces under tropical condi-tions.

Rainfall statistics do not show the time or dura-tion of rainstorms, and are therefore useless asa means of measuring the practicality of outdoorspaces in a given climate. There are many re-gions where the monthly rainfall is very high, butwhere outdoor facilities would be feasible. Wholedays of gentle rain are rare in the tropics. Rainfalls in short sharp showers followed by brightperiods, or falls predictably at a given hour orseason. Most tropical capitals have outdoor res-taurants, night clubs and cinemas. It should bepossible to build outdoor facilities in all but thewettest regions.

MOBILE SWIMMING INSTRUCTION UNITS

Swimming instruction is a right and a necessity.Deaths due to drowning among children of schoolage in developing countries are enormous. Thereis a great lack of swimming pools and other placesto swim. The majority of schools would like toteach swimming, which forms part of the schoolcurriculum, but lack the facilities. Building afully-equipped, concrete-lined swimming pool isbeyond the resources of most schools, even as aself-help project. In Africa there is roughly oneschool swimming pool per country.

The United States Marine Corps, using the"drownproofing" method of swimming instruction,developed by Professor Fred Lanone of the GeorgiaInstitute of Technology, has shown that recruitscan be taught to swim 75 yards and stay afloat forone hour - both in full uniform - after only 15 to20 hours of instruction. To be.- effective, thisinstruction should be reasonably continuous - onehour per day, rather than one hour per week.

In these circumstances, given the shortage ofinstructors and swimming pools, it would makesense to have a mobile swimming instruction unitfor several schools : that is, some form of port-.able sectional or inflatable swimming pool carriedin a van. The van would also carry the watertreatment plant and would be accompanied by therequired number of swimming instructors. Once,the pool had been assembled, the van could be used

1. Stichting Informatiecentrurn Voor Scholenbouw,-De Accommodaties Voor Het Onderwijs In DeLicharnelijke Oefening Bij Het Basisonderwijs,19G9.

11

as a changing-room. It would stay at each schoolfrom two to three weeks or until the majority ofchildren, of a given age group, had been taught toswim well enough to reach shore should they fallfrom a boat. This would be the most economicalway of using limited resources. Further researchis needed to find the best type of equipment andportable swimming pool, and the most effectivemethods of swimming instruction.

PHYSICAL EDUCATION INSTRUCTOR AIDS

There is an enormous shortage of trained physicaleducation instructors. Training for such instructors

12

is low on the list of priorities, although a greatdeal of time is devoted to physical education, sothat it may be said that the teacher shortage is moreacute in respect of this subject than in any other.As regards other subjects, the following methodsof alleviating the teacher shortage have been tried:audio-visual methods - closed circuit television,film loops, etc. ; teaching machines ; student parti-cipation in teaching. These methods could well beapplied to the teaching of physical education.

In developed countries there are already a largenumber of "machines" for teaching swimming, base-ball, tennis and golf. Some of these are too expen-sive for general use in developing countries, butothers could be adapted or simplified.

SECTION IV

THE FRAMEWORK FOR A HANDBOOK ON SPORTS FACILITIESFOR SCHOOLS IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

A. INTRODUCTION

Sport has been defined as: "any physical activitywhich has the character of play and which involvesa struggle with oneself or with others, or a con-frontation with natural elements. "(1)

Physical education is the development of the fullphysical potential of each child. As a formal partof nearly all school curricula, it is not generallyconsidered as play; but there is no clear separationbetween sport and physical education.

Physical education is part of intellectual educa-tion and vice versa. Writing with a pen, for exam-ple, in the early years, is as much a physical asan intellectual achievement.

What happens at home or in the communityor during other periods of the school day influencesthe child's behaviour and physical abilities as muchas events during the formal physical educationperiods. It is not possible to consider facilitiesfor sport and physical education in isolation fromthe other school buildings or from the home andcommunity environment.

It is not only children who need the benefit ofsport and physical education. Education - intellec-tual and physical - should be a life-long process,not limited to the years at school.

The following diagram summarizes the inputsand processes which lead to a finished facility forsport and physical education. .

It is impossible to over-emphasize the need to ap-proach this problem through team work. The design-ers cannot solve well problems which were ill-definedby the potential users and on the other hand, theusers cannot be expected to understand the poten-tials and limitations of developing a particularfacility within 'a limited budget.

This means that in order to devise a programmeof construction - that is, a document defining thenumber, Lype and quality of facilities, we need toknow the'following:

basic objectives of physical education,number and qualifications of teachers,number and ages of the children,

Objectives Information

Curriculum Designer Maintenance

Teachers

StudentsProgramme Design

Finance

Community Contractor

Climate Materials

Finishedfacility

composition of the local community,cli:nate of the region,amount of money available.

The following groups should be consulted:

teachers,students,local community.

The programme is given to a designer or a team ofdesigners - architect, landscape architect, engineer -who use their skills and the available informationon materials and methods to make a design.

The design is given to a constructor who usesmaterials and labour to build the finished facilitywhich then only needs to be maintained.

In a developing country some links in this chainmay well be missing or insufficient. There may belittle money, few designers and scant information.The proposed brochure would take this into accountand put forwart. some solutions.

1. International Council of Sport and Physical Edu-cation, Declaration on Sport (1964 Unesco)p. 9.

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B. THE OBJECTIVES OF PHYSICALEDUCATION AND SPORT IN SCHOOLS

To promote holistic development

It is now commonly understood that physical andintellectual zelopment are linked - developmentof one encourages the development of the other.The Ministry of Education in France which hastraditionally emphasized intellectual developmentto the near exclusion of physical development,began an experiment in Vanves, near Paris, in 1950 .This experiment was conducted in the last year ofprimary school. Intellectual work was limited tothe mornings only, the afternoons' were spent onsport and physical exercise. A normally taughtclass from another school was used to compareresults. Not only were health, bodily developmentand sports performance superior in the experimen-tal class but so was intellectual work.

Experiments in education usually give favourableresults l- at least in the short run - because teachersand pupils .are excited to be part of something newand give their best. Nevertheless, the conclusionsof this experiment are generally considered to bevalid.

The school day, in the case of the experiment,consisted of intensive intellectual work followed byintensive physical exercise. Mcdern teachingmethods in primary schools and to a lesser degreein secondary schools, tend to blur these sharpedges between physical and intellectual education.Active methods of teaching stress learning by ex-perience and discovery rather than by instruction."Activity and experience, both physical-and mental,are often the best means of gaining knowledge andacquiring facts. "(1)

Freedom of movement during the school day les-sens the need for physical education periods, speci-fically as a release from the strain of sitting still.

Perhaps the harmonious development of the indi-vidual - the realization of his full potential - shouldbe the only goal of any education, but in a socialcontext physical education has other objeCtives andthese will influence the type of facilities that areprovided. Broadly, if the objective of sport ispleasure, the facilities will have a gay aspect: ifthe objective is military preparedness, they willhave a more_austere aspect.

To develop-team-spirit, leadership and character

In 1963 and again in 1967; the International Councilon Health, Physical Education and Recreation( ICHPER) sent questionnaires to correspondents in43 countries. One item read: "List four or fiveobjectives or purposes of physical education in yourcountry. " The reply of Mr. Enrique Burbano of theMinistry of Education and Sports, Quito, Ecuador,was typical of many:

"To develop not only the muscles and organs, butto stimulate also the development and growth of the

14

individual within an appropriate social atmosphere;to develop the muscular strength, the best bodilyactivity, the resistance, the flexibility, the agilityof the individual and to stimulate the sense of joyand the appreciation of beauty; to cultivate graceand rhythm; to contribute to the realisation of thedemocratic ideals; to cultivate honesty, corn/ 01 ofemotions, gentlemanly behaviour, a sense of kind-ness, valour, and courage. "(2)

The stated objectives in both developed and de-veloping countries are very similar. The replyfrom Mr. Peter McIntosh of the Inner London Coun-cil College of Physical Education, United Kingdom,was as follows:

"To develop normal physical growth, body controland fitness, personal skills, social accomplishments,and character training and social behaviour. "(3)

Many replies emphasized the idea of trainingcharacter or forming personality. Clearly greatthings are expected of sport and physical educationin schbol that are not expected of other subjects.

Since one of the reasons most frequently givenfor sport in schools is to develop qualities of leader-ship and responsibility, it seems reasonable to en-courage these qualitieS further by allowing studentsto, run their own sports programmes. As a second-ary effect this would release physical educationteachers for other duties. The. idea of student-control of sports programmes has received the sup-port of the Director-General of Unesco, Mr. ReneMaheu. Speaking in Paris in May 1969 he said :

"Sports organizations and clubs must becomecentres for real contact between adults and youngpeople; and adults, abandoning the -= paternalisticapproach which can lead nowhere, must give theyoung the opportunity not only of expressing theirviews but also of taking part in the decisions re-quired for the reorganization of sport that is sovitally necessary. It no longer seems natural, asit used to do, to leave young people to play theirmatches while refusing to give them a say in deal-ing with the problems of the administration andmanagement of the clubs and federations. In this con-nexion, what is happening in the universities willprobably lead young people sooner or later, even ifthey have not yet shown clearly that they intend todo so, to demand means of playing an active part inevery aspect of sport and its organization. And,for my pal E, I think they should be helped to do so,for their freshness of approach and lively inventive-ness, like the generous sympathies by which they

1. Central Advisory Council for Education,4 England, Children and Their Primary Schools

Plowden Report (1967 HMSO) p. 195.2. ICHPER International Questionnaire Report,

Part I, 1967-68 revision, Physical Educationin the School Curriculum, p. 25

3. ibid. p.27

are moved, are bound to be of help in restoring thevitality and inspiration of sport. "

The potential socializing effects of sport certain-ly do not arise as a result of mere participation.There is as yet no teaching aid which will do thejob of the teacher and, therefore, whatever thematerial, whatever the content of a lesson or pro-gramme, the teacher must plan for pre-establishedobjectives and the programme or lesson must beconducted in such a way as to achieve those objec-tives. It is alsopertinent at this point to know thatwhilst modern youth is often accused of not joiningin community efforts, the reason lies not so muchin the changed attitude of young people towardscommunity activities in which youth has for manyyears played an important role; the present situa-tion is often engendered by the fact that older peo-ple are not prepared to give up their time andenergy to provide the leadership which is so essen-tial to the successful fulfilment of any project.There can be no followers without leaders.

To produce athletes and teams capableof representing their country

No national correspondants in their replies to theICHPER questionnaire admitted that one of the aimsof he school physical education programme was toproduce athletes capable of representing their coun-try although it is difficult to ignore popular pres-sure to produce winning athletes. Professor J. A.Laoye of Nigeria was more realistic when he said:

"The people of every country would very muchlike their country to rank high in the field of sportsand the name of their country written in the 'WorldBook of Sports . Ethiopia has been placed on thebright side of the world map by the efforts of hermarathon gold medalist, Abebe Bikila, in the lasttwo Olympic Games. The production of nationaland international champions in different sportingactivities is in fact one of our main objectives be-cause we believe that such champions are ambas-sadors of the country. "(3)

Good international athletes, however, or theeffort needed to find and promote them, can divertinterest and money away from sport for all.

Success in international competition does notnecessarily mean a good general level of fitness.President Kennedy wrote the following in 1960,after comparative tests had shown the lack of phy-sical fitness of adults in the United States:

"Never in history has the United States been re-presented by a more vigorous group of athletes innational and international competition. Yet wemust not allow our pride in these few men toobscure the fact that over the past decades the levelof physical fitness of much of our citizenry has beenfar below any reasonable national standard. "To provide a spectacle

Sportsmen can benefit, from seeing performancesby the more gifted, but sports are not usually

watched for this reason. Spectators are drawn tosport not so much by the spectacle or by the ritual,but because they identify themselves with their re-presentatives.

Most educators are anxious for the entire schoolto participate in the physical education and sportsprogramme. They do not want the programme tobe limited to a gifted few, with the rest acting asspectators. In the United States, where many highschool sports programmes are financed by payingspectators from the local community, the role ofsport as spectacle has often been over-emphasized :

"Sports facilities become increasingly ostenta-tious and expensive because of the pressure to`ac-commodate more spectators to support the financialload of the sports programme ... The big loser,of course, is the student. With the tremendouspressure to win prevailing, the student athlete isthrust into the position of 'producing' or answer-ing to a fickle public for his failure. In most cases,the average student is neither mentally nor emotion-ally prepared for such a role ... in the end, thestudent either fails to make the grade or becomesa highly specialised performer. "(2)

To provide harmless outlets foraggression and socially harmful impulses

This reason for practising sport was not mentionedby any of the ICHPER correspondants, althoughclearly many games can be a substitute for agres-sive and socially harmful impulses, not only inplayers but also in spectators.

The playing of sports in the early Victorian pub-lic schools in England was seen rnore as an outletfor youthful high spirits, than for training of charac-ter; this idea came later. Games like rugby foot-ball were seen as a controlled, and controllable,riot which prevented the real thing.

To bring the elite together with the peoplein the pursuit of a common interest

Few commentators mention the value of sport as ameans . of bridging the gap between the educatedelite and the mass of the people. Because of thesmall amount of money available in most develop-ing countries, it has not been possible to educatemore than an elite whose separateness has beenreinforced in Africa and other places where thelanguage of education is not that of the people. In-teraction between school and community could beencouraged through sport. In many African andSouth American countries football is extremely

1. Eighth International Congress (Addis Ababa,Ethiopia) 27-31 July 1965. ICHPER, Wash-ington DC, 1965. p.53

2. The Architectural Research Group, Shelterfor Physical Education (1961 The A & M Col-lege, Texas) p.13.

15

popular and can be considered the basis for a com-mon culture a link between the educated and theuneducated, between different ethnic groups, acommon language and mode of communication.

The "Outward-Bound" schools of mountaineer-ing and .seacraft that exist in the United Kingdom,Kenya, Malaysia and Nigeria have the bridging ofclass and education gaps as an objective.

To provide a healthy and relaxing leisureoccupation to be continued in adult life toensure fitness

In the developed nations, owing to a general declinein physical fitness, importance is now given tolearning sports that can be played in adult life. TheAmerican Association for Health, Plysical Educa-tion and Recreation has started "The Lifetime SportsEducation Project" in the United States to promotethis goal. Priority has been given to instruction insmall-team games - tennis, golf, etc. - Jhich areeasier to organize and where facilities and clubsalready exist outside the schools. It was found that,on average, men stopped playing, football at 24 butplayed golf into old age. Therefore, to promote fit-ness in adults, golf should be taught in school. Indeveloping countries the conditions are different:the general level of fitness, in the adult population,

is much higher;it is easier to organize large-team games, because

the structure of Society is different;there are, few clubs for small-team games. Em-

phasis on this type of activity, however, shouldnot lead to any decrease in the efforts that gointo .other sports. Football, for instance, is'desirable for young people who not only have thecapacity but even a need to express themselvesthrough highly active sports.

;iTo develop agility and skillsuseful in national defence

The connexion between physical education in schoolsand military preparedness is nearly at an end, al-though physical education was introduced intoschools by the drill sergeant in many countries.Only the correspondent from Bolivia, answt,ringthe ICHPER questionnaire, mentions that one of theobjectives of physical education, in his country, is"to prepare the individual to defend his country. "(1)

To further the emancipation of women

This reason is rarely given as an objective of phyF,-ical education and sports in a developing country,although in Europe sport played an important partin female emancipation. It was difficult, or impos-sible, to play certain games in, tight corsets andlong skirts; wearing modern clothes, as practicalas men's clothing, was an important step forward,enabling women to compete on more equal termswith men in factories and offices.

16

The part that sport could play in women's emanci-pation in Libya was noted by Mr. D. W. J. Anthony:

"It is now recognized that backwardness in thelife of women can cause major social problemsone being the inability of secluded women to dealwith the intricate and demanding problems ofmodern daily life. Libyan woman is thus findingher rightful place in modern society; in women,Libya will perhaps find her best doctors; writersand artists. In this movement towards emancipa-tion, sport can play a powerful part as it has donein the women's 'freedom' movement elsewhere. "(2)

Even in Nigeria, where the problem of the se-cluded woman does not exist, the inequality ofwomen in relation to sport has been noted:

"Nigerian women because of their extreme in-volvement in home affairs, have been unable toequal the men in the enjoyment of sports for recrea-tion. Public tennis courts are used by men pre-dominantly and seldom by women; polygamy stillexists in the country and therefore, the idea of aunitary family hardly exists. However, occasional-ly one sees a few Nigerian families spending a dayout at the sea-front recreational beaches. Womenhave not found their place beside their men-folk,so family recreation is a dream for future reali-sation. "(3)

C. SCOPE

Physical education is something more than merelythose activities that take place in the titirty minutesset aside each day in most schools for the subject.Physical education is a continuous process, thet.lany aspects of which include:

The walk to school

"Then the whining school-boy, with his satcheland shining morning face, creeping like snail un-willingly to school. "

The walk to school which is the usual, althoughsometimes unwelcome, prelude to each school dayin most of the world, has largely been eliminatedin the United States bythr school bus. LewisMumford writes in "The City in History":

"We are faced with a curious paradox: the newsuburban form has now produced an anti-urbanpattern. With the destruction of walking as a nor-mal means of circulation: the motor car has made,it unsafe and the extension of the suburb has madeit impossible. "

1. ICHPER, op. cit. p.112. D. J. W. Anthony, Libya Sports Affairs,

October 1969, Unesco, Paris. p. 7.3. C. Lynn Vendian and John E. Nixon ed. The

World Today in Health, Physical Educationand Recreation, article by Asikiye Kiri,p. 285.

The desirable distance between home and schoolis the subject of regulations in many countries;

Nursery schools: 1/5 of a mile or 300 metres (theregulation distance is the same in England, theNetherlands, Switzerland and the United States).

Primary schools: 1/2 to 3/4 of a mile (800 to 1,200metres) in England, 1/2 a mile (800 metres) inthe United. States, 1/3 of a mile (500 metres) inthe Netherlands, 1/3 to 1./2 a mile (600 to 800metres) in Switzerland.

Secondary schools: 3/4 of a mile (1,200 metres)inEngland, 1/2 to 1 'mile (800 to 1,600 metres)inthe United States, 1/2 mile (800 metres) in theNetherlands, 1/2 to 5/8 of a mile (800 to 1,000metres) in Switzerland.

The walk to school in many developing countriesis far longer - as much as three miles in Africa.This may not be a disadvantage; the basic cause ofthe decline of physical fitness in the West is thedecrease in casual exercise. The task of the urbanplanners is to make the walk to school agreeableand safe.

The criteria for adults have not been clearly es-tablished but, in view of their work commitments,it is evident that a 1, 600 -metre walk to participatein a sports activity would be discouraging to all butthe most motivated. Walking distances suitablefor adults need tohe suggested.

Movement and physical activity inrelation to the teaching of other subjects

The rigid curriculum,fdivided into twenty- to thirty-minute subject periods, is giving way to flexibletime-tables onto no time-tables at all - to a curri-culum organized around centres of interest or pro-jects that cut across many subjects.

The typical primary classroom scene of thirtyyears age, was a: room with high-level windows andforty children sitting, either singly or in pairs, atneat rows of desks in front of a teacher with a black-board - immovable seats in orderly rows fix thesphere of activity of each child.

The situation today, at least in most developedcountries, is much freer - children in groupsof different sizes work together at tables or on thefloor, perhaps even at different subjects (see photo6). There is movement between the groups; thereis more space and light. The teacher is there moreas an advisor than as instructor.

Movement nd games are being used to teach alarge range 'of 'subjects. The following is takenfrom a United States Office of Education publication -"Physical Education inUrban Elementary Schools. "United States Department of Health, Education andWelfare, Washington, D. C. , 1959."Arithmetic - measuring distance and timeReading - interpreting descriptions of activities

and rules; understanding the meaning of achieve-ment tests and scores

Music - creating melody and words as a basis formovement

Geography - folk dancesHistory - dances of various periodsEnglish - dance composition based on poems and

stories. "

The following is an account of an improvised les-son on "areas" in a British primary school:

"At one school in Bristol, children noticed thatthe. wooden floor of the assembly hall consisted ofsquares about a foot on a side, and on a teacher'ssuggestion, with the help of some 50-foot lengthsof rope, they worked out a game. Following thesquares on the floor, pairs of children made poly-gons with their rope; some were simply large rec-tangles, most were intricate, with many sides.Then each child would find the area of the polygonby counting (hopping from square to square) thenumber of squares inside the perimeter. "(1)

If the primary schools in the developing coun-tries have not moved in this direction, it is becausethese methods need smaller class sizes and morespace, both of which cost money. But the need isfelt; Mr. S. G. Ayi-Bonte, speaking of physical edu-cation in Ghana at the Eighth ICHPER InternationalCongress at Addis Ababa in 1965, said:

"Our most urgent task as educators and as phys-ical educators is to effect the liberation of thechild. This is being done by making the school en-vironment as stimulating as possible so that thechild can live Lnd learn in it. and explore and experi-ment and so arrive at new ways of doing things. "

Recreation .periods

Thanks to such educational theorists as Jean Piaget,the importance of children's play in the learningprocess is now generally recognized. This is playin the 'sehse of "messing about" rather. than thestructured play that would take place during thephysical educ ation period In the more enlightenedprimary schools, the distinction between physicaleducation and play has become blurred - "thedistinction between work and play is false, pos-sibly throughout life and certainly in the primaryschool'. "(2)

It is not simply play that children need in recrea-tion periods , butTreedom. Play is what they do withtheir freedom. If a playground is over-desijned -too structured - obviously built for play and toostiff with adult expectations, it will have failed.

A playground for children of primary school agecan be very simple. It should have provision forclimbing, sand, grass and hard surfaces, perhapssome water a_nd_shade,

1. Joseph Featherstone, "How Children Learn",The New Republic, 2 September, 1967. p. 10.

2. Central Advisory Council for Educationop. cit. p. 193

17

Children of primary school age can be inducedto play organized team ,ames, but it is not theirnatural inclination. Playgrounds will usually be de-signed for free play and the recommended size forprimary schools in developed countries is usuallyabout 35 sq. ft. (3. 25 m2) per pupil. Secondaryschool playgrounds need be no larger when hardsurface playing fields are provided.

Classes conducted in the open-air

Many more classes could be conducted in outsideareas, away from constricting dusty classrooms,especially in tropical countries. A class in Indiabeing taught under a tree, in dappled sunlight, seemsso attractive that one wonders why it not seenmore often. The construction of a patio area ad-jacent to every classroom could be extremely use-ful in primary and secondary schools.

The size of primary school classrooms was basedon the area needed to house forty children at desksscrewed to the classroom floor. The areas provid-ed in new classrooms in many countries are notmuch larger. More space is needed to enable teach-ers to introduce more active methods of teaching,and to allow children to work in small groups.

In secondary school, more space is needed tohouse groups working in ways other than the tradi-tional forty-to-a-class pattern - for individual work,for small and large groups or for seminars. Intropical countries, these spaces are not usuallyprovided because of lack of money. In many areasthey can be adequately provided outdoors, but theymust be rigorously designed to have all the advan-tages of rooms and more.

What is needed in primary school is an uncoveredextension to the classroom. Paved, shaded andequipped, isolated visually and acoustically, itwould be ideal for reading circles, painting, craftsand physical education. It must be an extension ofthe classroom, not part of the playground, and musthave some form of enclosure in the form of hedgesor fences. It must be possible to have an easy flowbetween the patio and the classroom. The patioshould be equipped with benches because of the in-convenience of moving furniture out from the class-room; these benches can be of a very rudimentarynature. A patio should cost about one-third as muchas equivalent space indoors.

Activity and movement can be effectively inte-grated into the curriculum by using the environmentand

"Through the boundless curiosity which childrenhave for the world about them ... Whereas oncethe teacher brought autumn leaves into the class-room and talked about the seasons and their charac-teristics, now he will take the children out to seefor themselves. Rural schools can be overwhelmedby the varietyzof material on their doorsteps. Cropsand pastures, wild flowers and weeds, farm animals,wild creatures of every kind, roads and footpaths,verges, hedges, ditches, streams, woods, the

18

weather, the seasons, the stars, allprovide start-ing points for curiosity, discussion, observation,recording and enquiry Teachers in town schoolscan make use of railways and other transport sys-tems, and the local shops and factories, all of whichcan provide suitable material. Building sites arealmost ubiquitous and can provide an approach togeography, mathematics and science. "(1)

Resource areas can also be laid out on schoolland. The following list is taken from "PlanningAreas and Facilities for Health Physical Educationand Recreation" :

Outdoor biology laboratory: To study pond life,plants and trees, grafting and genetics.

School garden: A place for growing vegetablesand for the propagation of plants, some of whichmay be used for area improvement.

Wildlife sanctuary: For the study of birds: itwill contain birdhouses, feeders and bird bathsto attract a variety of birds.

Weather station: For the study of meteorology :it should be located in an area that can be fencedoff and locked.

Week-end or holiday activities, such as camping,scouting and "Outward Bound" schools

These activities are an increasingly important partof physical education. Week-ends and holidays areuseful because they mean that resources far fromti.e school can be used; these might include the sea,the mountains or a nature reserve.

Schools can be used as bases for expeditions.For example, classrooms in schools at the seasidecan be used as dormitories to accommodate chil-dren from inland wh, might otherwise never knowthe sea.

D. CURRICULUM

The content of physical educationand sports 77, rogrammes

The antecedents of sports and physical educationin Europe are similar. People, not of Europeandescent, in the developing countries are sometimesmade uneasy by this. There have been attempts,mainly in Africa, todecolonize sport. The follow-ing suggestions were made at a meeting of expertsdiscussing the "Adaptation of the General SecondarySchool Curriculum in Africa" at Tananarive, Mada-gascar, in July 1962;

"Gymnastics as practised in European educa-tional systems was by no means an absolute andintangible ideal physical education could verywell incorporate movements borrowed from localand traditional choreography. The meeting also

1. ibid. p. 199

recommended the encouragement of certain tradi-tional games of skill which would help to preservethe individual personality of Africa, e. g. spear-throwing, shooting with bow and arrow, etc. "

It is in the field of dance that the traditionalistshave had the most success. Traditional dances arebeing taught as part of the physical education pro-gramme in teachers' training colleges in almost allthe developing countries. Developing countries havemuch to offer the rest of the world in this sphere.

Counteracting and frustrating the move to returnto traditional games is the strong urge to . ompeteand win championships in international games.European games are now a very .firm part of thelocal culture in most developing countries. Themost usual activities taught as part of the physicaleducation and sports programmes in developingcountries are gymnastics, athletics, dance, soccer ,volleyball and basketball.

There is a feeling among some educators in Afri-ca that physical education is an unnecessary Europe-an import; that sports and games are a wasc. ofenergy when physical energy is urgently needed for"Nation Building". They are concerned thai the highinvestment in rural primary schools has not broughtabout any real change in rural communities, espe-cially in relation to agriculture. They advocatelinking the curriculum to rural life - giving'an im-portant place to agricultural theory and combiningthis with practical periods of agricultural work.Mr. Albert Tevoedjre of Dahomey writes:

"The school must be able to impress on childrenin a practical way the elements of plant, animal andhuman life which will enable them to understandtechnical changes in agriculture Thereforeschools should possess fields. "(1)

However, this type of school is rare in Africa.What should the physical education curriculum con-sist of in such a school? Its content should certain-ly be more cultural and aesthetic than utilitarian.The emphasis would be more on self-expressionthrough movement than on strengthening the body.

Suggestions should be sought on ways of adaptingvarious games to conditions in developing countries,Mini-basket offers an example while a combinationof ice hockey and field hockey might offer possi-bilities.

The question of providing a balanced health pro-gramme for the children should be considered whendevising curricula, taking into account nutrition(school meals), rest periods and physical activity.Time spent on physicaleducation and sports

There is very-little dif2erence between nations asregards the time allotted to formal periods of phys-ical education, The national average in the UnitedStates is now two hours per week. Canada, Franceand Ghana all have similar requirements. Aroundtwo hours a week is the international average.

The time required for physical education insecondary schools is similar. But here there are

important differences. At the secondary schoollevel physical education is usually taught by a spe-cialist teacher; in developing countries they arevery few. If schools do not have specialists, phys-ical education tends to be neglected.

"It is the Cinderella of all subjects; physicaleducation can be put in anywhere or left out any-time. "(2)

For the Cinderella of all subjects, physical edu-cation is allotted a great deal of time. , The follow-ing quotation describes conditions in the UnitedStates, but as we have seen, the developing nationsdo not lag far behind and are anxious to catch up.

"At the elementary school level, the nationalaverage is almost tw,.. hours per week for each stu-dent. This ti.-ue is in addition to free play periods.This is almost the same amount of time the childrenspend with arit,metic, spelling and reading, andexceeds the tots: time spent on such subjects asgeography, history and science.

The programme at the junior high school levelis more extensive and ranges from two to five hoursper week. At the high school level, many schooldistricts officially schedule five hours per week foreach student. This time generally includes tileregular physical education programme, specialclass _s in health education, and some intramuralsports. Thig amounts to about one-sixth of thestudent's total time where physical education isoffered on a. Totir -year basis. By way of comparison,the sciences, presently one of our "hot subjects",consume about one-eighth of the student's time. (3/

E. EXISTING CONDITIONS

Lack of money

In physical education and sport in school, the maindifferences between the developed and developingcountries can be traced to lack of money. The percapita income of the average developed country isstill about ten times higher than that of a developingcountry, Although most developing countries de-vote a higher proportion of their national incomesto education, there is still a large difference interms of investment.

The provision of facilities for physical educationand sport is low on the list of priorities and issometimes not considered at all:

"So great and rapid is the expansion of the edu-cational system that there is simply no money forsuch things as gymnasiums and swimming pools

1. La Formation des Cadres Africains EditionsDilotremer.

2. Report on the Eighth International CongressICHPER, Washington, D. C. , 1965, P. 62.

3. The Architectural ResearchGroup, op. cit. p. 6

19

It may even be a blessing for we must devise ourown system of physical education for these chang-ing times. "(1)

It has been estimated +hat 15 per cent of everydollar spent on schools in the U. S. A. is spent onfacilities for physical education and sport. Spend-ing in the developing countries is way behind thisfigure; it would be surprising if many of them spentmore than 1 per Cent.

Officials at the United States Agency for Inter-national Development (USAID) were unable to recalla single case where they had financed a school gym-nasium or swimming pool. They stated that it wasnot their policy to finance gymnasiums unless theydoubled as cafeterias or auditoriums. Officials atthe International Bank for Reconstruction and Devel-opment (IBRD) repeated the same story.

In the future, some governments might financefacilities for sports in school as a means of en-couraging the production of athletes capable of win-ning international awards and Olympic gold medals.

Other sources might also be tapped: the Ndolalottery recently financed the building of a schoolswimming pool in Zambia. It would likewise be pos-sible to obtain funds from football pools, commercialsponsorship and the tying-in of sport with tourism.In general, however, it seems unlikely that moremoney will become available from either inter-national or local sources.

As mentioned above, there is no causal relationbetween fitness and money spent or physical educa-tion programmes. The way to increase fitness inmost developing countries is through increasedhealth facilities, better diet and hygiene. Mr. AkililuHabte, Vice-President of Haile Selassie University,Ethiopia, speaking at the Eighth ICHPER Congressin Addis Ababa, said:

."No amount of physical exercise or sports orathletics is going to help the African child to bephysically fit if he is undernourished or mal-nourished. "

The inescapable fact is that money spent on elab-orate facilities for physical education and sport indeveloping countries at the present time is not avery profitable use of national resources.

Size and composition of.classes

There is not the same clamour in developed coun-tries to reduce class size in connexion with physicaleducation as there is in connexion with other sub-jects. The physical education committee, workingon "The Study of Educational Facilities" in Toronto,Canada, thought that thirty to thirty-five childrenfor one teacher was satisfactory. Clasa sizes indeveloping countries are generally larger. In Indianprimary schools they vary from about thirty-five toforty-five children.

There are often large age differences withinclasses in developing countries; this makes theorganization of physical education periods difficult.Bernard Girod de I 'Ain, writing in "Le Monde",noted:

20

"In many countries, notably in sub-Sahara Afri-'ca the maximum age criteria for a given class isnot respected. Children of nine years old and chil-dren of sixteen years old are frequently seen in thesame primary school classroom. "(2)

Community use of facilities

In a developed country, community use of facilitiesrefers touse by adiii-s no longer of school age. Inmost developing countries, where not all childrengo to primary school and even fewer go to second-ary school, the community is far larger; it includeschildren and adolescents who have not found a placein school. Usually physical education and sportsfacilities are concentrated in the schools and arenot available to other children.

Mr. Alfredo. Colombo of the Brazilian Ministryof Education, speaking at the Sixth ICHPER Con-gress in Rio de Janiero in 1963, drew attention tothe situation in Brazil:

"The truth is that only a small number of thechildren and particularly of the adolescents areattending school, and compulsory physical educa-tion is administered only in educational institutions,and even there without sufficient intensity. Con-sequently, t ie underprivileged classes, who needit badly, have no access to physical education andit benefits only the small group of students ...What is necessary, what is urgent, is for us to ex-tend our programmes, as far as possible, to thepeople, so that the salutary Effects of education,including physical education, should not continueto be the privilege of a minority.

In general there seems to be little use of schoolfacilities by the adult community in developingcountries; either out of school hours or duringvacations. This is a situation which should bechanged. By planning fields and shower facilities,so that they are accessible to both the school andthe community, designers can at least ensure thatschool ^oinmunity collaboratiorr-beChmes a possi -.bility. it is also essential to consider providingphysical education spaces which can serve suchnon-sports community activities, as meetings,dances, etc.

Lack Lf teachers and facilities

"A stadium without a teacher is dead" (Carl.Diem). Sports programmes rely heavily on leader-ship from physical education teachers, .yet in mostdeveloping countries, trained cadres do not exist.The lack of facilities and lack of teachers must beconsidered together, because the question arises:is it worth building the facilities if there are not

1. Eighth International Congress,op. cit. p. 62.2. Bernard Girod de l'Ain - L'Ecole dm., le Tiers

Monde, Le Monde, 29 November, 1966.

2. Limited-shelter gymnasium in Princeton,

N.J., U.S.A.

Architects: Kelly and Gruzen

4.

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44

3 and 4 " Assatilt course " gymnasium in D.ufsburg, West Germany

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5. Mime at the Ecole Freinet, Vence

6. Classroom scence in an English state primary school

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7. Patio estension to a primary schoc :,1 Puerto Rico

architect : Richard Neutra

8. A lesson on vectors in the playground of a schoolin Leicestershire, England

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Patio extension to a primary school inPuerto Rico

architect: Richard Neutra

9. An auditorium combined with a swimming poolat Orleansville, Algeria

architects: Louis Miguel and Roland SimounetMEK

771

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10. exterior

HH. interior

A swimming pool on the bld. Carnot, Paris, roofed with a tent

enough teachers or alternatively, is it worth in-creasing the number of teachers if there are nofacilities

The ICHPER surveys of 1963 and 1967 -68 asked"What are the three or four major problems to beovercome in physical education if tilt-, programmesare to be improved?" Those most fr.quently men-tioned were the lack of facilities - gymnasiums,sports fields, playground', .wimming pools - andthe lack of qualified terkch,,r1.

Mr. A. E. Arro of the Za.nbian Ministry of Edu-cation, in a paper read at the .Eighth ICHPER Con-gress in Addis Ababa in 1965, maintained thatEuropean trained physical education. instructorsusing European methods were not necessarily thebest for his country.

"Will the standard of physical education be raisedby sending teachers overseas for training? Obvious-ly special training is necessary, but overseas phys-ical education is designed chiefly for teaching underEnglish conditions in English schools or for teach-ing under American conditions in r ;erican schools.The time devoted to improvisation and pioneeringwon}, in the average college in England is negligible.Only students who have a flair for improvisation anda liking for pioneer work would be able to settledown under African conditions. Students who spendtwo or more years at one of the recognized collegesdevote the major part of their training to apparatuswork and to indoor work. Apparatus work consistsof such things as wall bars, beams, vaulting boxesand horses, trampolines, ropes, bucks, aerowheelsagility mattresses, spring boards., etc.

." Most if not all of these things would never be usedor even seen during a lifetime of teaching underEast African conditions. The time and money spenton acquiring knowledge of gymnasiums and gymnas-tic apparatus would be saved or put to some morepractical use in special physical. education trainingfor tropical and 'semi - tropical conditions. Not allgraduates of the overseas training colleges, whenconfronted with a bare piece of rough ground insteadof a fully equipped gymnasium, ca,n adapt themselvesto these conditionS. "

Mr. Arro went onto say that there was a need totrain teachers and to develop a system of physicaleducation better adapted to African conditions.

There is a real need for instruction swimmingpools. The number of deaths by drowning, amongchildren, in many developing countries is frighten-ingly high. Swimming instruction in rivers andstreams is dangerous, because of pollution andwater-borne diseases.

Another questiOn in the ICHPER survey was "Areboys and girls required to change into physical edu-cation costumes for physical education classes?"

The overwhelming answer was "yes". Changing.rooms and showers are a need about which thereshould be no disagreement. It has also been sug-gested that, because of trained teachers of physicaleducation, the developing countries might attemptto set up "flying squads" of specialist teachers who

could undertake the in -service education of class-room teachers in the subject. This method wasused effectively some 30 years ago in Victoria,Australia.

The multi-purpose room

Spaces larger than classroom size are needed inschools for activities such as eating*, assembly, andphysical education.

Multi-purpose rooms have been widely adoptedas a solution in both primary and secondary schools.The activities tha', take place in the multi-purposeroom could include: meals, school assemblies,religious services, film shows, concerts, bandpractice, dance and gymnastics. Aid sources andlocal authorities will usually refuse to finance thebuildingof any large space that is not multi-purpose.Obviously the multi-purpose room is designed toavoid building several large rooms that would re-main vacant for a large part of the school day.

Recently, the multi-purpose room has been thesubject of a good deal of criticism in the developedcountries; it has even been called the "multi-uselessroom". These are axamples of criticism fromvarious sources. (1)

From the United Kingdom :

"The multi-purpose hall of today's primaryschool suffors all the disadvantages of its manyuses. To the casual visitor it may appear morelike a warehouse than an important part of aschool,. (2)

"For dance, the size, proportions and charac-ter of the conventional gymnasium are not reallyappropriate. It is too large, too high and too clin-ical in character. "(3)

From Canada:

"The physical education programme should beable to flow smoothly, without interruptions causedby activities such as assemblies, rehearsals anddecoration that are part and parcel of normal audito-rium use. In other words the gymnasium shouldnot contain a stage (as in the "gymnatorium" con-cept) or any other equipment- that would lend anauditorium flavour to the enclosed physical educa-tion complex. "(4)

1. SchoolPlanningLaboratory, Profile of a Signif-icant School, E. F. L. 1964, p. 12.

2. Peter Manning, The Primary School, an Environ-ment for Education , The Pilkington ResearchUnit, p. 76.

3. Department of Education and Science, SecondarySchool Design, Physical Education, H. M. S. 0, ,P. 3.

4. The Metropolitan Toronto School Board, Studyof Educational Facilities Report E. 2, 1968,Ryerson Press. p. 199.

21

"Physical education and music education haveunique environmental requirements which neces-sarily conflict. "(1)

From the United States, Dr. Cyril Sargent ofthe University of the City of New York, says ofthe auditorium-gymnasium-cafeterias in New YorkCity's primary schools:

"These large spaces are unnecessary, mealsshould be served in classrooms, primary schoolsdo not need auditoriums, physical education activi-ties should take place in the yard, the classroomsshould be enlarged. "

The multi-purpose room is far too large an areafor dining, especially in primary schools; smallerrooms, more domestic in scale are desirable. Itsuse as an auditorium is limited because its diningand gymnasium functions make a sloping floor im-possible. It is impossible to seat more than about200 people in an auditorium with a flat floor andensure that the ones at the rear can watch a playor film with any degree of comfort. If a secondaryschool is to be provided with all the specializedrooms and equipment (laboratories, library, work-shops, etc. ) that are now needed, and be econom-ically viable, it must have an enrolment of about500 students.

If the school plans to involve the local communityin events taking place in the auditorium, it wouldbe desirable to be able to seat about 700 people.An auditorium of this size, with a raked floor, thatcan be used as a cafeteria, for physical educationand for classroom instruction, has been built inseveral schools in the United States. But the largespans and operable partitions that are required areextremely expensive.

We should be extremely wary of exporting multi-purpose rooms to developing countries. A carefulanalysis of the activities that take place in a multi-purpose room in a developing country would showthat many of them could equally well take placeeither in the open or under a limited shelter.

There are several possibilities as regards thedesign of an outdoor auditorium. It can be terracedin stone like a Greek theatre (see Photo 9) or it canconsist of a gently sloping stretch of turf; in eithercase it needs careful lanuscaping and drainage.

22

There should be a stage, with stage lighting anda public address system.

F. THE CONSTRUCTIONOF FACILITIES

Facilities development committee

Before 'starting work on a project, a facilitiesdevelopment committee should be set up to workout details and means of implementa cion. In hisbook "The Design cc Outdoor Physical. EducationFacilities for CollegL and School", J. B. Delametersuggested that a facilities development committeeshould consist of an administrative head (of theschool), a programme specialist, an educationalconsultant, a representative from the local educa-tion authority, an architect, a landscape architect,an illuminating engineer, a maintenance specialist,and a student user.

Some of these specialists may be difficult tofind in developing countries but the point is thatthe planning of facilities is a group activity thatshould not be entrusted to a single person.

'School site size and selection

The choice of a site is one of the first problemswhich planners and school authorities must consider.Problems of location in relation to the potentialusers must be examined along with qualitativequestions of drainage, suitability for planting,bearing capacity, special installations, etc. Schoolsite size is determined by the type of school, theenrolment and the areas of playgrounds and sportsgrounds thought desirable. Standards vary fromcountry to country. The following tables summarizeregulations in the United KingdOm, Puerto Rico,the Federal Republic of Germ-any and the UnitedStates.

1. The Metropolitan Toronto School Board, Studyof Educational Facilities Report E. 1, 1968,Ryerson Press. p. 121.

UN

ITE

D K

ING

DO

M

Juni

or s

choo

ls (

prim

ary

scho

ols)

Are

as o

f si

tes,

pav

ed a

reas

and

pla

ying

fie

lds.

Pupi

ls80

120

160

200

240

280

320

400

440

480

Pave

d ar

eain

squ

are

feet

6,60

06,

600

12,1

0012

,100

12,1

0012

,100

18,7

0024

,200

24,2

0024

,200

Site

are

ain

acr

es (

1)0.

75

0. 8

751.

01.

125

1. 2

51.

375

1. 5

1. 6

251.

875

2.0

Gra

ss p

layi

ngfi

elds

are

a in

acr

es1.

01.

01.

51.

52.

25

". 2

53.

03.

03,

03.

0

Min

. tot

al a

rea

in a

cres

1. 7

51.

875

2.5

2,62

53.

5?.

625

4. 5

4. 6

254,

875

5.0

Pupi

ls80

120

160

.20

024

028

032

040

044

048

0

Pave

d ar

eain

squ

are

met

res

613

613

1,12

41,

124

1,12

41,

124

1,73

72,

248

2,24

82,

248

Site

are

ain

hec

tare

s(1)

0. 3

040.

354

0. 4

050.

455

0. 5

060.

556

0. 6

070.

658

0.75

90.

809

Gra

ss p

layi

ngfi

elds

are

a in

hec

tare

s0.

405

0. 4

050.

607

0. 6

070.

911

0. 9

111.

214

1. 2

141.

214

1. 2

14

Min

. tot

al a

rea

in h

ecta

res

0. 7

090.

759

1. 0

121.

062

1. 4

171.

467

1. 8

211.

872

1. 9

732.

023

1. T

his

area

incl

udes

the

pave

d ar

ea, t

he a

rea

take

nup

by

the

build

ings

, car

par

k, e

tc. ,

that

is a

ll ar

eas

exce

pt th

e gr

ass

play

ing

fiel

ds.

Tak

en f

rom

Pla

yin&

Fiel

ds a

nd H

ard

Surf

ace

Are

as B

uild

ing

Bul

letin

No.

28, D

epar

tmen

t of

Edu

catio

n an

d Sc

ienc

e, H

MSO

, Lon

don,

196

6.

UN

ITE

D K

ING

DO

M

Seco

ndar

y sc

hool

s (m

ixed

- b

oys

and

girl

s)A

reas

of

site

s, p

aved

are

as a

nd p

layi

ng f

ield

s

Pupi

ls u

nder

16 y

ears

150

300

450

600

750

900

1,05

01,

200

1,35

01,

500

Pave

d ar

eas

in s

quar

e fe

et19

, 900

19, 9

0034

, 200

34, 2

0039

, 200

44, 2

0049

, 200

54, 2

0059

, 200

64, 2

00

Site

are

ain

acr

es(1

)1.

52.

03.

03.

75

4.5

5,25

6. 0

6. 7

57.

58.

25

Gra

ss p

layi

ng f

ield

sar

ea in

acr

es(2

)4.

57.

010

.010

, 013

. 013

.016

, 016

.019

.019

. 0

Min

. tot

al a

rea

in a

cres

6. 0

9. 0

13.0

13. 7

517

. 518

, 25

22, 0

22. 7

526

. 527

. 25

Pupi

ls u

nder

,16

yea

rs")

150

300

450

600

750

900

1,05

01,

200

1,35

01,

500

Pave

d ar

ea in

squ

are

met

res

1, 8

491,

849

3, 1

773,

177

3, 1

774,

106

4, 5

715,

0 35

5, 5

005,

964

Site

are

a in

hec

tare

s(1)

0. 6

070.

809

1. 2

141.

517

1. 8

212.

124

2, 4

282.

732

3. 0

353.

339

Gra

ss p

layi

ng f

ield

sar

ea in

hec

tare

s (2

)1.

821

2. 8

334.

047

4. 0

475.

261

5. 2

616.

475

6. 4

757.

689

7. 6

89

Min

. tot

al a

rea

in h

ecta

res

2. 4

283.

642

5. 2

615.

564

7. 0

827.

385

8. 9

039.

207

10. 7

2411

. 028

1. T

his

area

incl

udes

the

pave

d ar

ea, t

he a

rea

take

n up

by

the

build

ings

, car

par

k, e

tc.

,th

at is

all

area

s ex

cept

the

gras

s pl

ayin

g fi

elds

.2.

At l

east

one

-hal

f of

the

play

ing

fiel

d ar

ea s

houl

d be

gra

ss.

With

cer

tain

pro

viso

s, th

e re

mai

nder

may

be

prov

ided

with

a h

ard

poro

ussu

rfac

e, s

uch

surf

ace

coun

ting

for

thre

e tim

es it

s ac

tual

are

a.

Tak

en f

rom

Pla

ying

Fie

lds

and

Har

d Su

rfac

e A

reas

Bui

ldin

g B

ulle

tin N

o. 2

8, D

epar

tmen

t of

Edu

catio

n an

d Sc

ienc

e, H

MSO

,L

ondo

n, 1

966.

PUERTO RICO

Primary schools,Areas of sites and playing fields.

Total no. ofclassrooms 8

on one floor10 12 12

on two floors16 20 24

Min. site area in square metres(1) 2,400 3,000 3,600 3,000 4,000 5, OOC 6,000

Min. site areaadjoining a park, in square metres(1) fy 2,400 2,700 3,000 2,000 2,400 2,700 3,000

Sports grounds area insquare metres (1) 3, 500 '3, 500 3, 500 3,500 3,500 4,000 4, 8r)0

Min. total area in square metres(1) 5,900 6, 200 6, 500 5,500 5,900 6,700 7,800

Total no. ofclassrooms 8

on one floor10 12 12

on two floors16 20 24

Min. site area in acres(1) 0. 593 0. 741 0. 889 0. 741 0. 988 1. 234 1..481

Min. site area adjoininga park in acres 0. 593 0. 667 0. 741 0. 494 0. 593 0. 667 0. 741

Sports grounds areain acres 0. 864 0. 864 0. 864 0, 864 0. 864 0. 988 1. 185

Min. total area in acres(2) 1. 457 1. 531 1. 605 1. 358 1. 457 1. 655 1. 926

1. This area includes the playgrounds, the gardens and the area taken up by the school buildings, that is allareas except the sports grounds.

2. The sum of the site area and the area of the sports grounds.

Taken from Normas de Procedimiento en la Planificacion y Construccion de Escuelas Puerto Rico, 1961,p. 3 and 4.

Secondary schools,Areas of sites and playing fields.

Total no. ofclassrooms 8

on one floor10 12 12

on two floors16 20 24

Min. site area in square metres(1) 2,400 3,000 3,600 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000

Min. site areas adjoininga park, in square metres(1) 2,400 2,700 3,000 2,000 2,400 2,700 3, 000

Sports groundsarea in square metres(1) 16,000 16,000 16,000 16,000 16,000 16,000 16,000

Min. total areain square metres 18,400 18,700 19,000 18,000 18,400 18,700 19,000

25

Secondary schools (cont. )

Total no. ofclassrooms 8

on one floor10 12 12

on two floors16 20 24

Min, site areain acres(1) O. 593 O. 741 O. 889 O. 741 0. 988 1. 234 1. 481

Min, site area adjoininga park in acres O. 593 O. 667 O. 741 O. 494 O. 593 O. 667 O. 741

Sports grounds areain acres 3. 950 3. 950 3. 950 3. 950 3. 950 3. 950 3. 950

Min. total areain acres(2) 4. 543 4. 617 4. 691 4. 444 4. 543 4. 617 4. 691

1. This area includes the playgrounds, the gaidens and the area taken up by the school buildings, that is allareas except the sports grounds.

2. The sum of the site area and the area of the sports grounds.

Taken from Normas de Procedimiento en la Planificacion y ConstrucciOn de Escuelas, Puerto Rico, 1961,p. 3 and 4.

FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY

In the Federal Republic of Germany, sports grounds are seen not especially as a part of the school but ascommunity facilities. The standards below refer to the area of sports ground in relation to the total popula-tion, including children of school age.

Population 1,000 3,000 5, over 5,000

Area of sports ground in square metres 8, 500 12,000 16,000 3. 5square metresper person

The site areas for all schools are as follows (including playgrounds for recreation but not sports grounds):

No. of classes 12 24 36

Site area in square metres 4, 500 7, 500 9, 500 12, 000

Site area when playgroundhas all-weather surface,in square metres 4,500 6,000 8,000 10,000

Taken from SB , the official journal of the International Working Group for the Construction of SpOrtsPremises, (IAKS) July 1969.

26

THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

Site areas for primary schools

State Basic minimum area in square metres Additional area for additional pupils

ArizonaCaliforniaColoradoGeorgiaKansasNew JerseyNew YorkTexas

20,235 (5 acres)

Delaware 8,094 (2 acres)

4, 047 square metres (1 acre) foreach additional 100 pupils overthe initial 100

Florida 8,094 (2 acres)4,047 square metres (1 acre) foreach additional 50 pupils overthe initial 50

These standards are rarely respected in inner core urban areas. New York City allows 2.'19 square metresof playground per pupil in addition to the area taken up by the school building, the regulation car parks andsetbacks. Even this much lower standard is not always respected.

Site areas for secondary schools

State Basic minimum area in square metres Additional area for additional pupils

ArizonaGeorgiaKansas

40,470 (10 acres)

4, 047 square metres (1 acre) foreach additional 100 pupils overthe initial 100

California 121,410 (30 acres)

ColoradoTexas 60,705 (15 acres)

Delaware 20,235 (5 acres)

Florida 8,094 (2 acres)4,047 square metres (1 acre) foreach additional 50 pupils overthe initial 50

New York 40,470 (10 acres)

8, 094 square metres (2 acres) foreach additional 100 pupils overthe initial 100. up to 500, then4,047 square metres (1 acre) foreach additional 100

Taken from: "School Sites, Selection, Development and Utilization'', United States Department of Health,Education and Welfare, Washington, D. C. 1962.

27

Climate

Most developing countries are in tropical or semi-tropical zones. Climates can be roughly divided into"warm-humid" and "hot-dry". The characteristics of these climates as far as they affect the constructionof sports facilities are:

WARM HUMID

day-time air temperatures:night-time air temperatures:relative humidity :

rainfall:

sky conditions :

ground conditions :

soil conditions :

HOT DRY

day-time air'lemperatures :

night-time air temperature:relative humidity :

rainfall:

ground conditions :

soil conditions :

Strenuous physical effort is difficult under trop-ical conditions. The body is using energy for cool-ing and under warm-humid conditions there isobviously a limit to this cooling effect.

Nevertheless, people's reactions to climate arelargely subjective and the human body is amazinglyadaptive. Mr. A. E. Arro of Zambia has noted that:

"Ten years ago topees (sun helmets) were afairly common sight among the Europeans in thetowns of Zambia. Almost every Rhodesian railwayguard wore one. Nowadays hardly one is to be seen.In 1949, broad soft hats were the standard wear forRhodesian school children. Today, the English capand boater are much in evidence.

"There seems to be no doubt that the body doesadapt itself quite adequately to warm temperaturesif exposure is gradual and gentle. If the Europeanis capable of strenuous physical effort under semi-tropical conditions, the African born in the countryshould not find working out of doors enervating orharmful. "(1)

This is not to say, if money were available ,that schools in tropical areas should not have air-

28

30°C( 85 °F) Vo 32°C(90°F)

25 °C(75 °F) to 27°C(80°F)

high, 55 to 100%

usually high, may exceed 508mm (20") in the wet-test month; in a heavy storm 50 to 75mm (2" to3'') may fall in an hour

cloudy, the sky can be very bright when thinlyovercastluxuriant vegetation, abundant shadeoften damp, high water-table.

high, up to 38°C(100°F), often above skin tempera-ture of human body

16°C(60°F) to 25°C(75°F)

low, 10 to 55%

low, little or no rain in the dry season; flashstorms, in which up to 50mm (2") may fall, occuroccasionally

little vegetation, sparse shadeground very dry, dries rapidly after rain; water-table deep or non-existent.

conditioned gymnasiums. There is as great aneed for cooled gymnasiums in the tropics as thereis for heated classrooms in a temperate climate.Physical effort is as much hampered by excessiveheat as is mental effort by excessive cold. Unfor-tunately, because of lack of money and the lowpriority given to physical education in developingcountries, the air-conditioned gymnasium is adream.

However, temperatures fall towards evening,except in certain inland equatorial areas whichhave a very small daily temperature range. Tem-perature range is greatest in the hot-dry tropicalzone. If sports grounds and areas for g, mnasticswere floodlit and physical education periods sched-uled for the evening, sports and physical educationcould be practised under even more agreeable con-ditions than in an air-conditioned sports hall.

1. Eighth International Congress, op. cit. p. 64.

Calculation of spaces need,..d forphysical education

The number of gymnasiurrr-teaching stations re-quired is calculated in the same way as space for

any other subject. If each student has two periodsof physical education per week, if the school weekhas twenty-five periods, and the school has fortyclasses, then:

Min. number ofteaching stations

no. of classesin the school

3. 2

40

xperiods of P. E. per weektotal periods per week

x 2

25

Since a fraction of a teaching station is impractical, four teaching stations would be required. The fourteaching stations could consist of a gymnasium with two teaching stations, a swimming pool, and a room fordance.

The following are standards from France and the Federal Republic of Germanyfor the provision of gymna-siums, and for the areas of gymnasiums.

FRANCE

No. of classes size ofNo. of teaching stationsPrimary school Secondary school gymnasium (metres)

10 to 20

20 to 30

30 to 45

less than 12 1 11, 5 x 20

12 to 20 2 20. x 30

20 to 45 3 either .1 - 11.5 x 20and 1 - 20 x 30or 1 - 30 x 40

above 45 1 extra stationper 15 classes

FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY

All schools

No. of classes No. of teaching stations size of gymnasium (metres)

less than 3 1 9 x 12

4 to 7 1 10x 18

8 to 1 2 1 12 x 24 or 15 x 27 or 18 x 33

13 to 24 2 2 - 1 2 x 24, or 1 - 12 x 24 and1 - 15 x 27, or 1 - 18 x 33, ori - 21 x 42

25 to 36 3 1 - 18 x 33 and 1 - 12 x 24, or1 - 21 x 42 and 1 - 10 x 18, or1 - 27 x 45

29

Sports grounds

Grounds and pitches for small-team games: Thissection should contain dimensional data in 'respectof badminton, basketball, boxing, fencing, handball,judo, netball, squash, table tennis, lawn tennis ,volleyball, and wrestling.

These games are played internationally accord-ing to a 72-nation survey: "Physical Education inthe School Curriculum'', ICHPER InternationalQuestionnaire Report. Basketball and volleyballare the two most popular games.

Pitches are oriented to avoid,players having thesun in their eyes; this means that for games withnets, such as tennis and badminton, the net isorientated east/west. This criterion has less im-portance towards the equator, where the sun is lowin the sky for only short periods of the day.

Grounds and fields for athletics and large-teamgames : This section should contain dimensionaldata on running tracks, the standard 400 -metre trackand smaller ones for schools with limited sites.It should contain dimensional data for baseball,cricket, hockey, lacrosse, rounders, rugby foot-ball, soccer, softball, and speedball.

This list is taken from: "Physical ducation inthe School Curriculum", ICHPER iternationalQuestionnaire Report.

Soccer is by far the most popular game.

Hard porous and all-weather surfaces : The periodof use for grassed playing fields is limited to fiveor six hours per week. They cannot be played onfor several hours after a rainstorm. This has ledto the introduction of non-turf surfaces. These areof three basic types:

Waterbound : A pervious surface composed of suit-table crushed stone, brick or similar materialdependent on hygroscopic action for stability.Must be maintained regularly.

Semi-porous : A surface of hard granular composi-tion which does not rely on moisture for stabilitybut which may require ,regular or occasionalmaintenance.

All-weather surfaces : Any durable maintenancefree surface not seriously affected by weatheror temperature. It may be monolithic withrough, smooth, fibrous or pile finish, or ofgranular or fibrous composition stabilized withtar, bitumen, asphalt, cement or plastic. Suchsurfaces can be porous or impervious; resilientor non-resilient. The method of laying variesand maybe in slab, sheet or tile form or pouredon the site.

Two books deal exhaustively with these surfaces;they are: "Etablissement et Entretien des Sols enPlein Air", published by the Ministere de. la Jeu-nesse et des Sports, Paris, and "Notes on HardPorous and All-Weather Surfaces for Outdoor Re-creation", published by the National Playing

30

Fields Association, London.The use of non-turf surfaces will increase in

developing countries if the use of floodlighting in-creases. It will usually not be possible to flood-light more than one pitch, which will then be usedintensively.

There is a need for supplementary informationfor developing countries where certain materialssuch as cinders and crushed brick do not exist.

The laboratory of the "Service Technique del'Equipment", 11 Avenue Tremblay, Paris, 12,makes analyses of soil for constructors of playingfields in France, to find out their mineral, chemi-cal and granular composition, then sends back alist of materials to be added to stabilize the soil.This is the simplest way of making a hard surfaceplaying field. The laboratory would be preparedto do a limited number of analyses for schools inFrench-speaking territories.

Turf : The growing, drainage and maintenance ofsports turf in tropical areas is a specialized study.The AgriculturalResearchService, Georgia Coas-tal Plain Experiment Station, Tifton (Georgia)U. S. A. , has done work on this subject. They havedeveloped several mixes of grass seed suitable forsports turf in the Southern United States and trop-ical countries.

Specialists from the Tifton Research Stationshould be invited to write this section in the finalhandbook.

Landscaping : The landscaping of sports facilitiesis extremely important. It has more than aesthet-ic value; planting can be used as a means of con-trolling climate and for the control of winds.Closely planted trees can forrn wind-breaks thatreduce wind velocity by as much as 20 per cent.Vegetation can also act as a dust filter; measure-ments have shown that--a 600-foot wide belt ofplanting can reduce the dust count by as much as75 per cent. Even lawns act as dust filters and ofcourse prevent the generation of dust. Trees giveshade and generally tend to reduce heat by vaporiza-tion of moisture from their foliage.

Methods of environmental control through plant-ing are outlined in "Shelter for PhysicalEducation"by The Architectural Research Group, the TexasA & M College, and in "Environmental Control inSchool Building through Planting" by RooskanderWinant, Unesco, Bangkok.

Planting can also be used to divide one areafrom another, to divide the tennis courts from thecricketpitches, or the sports fields from the restof the school.

Chapter 9 of the book "Etablissement et Entre-tien des Sols en Plein Air", published by the Minis-tere de la Jeunesse et des Sports, Paris, deals withlandscaping under the following headings:

Classification of trees; planting distances; clas-sification of planting; hedges; planting on slopes ; ,

selection of shrubs in the nursery; transplanting;

the transport of shrubs; favourable periods fortransplanting; planting; lawns; protection of lawns;care of .plants and trees; list of trees and shrubswith their characteristics.

It should be possible to write a similar chapteron tropical landscaping, using the same headingswith the addition of a section on environmental con-trol.

Lighting : Thr lighting of sports facilities in devel-oping tropical countries is important since it meansthat physical education and sports can be practisedin the cool of the evening - a ,cheap form of air-conditioning.

This section should be written by a specialist.

Apparatus and equipment for games and athletics :Posts and nets for games, hurdles and other appa-ratus can usually be produced locally for less thanimported equipment. It is therefore important tohave exact specifications to give to local workmen."Amenagements Sportifs - 19601", published by theMinistere de PEducation Nationale, Paris, now outof print, contains simple' drawings and specifica-tions for tite following:

balancing beams, frames for' climbing, suspen-sion beams, soccer and hockey goal posts, rugbygoal posts, volleyball nets and posts, basketballposts and nets, high-jump hurdles, tennis postsand nets, stops for shot-put, etc.

These drawings might be copied with any neces-sary changes and additions and 'then reissued aspart of the handbook.

Outdoor and limited-shelter gymnasiums,spaces for dance

Outdoor gymnasiums : There is no need in mosttropical climates for the enclosed gymnasiums oftemperate zones. Most physical education in de-veloping countries takes place on a rough piece ofgroUncl. This can be modified so that it becomesa suitable place for physical education and gymnas-tics. It is surely more appropriate to do gymnas-tics in the open, surrounded by trees and sky, thanin the artificial environment of an enclosed gymna-sium. Physical education in the open alio makesa clear break with the other activities of the daywhich take place within buildings.

This space would be used mainly for gymnastics ;games being played elsewhere. Dance needs a dif-ferent sort of space and will be dealt with.later.

The disadvantages of a rough piece of groundcan be dealt with in the following way :

The rough surface: The British handbook "Sec-ondary School Design - Physical Education'',Building Bulletin 26, published by the Departmentof Education and Science, London, has this to say:

The floor is considered by most physical educa-tion teachers to be the most important feature.ofa gymnasium. Not only must it give safe footholdbut it must be suitable for people to sit, lie and

roll on as well as to work on in bare feet. Probablyno better material is likely soon to be found thanhardwood strip. "

Nevertheless, several artificial materials nowexist which have most of the qualities of a goodwooden floor, and at the same time stand up to ex-terior conditions. Research will be needed to findthe material most suitable for tropical conditions.

Excessive heat and sun: A certain amount ofshade can be given by trees which also reduce heatby vaporization of moisture given off by their fo-liage, Trees judiciously planted give shade andneed not interfere withphysical education activities.Prot4ion from low-level sun can be obtained byplanting on the edge of the area. The actual un-interrupted areas, in the round, needed for gym-nastics are quite small. Most work needs length -vaulting for example. The gymnasium could followthe layout of an army assault course, or be hexag-onal as proposed in a recent Dutch "Bouwcentrum"study. (1)

Dust and wind : Here again vegetation is useful,as explained earlier.

Climbing apparatus would have to be three-dimensional. Showers and changing rooms shouldbe near at hand. Spectator seating could be form-ed of banks of earth, stabilized with concretesprayed on expanded metal. It would be useful toinstall floodlighting so that physical educationperiods can take place in the cool of the evening.

Limited-shelter gymnasiums : A limited-sheltergymnasium is a gymnasium that has a floor and aroof as protection against sun and rain but no walls.

In addition to gymnastics, the space may beused for small team games. Pitches for smallteam games are often overlaid in the same areato economize space and expensive surfaces.The following pitches can be provided in a space

24x 33. 5 m (79' x 110'): 6 badminton, 1 basket-ball, 1 lawn tennis, 1 pitch for five-a-side foot-ball, and 1 netball pitch.

The following pitches can be provided in a space15 x 24. 50m (49'6" x 80'): 3 badminton, 1

basketball, and 3 cricket nets.The following can be provided in a space 31. 50 x

16. 50m(104' x 54'): 1 netball, 1 lawn tennis (butwith only 13' run bank and 9' each side), 1

basketball, and .4 cricket nets.(Taken from "Secondary School Design - Physical'Education", Building Bulletin 26. HMSO, London. )

The publication, "Gymnase et Salle de Sport",(Ministere de la Jeunesse et des Sports, Paris)notes that :

1. Stichting Informatiecentrum Voor Scholenbouw,op. cit.

31

The following pitches may be provided in a space30 x 20 x 6m high (98' x 65'6" x 19'6" high):1 basketball, 1 volleyball, and2 training pitchesfor volleyball.

The following pitches can be provided in a space40x 20 x7m (131' x 65'6" x 23' high). For corn-petitions a sports hall measuring 44 x 24 x 9mhigh (144' x 79' x 29'6") is recommended:1 basketball, 1 volleyball, 1 lawn tennis, 1

handball, 1- na 3 training pitches for volleyball.

When so many pitches are superimposed, the pro-blem arises .of how to separate, visually, one linefrom another. It is recommended that white beused for tennis, light yellow for handball, red-orange for basketball, and sky blue for volleyball.

When two lines of a different colour cross, prior-ity must be given to the darkest colour, an excep-tion being made for white which is given priorityover all other colours.

The handbook shouli contain diagrams showinghow floors can be marked to combine pitches andsave space.

The roof can be either of conventional sheetmaterials (steel, asbestos or aluminium) on astructure of timber, steel or concrete, or vinyl-coated nylon on a catenary tension structure ofsteel cables. Photos. -10 and 11 show a swimmingpool in Paris roofed in this way. The floor couldbe any of a variety of materials. The handbookshould contain a comparative study of roof and floormaterials.

The English handbooks show jumping pits in gym-nasium floors. The French documentation statesthat on no account should jumping pits be cut ingymnasium floors. It seems more reasonable, ina tropical climate, to follow the French advice.

Area for Dance and Drama: Dance is a very im-portant part of physical education programmes indeveloping countries, not only national dance butdramatic and classical dancing, ballet and folkdances from other countries.

Dance needs a different sort of space from phys-ical education. Ideas on open-air spaces for danc-ing will vary but a good floor is essential and thereshould be some form of enclosure - hedges, wallsor moveable screens. The shape of the area willinfluence the flow of movement, e. g. circularspace pay tend to draw the movement in too strong-ly; along narrow space may draw it out too linear-ly; a completely square space may be too static.

The Freinet school at Vence, France has a goodexample of a dance area.

32

Swimming pools and beaches

There is a great lack of swimming pools and othernlaces to swim. The majority of schools would...Eke to teach swimming, which is part of the schoolcurriculum, but lack the facilities.

The handbook should contain: dimensional datafor the construction of instructional swimmingpools; details of the construction of a simple con-crete-lined swimming pool; details explaining theconstruction of cribs (these are structures in tim-ber that can be immersed in rivers and lakes tomake them safe for swimming instruction. Theuse of cribs is limited because water in tropicalareas so often contains parasites and water-bornediseases); construction details of equipment -ladders, diving boards, starting blocks, etc. ;information on methods of filtration and watertreatment.

Changing facilities

Students are required to change into special cloth-ing for physical education in 90 per cent of thecountries replying to 'die ICHPER questionnaire( I ),but lack of facilities often makes this impossible.There is a great need for changing rooms and showers.

The Canadian handbook "Physical EducationFacilitieS for Elementary Schools" has a well-documented section on changing room and showerfacilities, (p. 14 to 21). This could form the basisof the section on changing facilities.in the handbook.

The water in showers should not have a tempera-ture lower than 27°C. , 80°F. Cold showers aftervigorous phySical exercise, in a tropical climate,are not advisable. As a cheap method of obtaininghot water, various methods of solar heating shouldbe investigated.

Maintenance

In the. enthusiasm of developing new programmes,human and capital resources can be found to buildnew facilities. It is less easy, however, to main-tain existing ones. Recurrent budgets must beprovided, permanent ground-keepers hired, volun-teer help solicited. In developing countries wherelimited resources are almost entirely devoted tonew capital investments, maintenance is too oftenoverlooked.

. ICHPER, op. cit.

APPENDIX 1

ADDRESSES OF ORGANIZATIONS WHERE TECHNICALINFORMATION MAY BE OBTAINED

Unesco, Educational Facilities: Department ofPlanning and Financing of Education, Place deFontenoy, Paris 75700.

CONESCAL, Centro Regional de ConstruccionesEscolares pa'.:at America Latina, Apartado Postal41-51E, me'xico, 5, D. F.

REBIA, Regional Educational Building Institute forAfrica, P. 0. Box 1720, Khartoum, Sudan.

ARISBR, Asian Regional Institute for School Build-ing Research, P. 0, Box 1368, Colombo, Ceylon.

IAKS, The International Working Group for theConstruction of Sports Facilities, Institut furSportst4ttenbau, Carl Diem Weg, Koln-Wingers-dorf, Federal Republic of Germany.

../Mitteilungsblatt des Osterreichischen. Instituts filrSchul-und Sportstattenbau, Wien 4, Prinz Eugen-Strasse 12, Austria,

Stichting Inforinatiecentrum Voor Scholenbouw,Bouwcentrum Weena 700, Rotterdam, Postbus 299,Netherlands.

National Playing Fields Association, 57B CatherinePlace, London, S. W. 1, United Kingdom.

West African Buildibg Research Institute, P. 0.Box 1117, Accra, Ghana.

West African Building Research Station, Samaru,Zaria, Nigeria.

Commonwealth Experimental Building Station,P, 0. Box 30, Chatswood, New South Wales,Australia.

The Central Building Research Institute, Roorkee,U. P. India.

The Building Research Station, Israel Institute ofTechnology,. Haifa, Israel.

33

APPENDIX 2

BIBLIOGRAPHY

GENERAL BACKGROUND

Anglo-Soviet Journal, January 1969, "The OlympicGames as a Mirror of Society," J. W. RiordanAthletics in Education, NationalEducation Associa-tion, Washington, D. C. 1963

Declaration on Sport, International Council on Sportand Physical Education, (ICPSE), Unesco, ParisLa formation des cadres africains,Albert Tevoedjre,Editions Diloutremer, ParisLe Monde, 29 November, 1966, "L'Ecole dans leTiers Monde, " Bernard Girod de l'AinThe New Republic, 2 September, 1967, "How Chil-dren Learn, " JOseph FeatherctoneThe Plowden Report. Children and their PrimarySchools, The Central Advisory Council for Educa-tion (England) Vol. 1. Department of Educationand Science, HMSO, LondonThe Primary School an Environment for Education,Peter Manning, The Pilkington Research Unit,Liverpool University, 1967

Recreation and the Schools, Richard G.Macmillan Co. , New York, 1964

Report, Eighth International Congress, AddisAbaba, Ethiopia, July 1965, ICHPER, Washington,D. C.

Sport and Society, Dennis Brailsford, Routledge andKegan Paul, London, 1969

Sport, culture et repression, F. Maspers, Partisans,N° 43, ParisSport in Society, P. C. McIntosh,Co. Ltd. , London, 1963

Spor'. and Education, 1968 Mexico Conference Re-port, J. Falize ed. Unesco, Paris

Kraus,

C. A. Watts and

War Without Weapons, The Rise of Mass Sport inthe Twentieth Century and its Effect on Men and

Nations, Philip Goodhart and Christopher Chataway,W. H. Allen, London, 1968

SURVEYS

Physical Education in the School Curriculum,ICHPER International Questionnaire Report, PartI, 1967-68 Revision, ICHPER, Washington, D. C.The Place of Sport in Education - A ComparativeStudy, Educational Studies and Documents 21,Unesco, Paris, 1956.Status of Teachers of Physical Education, ICHPERInternational Questionnaire Report, Part III, 1963,ICHPER, Washington, D. C.

Teacher Training for Physical Education, ICHPERInternationalQuestionnaire Report, Part II, 1967-.68 Revision, ICHPER, Washington, D. C.

The World Today in Health, Physical Educationand Recreation, C. Lynn Vendian, John E. Nixoneds. , Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliff, N. J. 1968

FACILITIES, GENERAL

Construcciones Deportivas, Alfred Moderman,Madrid

Study of Educational Facilities, Report E. 1, UserRequirements for Elementary (K-6) Schools, TheMetropolitan Toronto School Board, Ryerson Press,Toronto, 1968

Study of Educational Facilities, Report E. 2, UserRequirements for Intermediate Schools, The Metro-politan Toronto School Board, Ryerson Press,Toronto, 1968

Escuela y Educacion Fisica, CONESCAL, bulletin9, Mexico, April 1968

From Program to Facilities in Physical Education,Harry A. Scott and R. B. Westkaemper, Harper andBrothers, New York, 1958

35

Instalaciones Deportivas Reglamentarias, ComaeOrganizador de los Juegos de la XIX Olimpiada,Mexico, 1968

MOdulos Deportivos, la Delegacion Nacional deEducacion Fisica y Deportes, MadridPlanning Areas and Facilities for Health, PhysicalEducation and Recreation, AAHPER and The Athlet-ic Institute, Chicago, .1968

Sports and Recreation Facilities for School andCommunity, M. Alexander Gabrielson and CaswellM. Miles, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliff, N. J.,1958

FACILITIES, OUTDOOR

Amenagement du territoire et planification educa-tionelle, J. Bugnicourt, Unesco Regional Office forEducation in Africa, Dakar, 1967.

Athletic Arena - Standard Layout 400 Metres and440 Yards Conversion, National ylaying FieldsAssociation, London, 1969Athletic Training Areas, (outdoor), NPFA-AAA,London, 1969

Care and Maintenance of Athletics Track and FieldEquipment, NPFA, London, 1969

Cricket on Non-Turf Pitches, Third Report, NPFA-MCC, London, 1969

Design of Outdoor Physical Education Facilitiesfor Colleges and Schools, James B. Delamater,Bureau of-Publications, Teachers' College, Colum-bia University, New York, 1963

L'ecole primaire en milieu rural. SecretaireWEtat au Flan et au develeppement, Dakar, 1963

Les equipements sportif et socio-educatif, Le Mo-niteur des travaux publics et du batiment, Paris,May 1969

Etablissement et entretien des sols en plein air,Ministere de la jeunesse et des sports, Paris, 1965Hard Porous and All Weather Surfaces for Recrea-tion (outdoor) NPFA, London, 1969

Levelling by Controlled Tipping, NPFA,1969

Maintenance of Playing Fields, NPFA, London, 1969

Making the Most of School Playing Fields, NPFA,London, 1969

Notes on Choosing a Hard Tennis Court, NPFA,London, 1969

London,

Notes on Metrication of Running Tracks, NPFALondon, 1969

P!anning the Outdoor Physical Education Facilities,Th University of the State of New York, StateEducational Department, Albany, N. Y. 1968

36

Playing Fields and Hard Surface Areas, BuildingBulletin 28, Department of Education and Science,HMSO, London, 1966

Principal Factors Governing The Design of Spec-tator Stands, NPFA, London, 1969Sandpits, Construction and Maintenance, NPFA,London 1969

School Playing Fields Dual Use Survey, 1964,NPFA, London

School Sites and Spaces in High Density Habitations,R. D. Srivastava, Session III paper 23, CentralBuilding Research Institute, Roorkee, U. P. India,1968

Sports Ground Construction - Specification ofPlaying Facilities, NPFA, London, 1969Standard of Playing Field Space, NPFA, London,1969

Turf Management, Burton Musser, U. S. Golf Asso-ciation, New York

FACILITIES, INDOOR

Air Structures for School Sports, Nan Robertson,Educational Facilities Laboratories, New York,1968

Amenagements sportifs - 1960, Ministere de l' edu-cation nationale, Paris

College and Universities Facilities Guide, A AHP ERand the Athletic Institute, Chicago, 1968Com arative Stud of Multi-Pur ose Rooms inEducational Buildings, Occasional Papers - SchoolBuilding 7, Unesco, Bangkok, 1964

Guide for Planning Indoor Facilities for CollegePhysical Education, Wayne H. Crawford, Instituteof Field Studies, Teachers' College, ColumbiaUniversity Bureau of Publications

Gymnase, salles de sport. Ministere de la jeunesseet dos sports, Paris, 1963The Nation' s Schools, January 1969, "Gymnasiums"McGraw-Hill Publication

Physical Education Facilities for ElementarySchools, School Planning and Building ResearchSection, Ontario Department of Education, Toronto.1969

Physical Education Facilities for Secondary Schools,School Planning and Building Research Section,Ontario, Department of Education, Toronto, 1965Planning the Indoor Phys'"al Education Facilities,The University of the State of New York, Divisionof Educational Facilities Plumning, Albany, N. Y.1969

Secondary School Design : Physical Education,Department of Education and Science, BuildingBulletin 26, HMSO, London, 1965

Shelter for Physical Education, a study fog hefeasibility of the use of limited shelters forphysical education, Texas Engineering ExperimentStation, A & M College of Texas, College Sta-tion, 1961Sportbauten, Rudolf Ortner, Verlag Georg D. W.Calley, Munchen, 1953

Sports Halls - Some Suggestions on Design andEquipment, Northern Physical Education Group1965, Central Council of Physical Recreation,26 Park Crescent, London, W1N4NJ

SPORT AND DEVELOPMENT

Libya - Sports Affairs, D. J. W. Anthony, October1969, Unesco, ParisROIL, et organisation du sport en Afrique, J. Falizeand J. Damoiseau, Universite de Liege, Unesco,Paris, 1968

CURRICULUM FOR TROPICALCOUNTRIES

Physical Education. in the Tropics, W. H. White,Evans Bros. , LondonGames and Athletics for Tropical Schools,M. M. Reid, Macmillan, London, 1969

Girls Physical Education in the Tropics,Ivi. M. Reid, Goldsmith Allen-Unwin, London

Games for Elementary Schools, S. G. Ayi-Bonteand S. Owusu Ansah, Macmillan, London, 1969

Basic Physical Education for Boys, Macmillan,London, 1969

Physical Education for Primary Schools,G.E.Huntleyand C. E. Whitworth-Smith, Thos. Nelson and SonsLtd. , London, 1969

Post Primary Physical Education for Boy3, C.E.Whitworth-Smith, Thos. Nelson, London, 1969Physical Education for Elementary Schools,S. G. Ayi-Bonte, Macmillan, London, 1969Post Primary Physical Education for Girls,G. K. Huntley, Thos. Nelson, London, 1969

Physical Education for Girls in the Tropics,Z. Nichols, EvanS Bros. , London

Sports kor Schools, C. E. Whitworth-Smith,Thos. Nelson, London, 1969Syllabus for kports and Physical Education, Lowerand Upper Primary Schools, Zambia, 1967

Teaching the Physical Education Lesson, A hand-book for Teachers and Students, E, T. Kodzi,Evans Bros. , London, 1966

GENERAL CURRICULUM

Dance in Elementary Education, Ruth LovellMurray, Harper Bros. , New York, 1953Games for Small Areas, NPFA, Loidon, 1969Physical Education in the Primary Schools, Movingand Growing, Part I. Planning the Programme,Part II, Education Pamphlet 24, Department ofEducation and Science, HMSO, London, 1965

Physical Education in Small Schools, Elsa Schneider,Washington National Education Association,Washington, D. C. , 1948

Physical Education in Urban Elementary Schools,Elsa Schneider, Department of Health, Educationand Welfare, Bulletin 15, Washington, D. C. , 1959

The Playground as Music Teacher, MadeleineCone, Harper Bros. , New York, 1959Teaching Physical Education in Elementary Schools,Maryhelen Vannier and Mildred Foster, W. B.Saunders Company, 1963

PLAYGROUNDS

Grand materiel pour petits enfants, Paris, Edi-tions du Scarabee, 1961

Havenkost, N° 2, special number on play areaspublished at Copenhagen, 1964

Infant School Playgrounds, Publication N° 79 ofthe Nursery School Association, London

Planning for Play, Lady Allen of HurtWood, Thamesand Hudson, London, 1968

Playgrounds for City Children, M. Paul Friedberg,Association for Childhood Education International,Washington, D. C.

Le terrain de jeux e l' ecole matcrnelle, byHe rbiniere -Lebert, Bulletin de la Societe francaisede peclagogie, N° 148, Paris, May 1964

Vers lleducation nouvelle, revue des Centres d'en-trafnement aux methodes d' education active

CAMPING FACILITIES

Environmental Health Practice in RecreationalAreas, U. S. Department of Health, Education andWelfare, Public Health Service Publication 1195,Washington, D. C.

Camp Site Development, Julian Harris Salomon,Girl Scouts of the U. S. A. , New York, 1959

37

Recreation Places, Wayne R. Williams, ReinholdPublishing Company, New York, 1957

Outward Bound, David James, 1957

OUTDOOR EDUCATION

Outdoor Education:A survey of activity in Canada,Canadian Education Association, 151 Bloor StreetW., Toronto 181, Canada

Philosophy of Outdoor Education, William H.Freeberg and Loren E. Taylor, Burgess Publish-ing Co. , Minneapolis, 1961

SWIMMING FACILITIES

Piscines couvertes et en plein air, Ministere dela jeunesse et des sports, Paris, 1969Pools in the Schools, *National SwimmingPool Institute, Washington, D. C. , 1968

Portable Pools, National Swimming Pool Institute,Washington, D. C. , 1968

Swimming P ools for Schools, Donald W. Neilson andJohn E. Nixon, Stanford University Press, Stanford

LANDSCAPING

Environmental Control in School Building ThroughPlanting, OccasionalPapers - School Building N° 9,Rooskander Winant, Unesco, Bangkok, 1964

38

Etablissement et entretien des sols en plein air(chapter 9), Ministere de la jeunesse et des sports,Paris, 1965Flora of West Tropical Africa (2 volumes),J. Hutchinson and J. M. Dalziel, J. Keay ed. ,London, 1954

Jardins d'agrement de l'Ouest Africain, byJ. Muratelle, 'Abidjan, 1962Tropical Architecture, by M. Fry and J. Drew,London - 1964 (p. 257-261)

The Tropical Garden, Kuck and Tongg, Macmillan,London, 1936

Tropical Planting and Gardening, H. F. Macmillan,Macmillan, London, 1956

UsefulPlants of West Tropical Africa, J. M. DalzielLondon, 1948

LIGHTING

Current Recommended Practice for Sports Lighting,Illuminating Engineering Society, 345, East 47thSt. , New York

Floodlighting of Playing Facilities, NPFA, London,1969

Recommendations relatives a Peclairage exterieur,Association frangaise de 1' eclairage, Paris, 1965(p. 80-87 )

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Dr. Raymond Ciszek, ICHPER, Washington, D. C.Mr. Peter Cocke, The Architects Co-Partnership,London.

Dr. Lloyd Grimes and Mr. Bruce Odell, USAID,Washington, D. C.

Mr. Jonathan King, EFL, New York.Mr. Peter McIntosh, The Inner London EducationAuthority College of Physical Education, London.Mr. Oscar Miller, Division of Youth Affairs,Unes co, Paris.

Lt.-Col. Raoul Monet, CISM, Brussels.Mr. Freider Roskam, IRKS, Cologne, FederalRepublic of Germany.

I wish to acknowledge the help and advice. of thefollowing:

Mr. D. J. W. Anthony, Avery Hill College ofEducation and The Institute of Education, LondonUniversity.

Mr, Gordon Ballard, The Department of Educationand Science, London,

Mr. Calika and Mr. Thint, The International Bankfor Reconstruction and Development, Washington,D. C.

Dr. John Cameron and Mr. Thomas Dwyer, Officeof Education, Department of Health, Education andWelfare, Washington, D. C. Mr. Ken Thalen, The Peace Corps, Washington, D. C.

39

Argentina' Australia

AustriaBelgium

BoliviaBrazil

BulgariaBurma

CameroonCanadaCeylon

ChileColombia

Congo (People'sRepublic of)

Costa RicaCuba

CyprusCzechoslovakia

DahomeyDenmark

Arab Republicof EgyptEthiopiaFinlandFrance

French West IndiesGermany (Fed. Rep.)

Ghana

GreeceHong Kong

Hungary

IcelandIndia,

IndonesiaIranIraq

IrelandIsrael

ItalyJamaica

JapanKenya

Khmer RepublicKorea

KuwaitLiberia

i LibyaLuxembourg

MalaysiaMalta

Mauritius.Melico

MonacoNetherlands

Netherlands AntillesNew Caledonia

New Zealand

NigerNigeria

Norway

Pakistan

Peru

PhilippinesPoland

PortugalSouthern Rhodesia

RomaniaSenegal

SingaporeSouth Africa

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