PACEM IN TERRIS...5/26/2020 Pacem in Terris (April, 11 1963) | John XXIII

5/26/2020 Pacem in Terris (April, 11 1963) | John XXIII

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PACEM IN TERRIS

ENCYCLICAL OF POPE JOHN XXIII ON ESTABLISHING UNIVERSAL PEACE IN TRUTH,

JUSTICE, CHARITY, AND LIBERTY

APRIL 11, 1963

To Our Venerable Brethren the Patriarchs, Primates, Archbishops, Bishops, and allother Local Ordinaries who are at Peace and in Communion with the ApostolicSee, and to the Clergy and Faithful of the entire Catholic World, and to all Men ofGood Will.

Venerable Brethren and Dearest Sons Health and Apostolic Benediction.

Peace on Earth—which man throughout the ages has so longed for and soughtafter—can never be established, never guaranteed, except by the diligentobservance of the divinely established order.

Order in the Universe

2. That a marvelous order predominates in the world of living beings and in theforces of nature, is the plain lesson which the progress of modern research andthe discoveries of technology teach us. And it is part of the greatness of manthat he can appreciate that order, and devise the means for harnessing thoseforces for his own benefit.

3. But what emerges first and foremost from the progress of scientific knowledgeand the inventions of technology is the infinite greatness of God Himself, whocreated both man and the universe. Yes; out of nothing He made all things, andfilled them with the fullness of His own wisdom and goodness. Hence, these arethe words the holy psalmist used in praise of God: "O Lord, our Lord: howadmirable is thy name in the whole earth!" (1) And elsewhere he says: "Howgreat are thy works, O Lord! Thou hast made all things in wisdom." (2)

Moreover, (2a) God created man "in His own image and likeness," (3) endowedhim with intelligence and freedom, and made him lord of creation. All this thepsalmist proclaims when he says: "Thou hast made him a little less than theangels: thou hast crowned him with glory and honor, and hast set him over theworks of thy hands. Thou hast subjected all things under his feet." (4)

Order in Human Beings



4. And yet there is a disunity among individuals and among nations which is instriking contrast to this perfect order in the universe. One would think that therelationships that bind men together could only be governed by force.

5. But the world's Creator has stamped man's inmost being with an orderrevealed to man by his conscience; and his conscience insists on his preservingit. Men "show the work of the law written in their hearts. Their conscience bearswitness to them." (5) And how could it be otherwise? All created being reflectsthe infinite wisdom of God. It reflects it all the more clearly, the higher it standsin the scale of perfection. (6)

6. But the mischief is often caused by erroneous opinions. Many people thinkthat the laws which govern man's relations with the State are the same as thosewhich regulate the blind, elemental forces of the universe. But it is not so; thelaws which govern men are quite different. The Father of the universe hasinscribed them in man's nature, and that is where we must look for them; thereand nowhere else.

7. These laws clearly indicate how a man must behave toward his fellows insociety, and how the mutual relationships between the members of a State andits officials are to be conducted. They show too what principles must govern therelations between States; and finally, what should be the relations betweenindividuals or States on the one hand, and the world-wide community of nationson the other. Men's common interests make it imperative that at long last aworld-wide community of nations be established.

I. ORDER BETWEEN MEN

8. We must devote our attention first of all to that order which should prevailamong men.

9. Any well-regulated and productive association of men in society demands theacceptance of one fundamental principle: that each individual man is truly aperson. His is a nature, that is, endowed with intelligence and free will. As suchhe has rights and duties, which together flow as a direct consequence from hisnature. These rights and duties are universal and inviolable, and thereforealtogether inalienable. (7)

10. When, furthermore, we consider man's personal dignity from the standpointof divine revelation, inevitably our estimate of it is incomparably increased. Menhave been ransomed by the blood of Jesus Christ. Grace has made them sonsand friends of God, and heirs to eternal glory.

Rights

11. But first We must speak of man's rights. Man has the right to live. He has theright to bodily integrity and to the means necessary for the proper development



of life, particularly food, clothing, shelter, medical care, rest, and, finally, thenecessary social services. In consequence, he has the right to be looked after inthe event of illhealth; disability stemming from his work; widowhood; old age;enforced unemployment; or whenever through no fault of his own he is deprivedof the means of livelihood. (8)

Rights Pertaining to Moral and Cultural Values

12. Moreover, man has a natural right to be respected. He has a right to his goodname. He has a right to freedom in investigating the truth, and—within the limitsof the moral order and the common good—to freedom of speech and publication,and to freedom to pursue whatever profession he may choose. He has the right,also, to be accurately informed about public events.

13. He has the natural right to share in the benefits of culture, and hence toreceive a good general education, and a technical or professional trainingconsistent with the degree of educational development in his own country.Furthermore, a system must be devised for affording gifted members of societythe opportunity of engaging in more advanced studies, with a view to theiroccupying, as far as possible, positions of responsibility in society in keeping withtheir natural talent and acquired skill. (9)

The Right to Worship God According to One's Conscience

14. Also among man's rights is that of being able to worship God in accordancewith the right dictates of his own conscience, and to profess his religion both inprivate and in public. According to the clear teaching of Lactantius, "this is thevery condition of our birth, that we render to the God who made us that justhomage which is His due; that we acknowledge Him alone as God, and followHim. It is from this ligature of piety, which binds us and joins us to God, thatreligion derives its name.'' (l0)

Hence, too, Pope Leo XIII declared that "true freedom, freedom worthy of thesons of God, is that freedom which most truly safeguards the dignity of thehuman person. It is stronger than any violence or injustice. Such is the freedomwhich has always been desired by the Church, and which she holds most dear. Itis the sort of freedom which the Apostles resolutely claimed for themselves. Theapologists defended it in their writings; thousands of martyrs consecrated it withtheir blood."(11)

The Right to Choose Freely One's State in Life

15. Human beings have also the right to choose for themselves the kind of lifewhich appeals to them: whether it is to found a family—in the founding of whichboth the man and the woman enjoy equal rights and duties—or to embrace thepriesthood or the religious life.(12)



16. The family, founded upon marriage freely contracted, one and indissoluble,must be regarded as the natural, primary cell of human society. The interests ofthe family, therefore, must be taken very specially into consideration in social andeconomic affairs, as well as in the spheres of faith and morals. For all of thesehave to do with strengthening the family and assisting it in the fulfilment of itsmission.

17. Of course, the support and education of children is a right which belongsprimarily to the parents. (13)

Economic Rights

18. In the economic sphere, it is evident that a man has the inherent right notonly to be given the opportunity to work, but also to be allowed the exercise ofpersonal initiative in the work he does. (14)

19. The conditions in which a man works form a necessary corollary to theserights. They must not be such as to weaken his physical or moral fibre, ormilitate against the proper development of adolescents to manhood. Womenmust be accorded such conditions of work as are consistent with their needs andresponsibilities as wives and mothers.(15)

20. A further consequence of man's personal dignity is his right to engage ineconomic activities suited to his degree of responsibility.(16) The worker islikewise entitled to a wage that is determined in accordance with the precepts ofjustice. This needs stressing. The amount a worker receives must be sufficient, inproportion to available funds, to allow him and his family a standard of livingconsistent with human dignity. Pope Pius XII expressed it in these terms:

"Nature imposes work upon man as a duty, and man has the correspondingnatural right to demand that the work he does shall provide him with the meansof livelihood for himself and his children. Such is nature's categorical imperativefor the preservation of man."(17)

21. As a further consequence of man's nature, he has the right to the privateownership of property, including that of productive goods. This, as We have saidelsewhere, is "a right which constitutes so efficacious a means of asserting one'spersonality and exercising responsibility in every field, and an element of solidityand security for family life, and of greater peace and prosperity in the State."(18)

22. Finally, it is opportune to point out that the right to own private propertyentails a social obligation as well. (19)

The Right of Meeting and Association

23. Men are by nature social, and consequently they have the right to meettogether and to form associations with their fellows. They have the right to



confer on such associations the type of organization which they consider bestcalculated to achieve their objectives. They have also the right to exercise theirown initiative and act on their own responsibility within these associations for theattainment of the desired results(20).

24. As We insisted in Our encyclical Mater et Magistra, the founding of a greatmany such intermediate groups or societies for the pursuit of aims which it is notwithin the competence of the individual to achieve efficiently, is a matter of greaturgency. Such groups and societies must be considered absolutely essential forthe safeguarding of man's personal freedom and dignity, while leaving intact asense of responsibility.(21)

The Right to Emigrate and Immigrate

25. Again, every human being has the right to freedom of movement and ofresidence within the confines of his own State. When there are just reasons infavor of it, he must be permitted to emigrate to other countries and take upresidence there.(22) The fact that he is a citizen of a particular State does notdeprive him of membership in the human family, nor of citizenship in thatuniversal society, the common, world-wide fellowship of men.

Political Rights

26. Finally, man's personal dignity involves his right to take an active part inpublic life, and to make his own contribution to the common welfare of his fellowcitizens. As Pope Pius XII said, "man as such, far from being an object or, as itwere, an inert element in society, is rather its subject, its basis and its purpose;and so must he be esteemed."(23)

27. As a human person he is entitled to the legal protection of his rights, andsuch protection must be effective, unbiased, and strictly just. To quote againPope Pius XII: "In consequence of that juridical order willed by God, man has hisown inalienable right to juridical security. To him is assigned a certain, well-defined sphere of law, immune from arbitrary attack."(24)

Duties

28. The natural rights of which We have so far been speaking are inextricablybound up with as many duties, all applying to one and the same person. Theserights and duties derive their origin, their sustenance, and their indestructibilityfrom the natural law, which in conferring the one imposes the other.

29. Thus, for example, the right to live involves the duty to preserve one's life;the right to a decent standard of living, the duty to live in a becoming fashion;the right to be free to seek out the truth, the duty to devote oneself to an everdeeper and wider search for it.

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Reciprocity of Rights and Duties Between Persons

30. Once this is admitted, it follows that in human society one man's natural rightgives rise to a corresponding duty in other men; the duty, that is, of recognizingand respecting that right. Every basic human right draws its authoritative forcefrom the natural law, which confers it and attaches to it its respective duty.Hence, to claim one's rights and ignore one's duties, or only half fulfill them, islike building a house with one hand and tearing it down with the other.

Mutual Collaboration

31. Since men are social by nature, they must live together and consult eachother's interests. That men should recognize and perform their respective rightsand duties is imperative to a well ordered society. But the result will be that eachindividual will make his whole-hearted contribution to the creation of a civic orderin which rights and duties are ever more diligently and more effectively observed.

32. For example, it is useless to admit that a man has a right to the necessitiesof life, unless we also do all in our power to supply him with means sufficient forhis livelihood.

33. Hence society must not only be well ordered, it must also provide men withabundant resources. This postulates not only the mutual recognition andfulfillment of rights and duties, but also the involvement and collaboration of allmen in the many enterprises which our present civilization makes possible,encourages or indeed demands.

An Attitude of Responsibility

34. Man's personal dignity requires besides that he enjoy freedom and be able tomake up his own mind when he acts. In his association with his fellows,therefore, there is every reason why his recognition of rights, observance ofduties, and many-sided collaboration with other men, should be primarily amatter of his own personal decision. Each man should act on his own initiative,conviction, and sense of responsibility, not under the constant pressure ofexternal coercion or enticement. There is nothing human about a society that iswelded together by force. Far from encouraging, as it should, the attainment ofman's progress and perfection, it is merely an obstacle to his freedom.

Social Life in Truth, Justice, Charity and Freedom

35. Hence, before a society can be considered well-ordered, creative, andconsonant with human dignity, it must be based on truth. St. Paul expressed thisas follows: "Putting away lying, speak ye the truth every man with his neighbor,for we are members one of another."(25) And so will it be, if each manacknowledges sincerely his own rights and his own duties toward others.



Human society, as We here picture it, demands that men be guided by justice,respect the rights of others and do their duty. It demands, too, that they beanimated by such love as will make them feel the needs of others as their own,and induce them to share their goods with others, and to strive in the world tomake all men alike heirs to the noblest of intellectual and spiritual values. Nor isthis enough; for human society thrives on freedom, namely, on the use of meanswhich are consistent with the dignity of its individual members, who, beingendowed with reason, assume responsibility for their own actions .

36. And so, dearest sons and brothers, we must think of human society as beingprimarily a spiritual reality. By its means enlightened men can share theirknowledge of the truth, can claim their rights and fulfill their duties, receiveencouragement in their aspirations for the goods of the spirit, share theirenjoyment of all the wholesome pleasures of the world, and strive continually topass on to others all that is best in themselves and to make their own thespiritual riches of others. It is these spiritual values which exert a guidinginfluence on culture, economics, social institutions, political movements andforms, laws, and all the other components which go to make up the externalcommunity of men and its continual development.

God and the Moral Order

37. Now the order which prevails in human society is wholly incorporeal innature. Its foundation is truth, and it must be brought into effect by justice. Itneeds to be animated and perfected by men's love for one another, and, whilepreserving freedom intact, it must make for an equilibrium in society which isincreasingly more human in character.

38. But such an order—universal, absolute and immutable in its principles—findsits source in the true, personal and transcendent God. He is the first truth, thesovereign good, and as such the deepest source from which human society, if itis to be properly constituted, creative, and worthy of man's dignity, draws itsgenuine vitality. (26) This is what St. Thomas means when he says: "Humanreason is the standard which measures the degree of goodness of the humanwill, and as such it derives from the eternal law, which is divine reason . . .Hence it is clear that the goodness of the human will depends much more on theeternal law than on human reason." (27)

Characteristics of the Present Day

39. There are three things which characterize our modern age.

40. In the first place we notice a progressive improvement in the economic andsocial condition of working men. They began by claiming their rights principally inthe economic and social spheres, and then proceeded to lay claim to their



political rights as well. Finally, they have turned their attention to acquiring themore cultural benefits of society.

Today, therefore, working men all over the world are loud in their demands thatthey shall in no circumstances be subjected to arbitrary treatment, as thoughdevoid of intelligence and freedom. They insist on being treated as humanbeings, with a share in every sector of human society: in the socio-economicsphere, in government, and in the realm of learning and culture.

41. Secondly, the part that women are now playing in political life is everywhereevident. This is a development that is perhaps of swifter growth among Christiannations, but it is also happening extensively, if more slowly, among nations thatare heirs to different traditions and imbued with a different culture. Women aregaining an increasing awareness of their natural dignity. Far from being contentwith a purely passive role or allowing themselves to be regarded as a kind ofinstrument, they are demanding both in domestic and in public life the rights andduties which belong to them as human persons.

42. Finally, we are confronted in this modern age with a form of society which isevolving on entirely new social and political lines. Since all peoples have eitherattained political independence or are on the way to attaining it, soon no nationwill rule over another and none will be subject to an alien power.

43. Thus all over the world men are either the citizens of an independent State,or are shortly to become so; nor is any nation nowadays content to submit toforeign domination. The longstanding inferiority complex of certain classesbecause of their economic and social status, sex, or position in the State, and thecorresponding superiority complex of other classes, is rapidly becoming a thing ofthe past.

Equality of Men

44. Today, on the contrary the conviction is widespread that all men are equal innatural dignity; and so, on the doctrinal and theoretical level, at least, no form ofapproval is being given to racial discrimination. All this is of supreme significancefor the formation of a human society animated by the principles We havementioned above, for man's awareness of his rights must inevitably lead him tothe recognition of his duties. The possession of rights involves the duty ofimplementing those rights, for they are the expression of a man's personaldignity. And the possession of rights also involves their recognition and respectby other people.

45. When society is formed on a basis of rights and duties, men have animmediate grasp of spiritual and intellectual values, and have no difficulty inunderstanding what is meant by truth, justice, charity and freedom. Theybecome, moreover, conscious of being members of such a society. And that is not



all. Inspired by such principles, they attain to a better knowledge of the true God—a personal God transcending human nature. They recognize that theirrelationship with God forms the very foundation of their life—the interior life ofthe spirit, and the life which they live in the society of their fellows.

II. RELATIONS BETWEEN INDIVIDUALS AND THE PUBLIC AUTHORITIES

46. Human society can be neither well-ordered nor prosperous without thepresence of those who, invested with legal authority, preserve its institutions anddo all that is necessary to sponsor actively the interests of all its members. Andthey derive their authority from God, for, as St. Paul teaches, "there is no powerbut from God".(28)

In his commentary on this passage, St. John Chrysostom writes: "What are yousaying? Is every ruler appointed by God? No, that is not what I mean, he says,for I am not now talking about individual rulers, but about authority as such. Mycontention is that the existence of a ruling authority—the fact that some shouldcommand and others obey, and that all things not come about as the result ofblind chance—this is a provision of divine wisdom."(29)

God has created men social by nature, and a society cannot "hold togetherunless someone is in command to give effective direction and unity of purpose.Hence every civilized community must have a ruling authority, and this authority,no less than society itself, has its source in nature, and consequently has God forits author."(30)

47. But it must not be imagined that authority knows no bounds. Since itsstarting point is the permission to govern in accordance with right reason, thereis no escaping the conclusion that it derives its binding force from the moralorder, which in turn has God as its origin and end.

Hence, to quote Pope Pius XII, "The absolute order of living beings, and the verypurpose of man—an autonomous being, the subject of duties and inviolablerights, and the origin and purpose of human society—have a direct bearing uponthe State as a necessary community endowed with authority. Divest it of thisauthority, and it is nothing, it is lifeless.... But right reason, and above allChristian faith, make it clear that such an order can have no other origin but inGod, a personal God, our Creator. Hence it is from Him that State officials derivetheir dignity, for they share to some extent in the authority of God Himself."(31)

An Appeal to Conscience

48. Hence, a regime which governs solely or mainly by means of threats andintimidation or promises of reward, provides men with no effective incentive towork for the common good. And even if it did, it would certainly be offensive tothe dignity of free and rational human beings. Authority is before all else a moral



force. For this reason the appeal of rulers should be to the individual conscience,to the duty which every man has of voluntarily contributing to the common good.But since all men are equal in natural dignity, no man has the capacity to forceinternal compliance on another. Only God can do that, for He alone scrutinizesand judges the secret counsels of the heart.

49. Hence, representatives of the State have no power to bind men inconscience, unless their own authority is tied to God's authority, and is aparticipation in it.(32)

50. The application of this principle likewise safeguards the dignity of citizens.Their obedience to civil authorities is never an obedience paid to them as men. Itis in reality an act of homage paid to God, the provident Creator of the universe,who has decreed that men's dealings with one another be regulated inaccordance with that order which He Himself has established. And we men donot demean ourselves in showing due reverence to God. On the contrary, we arelifted up and ennobled in spirit, for to serve God is to reign.(33)

51. Governmental authority, therefore, is a postulate of the moral order andderives from God. Consequently, laws and decrees passed in contravention of themoral order, and hence of the divine will, can have no binding force inconscience, since "it is right to obey God rather than men "(34).

Indeed, the passing of such laws undermines the very nature of authority andresults in shameful abuse. As St. Thomas teaches, "In regard to the secondproposition, we maintain that human law has the rationale of law in so far as it isin accordance with right reason, and as such it obviously derives from eternallaw. A law which is at variance with reason is to that extent unjust and has nolonger the rationale of law. It is rather an act of violence."(35)

52. The fact that authority comes from God does not mean that men have nopower to choose those who are to rule the State, or to decide upon the type ofgovernment they want, and determine the procedure and limitations of rulers inthe exercise of their authority. Hence the above teaching is consonant with anygenuinely democratic form of government.(36)

Attainment of the Common Good is the Purpose of the Public Authority

53. Men, both as individuals and as intermediate groups, are required to maketheir own specific contributions to the general welfare. The main consequence ofthis is that they must harmonize their own interests with the needs of others,and offer their goods and services as their rulers shall direct—assuming, ofcourse, that justice is maintained and the authorities are acting within the limitsof their competence. Those who have authority in the State must exercise thatauthority in a way which is not only morally irreproachable, but also bestcalculated to ensure or promote the State's welfare.



54. The attainment of the common good is the sole reason for the existence ofcivil authorities. In working for the common good, therefore, the authorities mustobviously respect its nature, and at the same time adjust their legislation to meetthe requirements of the given situation .(37)

Essentials of the Common Good

55. Among the essential elements of the common good one must certainlyinclude the various characteristics distinctive of each individual people. (38) Butthese by no means constitute the whole of it. For the common good, since it isintimately bound up with human nature, can never exist fully and completelyunless the human person is taken into account at all times. Thus, attention mustbe paid to the basic nature of the common good and what it is that brings itabout. (39)

56. We must add, therefore, that it is in the nature of the common good thatevery single citizen has the right to share in it—although in different ways,depending on his tasks, merits and circumstances. Hence every civil authoritymust strive to promote the common good in the interest of all, without favoringany individual citizen or category of citizen. As Pope Leo XIII insisted: "The civilpower must not be subservient to the advantage of any one individual, or ofsome few persons; inasmuch as it was established for the common good of all."(40)

Nevertheless, considerations of justice and equity can at times demand thatthose in power pay more attention to the weaker members of society, sincethese are at a disadvantage when it comes to defending their own rights andasserting their legitimate interests. (41)

The Spiritual, Too

57. In this connection, We would draw the attention of Our own sons to the factthat the common good is something which affects the needs of the whole man,body and soul. That, then, is the sort of good which rulers of States must takesuitable measure to ensure. They must respect the hierarchy of values, and aimat achieving the spiritual as well as the material prosperity of their subjects.(42)

58. These principles are clearly contained in that passage in Our encyclical Materet Magistra where We emphasized that the common good "must take account ofall those social conditions which favor the full development of human personality.(43)

59. Consisting, as he does, of body and immortal soul, man cannot in this mortallife satisfy his needs or attain perfect happiness. Thus, the measures that aretaken to implement the common good must not jeopardize his eternal salvation;indeed, they must even help him to obtain it.(44)




Responsibilities of the Public Authority, and Rights and Duties of Individuals

60. It is generally accepted today that the common good is best safeguardedwhen personal rights and duties are guaranteed. The chief concern of civilauthorities must therefore be to ensure that these rights are recognized,respected, co-ordinated, defended and promoted, and that each individual isenabled to perform his duties more easily. For "to safeguard the inviolable rightsof the human person, and to facilitate the performance of his duties, is theprincipal duty of every public authority."(45)

61. Thus any government which refused to recognize human rights or acted inviolation of them, would not only fail in its duty; its decrees would be whollylacking in binding force.(46)

Reconciliation and Protection of Rights and Duties of Individuals

62. One of the principal duties of any government, moreover, is the suitable andadequate superintendence and co-ordination of men's respective rights in society.This must be done in such a way 1) that the exercise of their rights by certaincitizens does not obstruct other citizens in the exercise of theirs; 2) that theindividual, standing upon his own rights, does not impede others in theperformance of their duties; 3) that the rights of all be effectively safeguarded,and completely restored if they have been violated.(47)

Duty of Promoting the Rights of Individuals

63. In addition, heads of States must make a positive contribution to the creationof an overall climate in which the individual can both safeguard his own rightsand fulfill his duties, and can do so readily. For if there is one thing we havelearned in the school of experience, it is surely this: that, in the modern worldespecially, political, economic and cultural inequities among citizens becomemore and more widespread when public authorities fail to take appropriate actionin these spheres. And the consequence is that human rights and duties are thusrendered totally ineffective.

64. The public administration must therefore give considerable care and thoughtto the question of social as well as economic progress, and to the developmentof essential services in keeping with the expansion of the productive system.Such services include road-building, transportation, communications, drinking-water, housing, medical care, ample facilities for the practice of religion, and aidsto recreation. The government must also see to the provision of insurancefacilities, to obviate any likelihood of a citizen's being unable to maintain a decentstandard of living in the event of some misfortune, or greatly in creased familyresponsibilities.



The government is also required to show no less energy and efficiency in thematter of providing opportunities for suitable employment, graded to the capacityof the workers. It must make sure that working men are paid a just andequitable wage, and are allowed a sense of responsibility in the industrialconcerns for which they work. It must facilitate the formation of intermediategroups, so that the social life of the people may become more fruitful and lessconstrained. And finally, it must ensure that everyone has the means andopportunity of sharing as far as possible in cultural benefits.

Harmonious Relations Between Public Authority's Two Forms of Intervention

65. The common welfare further demands that in their efforts to co-ordinate andprotect, and their efforts to promote, the rights of citizens, the civil authoritiespreserve a delicate balance. An excessive concern for the rights of any particularindividuals or groups might well result in the principal advantages of the Statebeing in effect monopolized by these citizens. Or again, the absurd situation canarise where the civil authorities, while taking measures to protect the rights ofcitizens, themselves stand in the way of the full exercise of these rights. "For thisprinciple must always be retained: that however extensive and far-reaching theinfluence of the State on the economy may be, it must never be exerted to theextent of depriving the individual citizen of his freedom of action. It must ratheraugment his freedom, while effectively guaranteeing the protection of everyone'sessential, personal rights." (48)

66. And the same principle must be adopted by civil authorities in their variousefforts to facilitate the exercise of rights and performance of duties in everydepartment of social life.

Structure and Operation of the Public Authority

67. For the rest, it is not possible to give a general ruling on the most suitableform of government, or the ways in which civil authorities can most effectivelyfulfill their legislative, administrative, and judicial functions.

68. In determining what form a particular government shall take, and the way inwhich it shall function, a major consideration will be the prevailing circumstancesand the condition of the people; and these are things which vary in differentplaces and at different times.

We think, however, that it is in keeping with human nature for the State to begiven a form which embodies a threefold division of public office properlycorresponding to the three main functions of public authority. In such a State aprecise legal framework is provided, not only for the official functions ofgovernment, but also for the mutual relations between citizens and publicofficials. This will obviously afford sure protection to citizens, both in thesafeguarding of their rights and in the fulfilment of their duties.



69. If, however, this juridical and political structure is to realize its potentialbenefits, it is absolutely essential that public officials do their utmost to solve theproblems that arise; and they must do so by using policies and techniques whichit is within their competence to implement, and which suit the actual condition ofthe State. It is also essential that, despite constantly changing conditions,legislators never disregard the moral law or constitutional provision, nor act atvariance with the exigencies of the common good. And as justice must be theguiding principle in the administration of the State, and executives mustthoroughly understand the law and carefully weigh all attendant circumstances,so too in the courts: justice must be administered impartially, and judges mustbe wholly incorrupt and uninfluenced by the solicitations of interested parties.The good order of society also requires that individuals and subsidiary groupswithin the State be effectively protected by law in the affirmation of their rightsand the performance of their duties, both in their relations with each other andwith government officials.(49)

Law and Conscience

70. There can be no doubt that a State juridical system which conforms to theprinciples of justice and rightness, and corresponds to the degree of civicmaturity evinced by the State in question, is highly conducive to the attainmentof the common good.

71. And yet social life is so complex, varied and active in this modern age, thateven a juridical system which has been established with great prudence andforesight often seems inadequate to the need.

72. Moreover, the relations of citizens with each other, of citizens andintermediate groups with public authorities, and the relations between publicauthorities of the same State, are sometimes seen to be of so ambiguous andexplosive a nature, that they are not susceptible of being regulated by any hardand fast system of laws.

In such cases, if the authorities want to preserve the State's juridical systemintact—in itself and in its application to specific cases—and if they want tominister to the principal needs of society, adapt the laws to the conditions ofmodern life and seek solutions to new problems, then it is essential that theyhave a clear idea of the nature and limits of their own legitimate spheres ofaction. Their calmness, integrity, clear sightedness and perseverance must besuch that they will recognize at once what is needed in a given situation, and actwith promptness and efficiency.(50)

Citizens' Participation in Public Life

73. A natural consequence of men's dignity is unquestionably their right to takean active part in government, though their degree of participation will necessarily



depend on the stage of development reached by the political community ofwhich they are members.

74. For the rest, this right to take part in government opens out to men a newand extensive field of opportunity for service. A situation is created in which civicauthorities can, from the greater frequency of their contacts and discussions withthe citizens, gain a clearer idea of what policies are in fact effectual for thecommon good; and in a system which allows for a regular succession of publicofficials, the authority of these officials, far from growing old and feeble, takes ona new vitality in keeping with the progressive development of human society.(51)

Characteristics of the Present Day

75. There is every indication at the present time that these aims and ideals aregiving rise to various demands concerning the juridical organization of States.The first is this: that a clear and precisely worded charter of fundamental humanrights be formulated and incorporated into the State's general constitutions.

76. Secondly, each State must have a public constitution, couched in juridicalterms, laying down clear rules relating to the designation of public officials, theirreciprocal relations, spheres of competence and prescribed methods of operation.

77. The final demand is that relations between citizens and public authorities bedescribed in terms of rights and duties. It must be clearly laid down that theprincipal function of public authorities is to recognize, respect, co-ordinate,safeguard and promote citizens' rights and duties

78. We must, however, reject the view that the will of the individual or the groupis the primary and only source of a citizen's rights and duties, and of the bindingforce of political constitutions and the government's authority.(52)

79. But the aspirations We have mentioned are a clear indication of the fact thatmen, increasingly aware nowadays of their personal dignity, have found theincentive to enter government service and demand constitutional recognition fortheir own inviolable rights. Not content with this, they are demanding, too, theobservance of constitutional procedures in the appointment of public authorities,and are insisting that they exercise their office within this constitutionalframework.

III. RELATIONS BETWEEN STATES

80. With respect to States themselves, Our predecessors have constantly taught,and We wish to lend the weight of Our own authority to their teaching, thatnations are the subjects of reciprocal rights and duties. Their relationships,therefore, must likewise be harmonized in accordance with the dictates of truth,justice, willing cooperation, and freedom. The same law of nature that governs



the life and conduct of individuals must also regulate the relations of politicalcommunities with one another.

81. This will be readily understood when one reflects that it is quite impossiblefor political leaders to lay aside their natural dignity while acting in their country'sname and in its interests They are still bound by the natural law, which is therule that governs all moral conduct, and they have no authority to depart from itsslightest precepts.

82. The idea that men, by the fact of their appointment to public office, arecompelled to lay aside their own humanity, is quite inconceivable Their veryattainment to this high-ranking office was due to their exceptional gifts andintellectual qualities, which earned for them their reputation as outstandingrepresentatives of the body politic

83. Moreover, a ruling authority is indispensable to civil society. That is a factwhich follows from the moral order itself. Such authority, therefore, cannot bemisdirected against the moral order. It would immediately cease to exit, beingdeprived of its whole raison d'être. God Himself warns us of this: "Hear,therefore, ye kings, and understand: learn, ye that are judges of the ends of theearth. Give ear, you that rule the people, and that please yourselves inmultitudes of nations. For power is given you by the Lord, and strength by theMost High, who will examine your works, and search out your thoughts." (53)

84. And lastly one must bear in mind that, even when it regulates the relationsbetween States, authority must be exercised for the promotion of the commongood. That is the primary reason for its existence.

An lmperative of the Common Good

85. But one of the principal imperatives of the common good is the recognition ofthe moral order and the unfailing observance of its precepts. "A firmlyestablished order between political communities must be founded on theunshakable and unmoving rock of the moral law, that law which is revealed inthe order of nature by the Creator Himself, and engraved indelibly on men'shearts . . . Its principles are beacon lights to guide the policies of men andnations. They are also warning lights—providential signs—which men must heedif their laborious efforts to establish a new order are not to encounter perilousstorms and shipwreck." (54)

In Truth

86. The first point to be settled is that mutual ties between States must begoverned by truth. Truth calls for the elimination of every trace of racialdiscrimination, and the consequent recognition of the inviolable principle that allStates are by nature equal in dignity.



Each of them accordingly has the right to exist, to develop, and to possess thenecessary means and accept a primary responsibility for its own development.Each is also legitimately entitled to its good name and to the respect which is itsdue.

87. As we know from experience, men frequently differ widely in knowledge,virtue, intelligence and wealth, but that is no valid argument in favor of a systemwhereby those who are in a position of superiority impose their will arbitrarily onothers. On the contrary, such men have a greater share in the commonresponsibility to help others to reach perfection by their mutual efforts.

88. So, too, on the international level: some nations may have attained to asuperior degree of scientific, cultural and economic development. But that doesnot entitle them to exert unjust political domination over other nations. It meansthat they have to make a greater contribution to the common cause of socialprogress.

89. The fact is that no one can be by nature superior to his fellows, since all menare equally noble in natural dignity. And consequently there are no differences atall between political communities from the point of view of natural dignity. EachState is like a body, the members of which are human beings. And, as we knowfrom experience, nations can be highly sensitive in matters in any way touchingtheir dignity and honor; and with good reason.

The Question of Propaganda

90. Truth further demands an attitude of unruffled impartiality in the use of themany aids to the promotion and spread of mutual understanding betweennations which modern scientific progress has made available. This does not meanthat people should be prevented from drawing particular attention to the virtuesof their own way of life, but it does mean the utter rejection of ways ofdisseminating information which violate the principles of truth and justice, andinjure the reputation of another nation. (55)

In Justice

91. Relations between States must furthermore be regulated by justice. Thisnecessitates both the recognition of their mutual rights, and, at the same time,the fulfilment of their respective duties.

92. States have the right to existence, to self development, and to the meansnecessary to achieve this. They have the right to play the leading part in theprocess of their own development, and the right to their good name and duehonors. Consequently, States are likewise in duty bound to safeguard all suchrights effectively, and to avoid any action that could violate them. And just asindividual men may not pursue their own private interests in a way that is unfair



and detrimental to others, so too it would be criminal in a State to aim atimproving itself by the use of methods which involve other nations in injury andunjust oppression. There is a saying of St. Augustine which has particularrelevance in this context: "Take away justice, and what are kingdoms but mightybands of robbers "(56)

93. There may be, and sometimes is, a clash of interests among States, eachstriving for its own development. When differences of this sort arise, they mustbe settled in a truly human way, not by armed force nor by deceit or trickery.There must be a mutual assessment of the arguments and feelings on bothsides, a mature and objective investigation of the situation, and an equitablereconciliation of opposing views.

The Treatment of Minorities

94. A special instance of this clash of interests is furnished by that political trend(which since the nineteenth century has become widespread throughout theworld and has gained in strength) as a result of which men of similar ethnicbackground are anxious for political autonomy and unification into a singlenation. For many reasons this cannot always be effected, and consequentlyminority peoples are often obliged to live within the territories of a nation of adifferent ethnic origin. This situation gives rise to serious problems.

95. It is quite clear that any attempt to check the vitality and growth of theseethnic minorities is a flagrant violation of justice; the more so if such perverseefforts are aimed at their very extinction .

96. Indeed, the best interests of justice are served by those public authoritieswho do all they can to improve the human conditions of the members of theseminority groups, especially in what concerns their language, culture, ancienttraditions, and their economic activity and enterprise. (57)

A Cautionary Note

97. It is worth noting, however, that these minority groups, in reaction, perhaps,to the enforced hardships of their present situation, or to historicalcircumstances, frequently tend to magnify unduly characteristics proper to theirown people. They even rate them above those human values which are commonto all mankind, as though the good of the entire human family should subservethe interests of their own particular groups. A more reasonable attitude for suchpeople to adopt would be to recognize the advantages, too, which accrue tothem from their own special situation. They should realize that their constantassociation with a people steeped in a different civilization from their own has nosmall part to play in the development of their own particular genius and spirit.Little by little they can absorb into their very being those virtues whichcharacterize the other nation. But for this to happen these minority groups must



enter into some kind of association with the people in whose midst they areliving, and learn to share their customs and way of life. It will never happen ifthey sow seeds of disaffection which can only produce a harvest of evils, stiflingthe political development of nations.

Active Solidarity

98. Since relationships between States must be regulated in accordance with theprinciples of truth and justice, States must further these relationships by takingpositive steps to pool their material and spiritual resources. In many cases thiscan be achieved by all kinds of mutual collaboration; and this is alreadyhappening in our own day in the economic, social, political, educational, healthand athletic spheres—and with beneficial results. We must bear in mind that ofits very nature civil authority exists, not to confine men within the frontiers oftheir own nations, but primarily to protect the common good of the State, whichcertainly cannot be divorced from the common good of the entire human family

99. Thus, in pursuing their own interests, civil societies, far from causing injuryto others, must join plans and forces whenever the efforts of particular Statescannot achieve the desired goal. But in doing so great care must be taken. Whatis beneficial to some States may prove detrimental rather than advantageous toothers.

Contacts Between Races

100. Furthermore, the universal common good requires the encouragement in allnations of every kind of reciprocation between citizens and their intermediatesocieties. There are many parts of the world where we find groupings of peopleof more or less different ethnic origin. Nothing must be allowed to preventreciprocal relations between them. Indeed such a prohibition would flout the veryspirit of an age which has done so much to nullify the distances separatingpeoples.

Nor must one overlook the fact that whatever their ethnic background, menpossess, besides the special characteristics which distinguish them from othermen, other very important elements in common with the rest of mankind. Andthese can form the basis of their progressive development and self-realizationespecially in regard to spiritual values. They have, therefore, the right and dutyto carry on their lives with others in society.

The Proper Balance Between Population, Land and Capital

101. As everyone is well aware, there are some countries where there is animbalance between the amount of arable land and the number of inhabitants;others where there is an imbalance between the richness of the resources andthe instruments of agriculture available. It is imperative, therefore, that nations



enter into collaboration with each other, and facilitate the circulation of goods,capital and manpower. (58)

102. We advocate in such cases the policy of bringing the work to the workers,wherever possible, rather than bringing workers to the scene of the work. In thisway many people will be afforded an opportunity of increasing their resourceswithout being exposed to the painful necessity of uprooting themselves fromtheir own homes, settling in a strange environment, and forming new socialcontacts.

The Problem of Political Refugees

103. The deep feelings of paternal love for all mankind which God has implantedin Our heart makes it impossible for Us to view without bitter anguish of spiritthe plight of those who for political reasons have been exiled from their ownhomelands. There are great numbers of such refugees at the present time, andmany are the sufferings—the incredible sufferings—to which they are constantlyexposed.

104. Here surely is our proof that, in defining the scope of a just freedom withinwhich individual citizens may live lives worthy of their human dignity, the rulersof some nations have been far too restrictive. Sometimes in States of this kindthe very right to freedom is called in question, and even flatly denied. We havehere a complete reversal of the right order of society, for the whole raison d'etreof public authority is to safeguard the interests of the community. Its sovereignduty is to recognize the noble realm of freedom and protect its rights.

The Refugee's Rights

105. For this reason, it is not irrelevant to draw the attention of the world to thefact that these refugees are persons and all their rights as persons must berecognized. Refugees cannot lose these rights simply because they are deprivedof citizenship of their own States.

106. And among man's personal rights we must include his right to enter acountry in which he hopes to be able to provide more fittingly for himself and hisdependents. It is therefore the duty of State officials to accept such immigrantsand—so far as the good of their own community, rightly understood, permits—tofurther the aims of those who may wish to become members of a new society.

Commendable Efforts

107. We therefore take this opportunity of giving Our public approval andcommendation to every undertaking, founded on the principles of humansolidarity or of Christian charity, which aims at relieving the distress of those whoare compelled to emigrate from their own country to another.



108. And We must indeed single out for the praise of all right-minded men thoseinternational agencies which devote all their energies to this most importantwork.

Causes of the Arms Race

109. On the other hand, We are deeply distressed to see the enormous stocks ofarmaments that have been, and continue to be, manufactured in theeconomically more developed countries. This policy is involving a vast outlay ofintellectual and material resources, with the result that the people of thesecountries are saddled with a great burden, while other countries lack the helpthey need for their economic and social development .

110. There is a common belief that under modern conditions peace cannot beassured except on the basis of an equal balance of armaments and that thisfactor is the probable cause of this stockpiling of armaments. Thus, if onecountry increases its military strength, others are immediately roused by acompetitive spirit to augment their own supply of armaments. And if one countryis equipped with atomic weapons, others consider themselves justified inproducing such weapons themselves, equal in destructive force.

111. Consequently people are living in the grip of constant fear. They are afraidthat at any moment the impending storm may break upon them with horrificviolence. And they have good reasons for their fear, for there is certainly no lackof such weapons. While it is difficult to believe that anyone would dare toassume responsibility for initiating the appalling slaughter and destruction thatwar would bring in its wake, there is no denying that the conflagration could bestarted by some chance and unforeseen circumstance. Moreover, even thoughthe monstrous power of modern weapons does indeed act as a deterrent, thereis reason to fear that the very testing of nuclear devices for war purposes can, ifcontinued, lead to serious danger for various forms of life on earth.

Need for Disarmament

112. Hence justice, right reason, and the recognition of man's dignity cry outinsistently for a cessation to the arms race. The stock-piles of armaments whichhave been built up in various countries must be reduced all round andsimultaneously by the parties concerned. Nuclear weapons must be banned. Ageneral agreement must be reached on a suitable disarmament program, with aneffective system of mutual control. In the words of Pope Pius XII: "The calamityof a world war, with the economic and social ruin and the moral excesses anddissolution that accompany it, must not on any account be permitted to engulfthe human race for a third time." (59)

113. Everyone, however, must realize that, unless this process of disarmamentbe thoroughgoing and complete, and reach men's very souls, it is impossible to



stop the arms race, or to reduce armaments, or—and this is the main thing—ultimately to abolish them entirely. Everyone must sincerely co-operate in theeffort to banish fear and the anxious expectation of war from men's minds. Butthis requires that the fundamental principles upon which peace is based intoday's world be replaced by an altogether different one, namely, the realizationthat true and lasting peace among nations cannot consist in the possession of anequal supply of armaments but only in mutual trust. And We are confident thatthis can be achieved, for it is a thing which not only is dictated by commonsense, but is in itself most desirable and most fruitful of good.

Three Motives

114. Here, then, we have an objective dictated first of all by reason. There isgeneral agreement—or at least there should be—that relations between States,as between individuals, must be regulated not by armed force, but in accordancewith the principles of right reason: the principles, that is, of truth, justice andvigorous and sincere co-operation.

115. Secondly, it is an objective which We maintain is more earnestly to bedesired. For who is there who does not feel the craving to be rid of the threat ofwar, and to see peace preserved and made daily more secure?

116. And finally it is an objective which is rich with possibilities for good. Itsadvantages will be felt everywhere, by individuals, by families, by nations, by thewhole human race. The warning of Pope Pius XII still rings in our ears: "Nothingis lost by peace; everything may be lost by war." (60)

A Call to Unsparing Effort

117. We therefore consider it Our duty as the vicar on earth of Jesus Christ—theSaviour of the world, the Author of peace—and as interpreter of the most ardentwishes of the whole human family, in the fatherly love We bear all mankind, tobeg and beseech mankind, and above all the rulers of States, to be unsparing oftheir labor and efforts to ensure that human affairs follow a rational and dignifiedcourse.

118. In their deliberations together, let men of outstanding wisdom and influencegive serious thought to the problem of achieving a more human adjustment ofrelations between States throughout the world. It must be an adjustment that isbased on mutual trust, sincerity in negotiation, and the faithful fulfilment ofobligations assumed. Every aspect of the problem must be examined, so thateventually there may emerge some point of agreement from which to initiatetreaties which are sincere, lasting, and beneficial in their effects.

119. We, for Our part, will pray unceasingly that God may bless these labors byHis divine assistance, and make them fruitful.



In Liberty

120. Furthermore, relations between States must be regulated by the principle offreedom. This means that no country has the right to take any action that wouldconstitute an unjust oppression of other countries, or an unwarrantedinterference in their affairs. On the contrary, all should help to develop in othersan increasing awareness of their duties, an adventurous and enterprising spirit,and the resolution to take the initiative for their own advancement in every fieldof endeavor.

The Evolution of Economically Under-developed Countries

121. All men are united by their common origin and fellowship, their redemptionby Christ, and their supernatural destiny. They are called to form one Christianfamily. In Our encyclical Mater et Magistra, therefore, We appealed to the morewealthy nations to render every kind of assistance to those States which are stillin the process of economic development. (61)

122. It is no small consolation to Us to be able to testify here to the wideacceptance of Our appeal, and We are confident that in the years that lie aheadit will be accepted even more widely. The result We look for is that the poorerStates shall in as short a time as possible attain to a degree of economicdevelopment that enables their citizens to live in conditions more in keeping withtheir human dignity.

123. Again and again We must insist on the need for helping these peoples in away which guarantees to them the preservation of their own freedom. They mustbe conscious that they are themselves playing the major role in their economicand social development; that they are themselves to shoulder the main burdenof it.

124. Hence the wisdom of Pope Pius XII's teaching: "A new order founded onmoral principles is the surest bulwark against the violation of the freedom,integrity and security of other nations, no matter what may be their territorialextension or their capacity for defense. For although it is almost inevitable thatthe larger States, in view of their greater power and vaster resources, willthemselves decide on the norms governing their economic associations withsmall States, nevertheless these smaller States cannot be denied their right, inkeeping with the common good, to political freedom, and to the adoption of aposition of neutrality in the conflicts between nations. No State can be deniedthis right, for it is a postulate of the natural law itself, as also of international law.These smaller States have also the right of assuring their own economicdevelopment. It is only with the effective guaranteeing of these rights thatsmaller nations can fittingly promote the common good of all mankind, as well asthe material welfare and the cultural and spiritual progress of their own people".(62)




125. The wealthier States, therefore, while providing various forms of assistanceto the poorer, must have the highest possible respect for the latter's nationalcharacteristics and timehonored civil institutions. They must also repudiate anypolicy of domination. If this can be achieved, then "a precious contribution willhave been made to the formation of a world community, in which each individualnation, conscious of its rights and duties, can work on terms of equality with therest for the attainment of universal prosperity." (63)

Signs of the Times

126. Men nowadays are becoming more and more convinced that any disputeswhich may arise between nations must be resolved by negotiation andagreement, and not by recourse to arms.

127. We acknowledge that this conviction owes its origin chiefly to the terrifyingdestructive force of modern weapons. It arises from fear of the ghastly andcatastrophic consequences of their use. Thus, in this age which boasts of itsatomic power, it no longer makes sense to maintain that war is a fit instrumentwith which to repair the violation of justice.

128. And yet, unhappily, we often find the law of fear reigning supreme amongnations and causing them to spend enormous sums on armaments. Their objectis not aggression, so they say—and there is no reason for disbelieving them—butto deter others from aggression.

129. Nevertheless, We are hopeful that, by establishing contact with one anotherand by a policy of negotiation, nations will come to a better recognition of thenatural ties that bind them together as men. We are hopeful, too, that they willcome to a fairer realization of one of the cardinal duties deriving from ourcommon nature: namely, that love, not fear, must dominate the relationshipsbetween individuals and between nations. It is principally characteristic of lovethat it draws men together in all sorts of ways, sincerely united in the bonds ofmind and matter; and this is a union from which countless blessings can flow.

IV. RELATIONSHIP OF MEN AND OF POLITICAL COMMUNITIES WITH THE WORLD COMMUNITY

130. Recent progress in science and technology has had a profound influence onman's way of life. This progress is a spur to men all over the world to extendtheir collaboration and association with one another in these days when materialresources, travel from one country to another, and technical information have sovastly increased. This has led to a phenomenal growth in relationships betweenindividuals, families and intermediate associations belonging to the variousnations, and between the public authorities of the various political communities.There is also a growing economic interdependence between States. Nationaleconomies are gradually becoming so interdependent that a kind of world



economy is being born from the simultaneous integration of the economies ofindividual States. And finally, each country's social progress, order, security andpeace are necessarily linked with the social progress, order, security and peace ofevery other country.

131. From this it is clear that no State can fittingly pursue its own interests inisolation from the rest, nor, under such circumstances, can it develop itself as itshould. The prosperity and progress of any State is in part consequence, and inpart cause, of the prosperity and progress of all other States.

Inadequacy of Modern States to Ensure Universal Common Good the

132. No era will ever succeed in destroying the unity of the human family, for itconsists of men who are all equal by virtue of their natural dignity. Hence therewill always be an imperative need—born of man's very nature—to promote insufficient measure the universal common good; the good, that is, of the wholehuman family.

133. In the past rulers of States seem to have been able to make sufficientprovision for the universal common good through the normal diplomaticchannels, or by top-level meetings and discussions, treaties and agreements; byusing, that is, the ways and means suggested by the natural law, the law ofnations, or international law.

134. In our own day, however, mutual relationships between States haveundergone a far reaching change. On the one hand, the universal common goodgives rise to problems of the utmost gravity, complexity and urgency—especiallyas regards the preservation of the security and peace of the whole world. On theother hand, the rulers of individual nations, being all on an equal footing, largelyfail in their efforts to achieve this, however much they multiply their meetingsand their endeavors to discover more fitting instruments of justice. And this is noreflection on their sincerity and enterprise. It is merely that their authority is notsufficiently influential.

135. We are thus driven to the conclusion that the shape and structure ofpolitical life in the modern world, and the influence exercised by public authorityin all the nations of the world are unequal to the task of promoting the commongood of all peoples.

Connection Between the Common Good and Political Authority

136. Now, if one considers carefully the inner significance of the common goodon the one hand, and the nature and function of public authority on the other,one cannot fail to see that there is an intrinsic connection between them. Publicauthority, as the means of promoting the common good in civil society, is apostulate of the moral order. But the moral order likewise requires that this



authority be effective in attaining its end. Hence the civil institutions in whichsuch authority resides, becomes operative and promotes its ends, are endowedwith a certain kind of structure and efficacy: a structure and efficacy which makesuch institutions capable of realizing the common good by ways and meansadequate to the changing historical conditions.

137. Today the universal common good presents us with problems which areworld-wide in their dimensions; problems, therefore, which cannot be solvedexcept by a public authority with power, organization and means co-extensivewith these problems, and with a world-wide sphere of activity. Consequently themoral order itself demands the establishment of some such general form ofpublic authority.

Public Authority Instituted by Common Consent and Not Imposed by Force

138. But this general authority equipped with world-wide power and adequatemeans for achieving the universal common good cannot be imposed by force. Itmust be set up with the consent of all nations. If its work is to be effective, itmust operate with fairness, absolute impartiality, and with dedication to thecommon good of all peoples. The forcible imposition by the more powerfulnations of a universal authority of this kind would inevitably arouse fears of itsbeing used as an instrument to serve the interests of the few or to take the sideof a single nation, and thus the influence and effectiveness of its activity wouldbe undermined. For even though nations may differ widely in material progressand military strength, they are very sensitive as regards their juridical equalityand the excellence of their own way of life. They are right, therefore, in theirreluctance to submit to an authority imposed by force, established without theirco-operation, or not accepted of their own accord.

The Universal Common Good and Personal Rights

139. The common good of individual States is something that cannot bedetermined without reference to the human person, and the same is true of thecommon good of all States taken together. Hence the public authority of theworld community must likewise have as its special aim the recognition, respect,safeguarding and promotion of the rights of the human person. This can be doneby direct action, if need be, or by the creation throughout the world of the sortof conditions in which rulers of individual States can more easily carry out theirspecific functions.

The Principle of Subsidiarity

140. The same principle of subsidiarity which governs the relations betweenpublic authorities and individuals, families and intermediate societies in a singleState, must also apply to the relations between the public authority of the worldcommunity and the public authorities of each political community. The special



function of this universal authority must be to evaluate and find a solution toeconomic, social, political and cultural problems which affect the universalcommon good. These are problems which, because of their extreme gravity,vastness and urgency, must be considered too difficult for the rulers of individualStates to solve with any degree of success.

141. But it is no part of the duty of universal authority to limit the sphere ofaction of the public authority of individual States, or to arrogate any of theirfunctions to itself. On the contrary, its essential purpose is to create worldconditions in which the public authorities of each nation, its citizens andintermediate groups, can carry out their tasks, fullfill their duties and claim theirrights with greater security. (64)

Modern Developments

142. The United Nations Organization (U.N.) was established, as is well known,on June 26, 1945. To it were subsequently added lesser organizations consistingof members nominated by the public authority of the various nations andentrusted with highly important international functions in the economics, social,cultural, educational and health fields. The United Nations Organization has thespecial aim of maintaining and strengthening peace between nations, and ofencouraging and assisting friendly relations between them, based on theprinciples of equality, mutual respect, and extensive cooperation in every field ofhuman endeavor.

143. A clear proof of the farsightedness of this organization is provided by theUniversal Declaration of Human Rights passed by the United Nations GeneralAssembly on December 10, 1948. The preamble of this declaration affirms thatthe genuine recognition and complete observance of all the rights and freedomsoutlined in the declaration is a goal to be sought by all peoples and all nations.

144. We are, of course, aware that some of the points in the declaration did notmeet with unqualified approval in some quarters; and there was justification forthis. Nevertheless, We think the document should be considered a step in theright direction, an approach toward the establishment of a juridical and politicalordering of the world community. It is a solemn recognition of the personaldignity of every human being; an assertion of everyone's right to be free to seekout the truth, to follow moral principles, discharge the duties imposed by justice,and lead a fully human life. It also recognized other rights connected with these.

145. It is therefore Our earnest wish that the United Nations Organization maybe able progressively to adapt its structure and methods of operation to themagnitude and nobility of its tasks. May the day be not long delayed when everyhuman being can find in this organization an effective safeguard of his personalrights; those rights, that is, which derive directly from his dignity as a humanperson, and which are therefore universal, inviolable and inalienable. This is all



the more desirable in that men today are taking an ever more active part in thepublic life of their own nations, and in doing so they are showing an increasedinterest in the affairs of all peoples. They are becoming more and moreconscious of being living members of the universal family of mankind.

V. PASTORAL EXHORTATIONS

146. Here once more We exhort Our sons to take an active part in public life, andto work together for the benefit of the whole human race, as well as for theirown political communities. It is vitally necessary for them to endeavor, in thelight of Christian faith, and with love as their guide, to ensure that everyinstitution, whether economic, social, cultural or political, be such as not toobstruct but rather to facilitate man's self betterment, both in the natural and inthe supernatural order.

Scientific Competence, Technical Capacity and Professional Experience

147. And yet, if they are to imbue civilization with right ideals and Christianprinciples, it is not enough for Our sons to be illumined by the heavenly light offaith and to be fired with enthusiasm for a cause; they must involve themselvesin the work of these institutions, and strive to influence them effectively fromwithin.

148. But in a culture and civilization like our own, which is so remarkable for itsscientific knowledge and its technical discoveries, clearly no one can insinuatehimself into public life unless he be scientifically competent, technically capable,and skilled in the practice of his own profession . Apostolate of a Trained Laity

149. And yet even this must be reckoned insufficient to bring the relationships ofdaily life into conformity with a more human standard, based, as it must be, ontruth, tempered by justice, motivated by mutual love, and holding fast to thepractice of freedom.

150. If these policies are really to become operative, men must first of all takethe utmost care to conduct their various temporal activities in accordance withthe laws which govern each and every such activity, observing the principleswhich correspond to their respective natures. Secondly, men's actions must bemade to conform with the precepts of the moral order. This means that theirbehavior must be such as to reflect their consciousness of exercising a personalright or performing a personal duty. Reason has a further demand to make. Inobedience to the providential designs and commands of God respecting oursalvation and neglecting the dictates of conscience, men must conductthemselves in their temporal activity in such a way as to effect a thoroughintegration of the principal spiritual values with those of science, technology andthe professions.



Integration of Faith and Action

151. In traditionally Christian States at the present time, civil institutions evince ahigh degree of scientific and technical progress and possess abundant machineryfor the attainment of every kind of objective. And yet it must be owned thatthese institutions are often but slightly affected by Christian motives and aChristian spirit.

152. One may well ask the reason for this, since the men who have largelycontributed—and who are still contributing—to the creation of these institutionsare men who are professed Christians, and who live their lives, at least in part, inaccordance with the precepts of the gospels. In Our opinion the explanation liesin a certain cleavage between faith and practice. Their inner, spiritual unity mustbe restored, so that faith may be the light and love the motivating force of alltheir actions.

Integral Education

153. We consider too that a further reason for this very frequent divorcebetween faith and practice in Christians is an inadequate education in Christianteaching and Christian morality. In many places the amount of energy devoted tothe study of secular subjects is all too often out of pro portion to that devoted tothe study of religion. Scientific training reaches a very high level, whereasreligious training generally does not advance beyond the elementary stage. It isessential, therefore, that the instruction given to our young people be completeand continuous, and imparted in such a way that moral goodness and thecultivation of religious values may keep pace with scientific knowledge andcontinually advancing technical progress. Young people must also be taught howto carry out their own particular obligations in a truly fitting manner.(65)

Constant Endeavor

154. In this connection We think it opportune to point out how difficult it is tounderstand clearly the relation between the objective requirements of justice andconcrete situations; to define, that is, correctly to what degree and in what formdoctrinal principles and directives must be applied in the given state of humansociety.

155. The definition of these degrees and forms is all the more difficult in an agesuch as ours, driven forward by a fever of activity. And yet this is the age inwhich each one of us is required to make his own contribution to the universalcommon good. Daily is borne in on us the need to make the reality of social lifeconform better to the requirements of justice. Hence Our sons have every reasonfor not thinking that they can relax their efforts and be satisfied with what theyhave already achieved.



156. What has so far been achieved is insufficient compared with what needs tobe done; all men must realize that. Every day provides a more important, a morefitting enterprise to which they must turn their hands—industry, trade unions,professional organizations, insurance, cultural institutions, the law, politics,medical and recreational facilities, and other such activities. The age in which welive needs all these things. It is an age in which men, having discovered the atomand achieved the breakthrough into outer space, are now exploring otheravenues, leading to almost limitless horizons.

Relations Between Catholics and Non-Catholics in Social and Economic Affairs

157. The principles We have set out in this document take their rise from thevery nature of things. They derive, for the most part, from the consideration ofman's natural rights. Thus the putting of these principles into effect frequentlyinvolves extensive co-operation between Catholics and those Christians who areseparated from this Apostolic See. It even involves the cooperation of Catholicswith men who may not be Christians but who nevertheless are reasonable men,and men of natural moral integrity. "In such circumstances they must, of course,bear themselves as Catholics, and do nothing to compromise religion andmorality. Yet at the same time they should show themselves animated by a spiritof understanding and unselfishness, ready to co-operate loyally in achievingobjects which are good in themselves, or conducive to good."(66)

Error and the Errant

158. It is always perfectly justifiable to distinguish between error as such and theperson who falls into error—even in the case of men who err regarding the truthor are led astray as a result of their inadequate knowledge, in matters either ofreligion or of the highest ethical standards. A man who has fallen into error doesnot cease to be a man. He never forfeits his personal dignity; and that issomething that must always be taken into account. Besides, there exists in man'svery nature an undying capacity to break through the barriers of error and seekthe road to truth. God, in His great providence, is ever present with His aid.Today, maybe, a man lacks faith and turns aside into error; tomorrow, perhaps,illumined by God's light, he may indeed embrace the truth.

Catholics who, in order to achieve some external good, collaborate withunbelievers or with those who through error lack the fullness of faith in Christ,may possibly provide the occasion or even the incentive for their conversion tothe truth.

Philosophies and Historical Movements

159. Again it is perfectly legitimate to make a clear distinction between a falsephilosophy of the nature, origin and purpose of men and the world, andeconomic, social, cultural, and political undertakings, even when such



undertakings draw their origin and inspiration from that philosophy. True, thephilosophic formula does not change once it has been set down in precise terms,but the undertakings clearly cannot avoid being influenced to a certain extent bythe changing conditions in which they have to operate. Besides, who can denythe possible existence of good and commendable elements in theseundertakings, elements which do indeed conform to the dictates of right reason,and are an expression of man's lawful aspirations?

160. It may sometimes happen, therefore, that meetings arranged for somepractical end—though hitherto they were thought to be altogether useless—mayin fact be fruitful at the present time, or at least offer prospects of success. Butwhether or not the moment for such cooperation has arrived, and the mannerand degree of such co-operation in the attainment of economic, social, culturaland political advantages—these are matters for prudence to decide; prudence,the queen of all the virtues which rule the lives of men both as individuals and insociety.

As far as Catholics are concerned, the decision rests primarily with those whotake a leading part in the life of the community, and in these specific fields. Theymust, however, act in accordance with the principles of the natural law, andobserve the Church's social teaching and the directives of ecclesiastical authority.For it must not be forgotten that the Church has the right and duty not only tosafeguard her teaching on faith and morals, but also to exercise her authorityover her sons by intervening in their external affairs whenever a judgment has tobe made concerning the practical application of this teaching. (67)

Little by Little

161. There are indeed some people who, in their generosity of spirit, burn with adesire to institute wholesale reforms whenever they come across situations whichshow scant regard for justice or are wholly out of keeping with its claims. Theytackle the problem with such impetuosity that one would think they wereembarking on some political revolution.

162. We would remind such people that it is the law of nature that all thingsmust be of gradual growth. If there is to be any improvement in humaninstitutions, the work must be done slowly and deliberately from within. PopePius XII expressed it in these terms: "Salvation and justice consist not in theuprooting of an outdated system, but in a well designed policy of development.Hotheadedness was never constructive; it has always destroyed everything. Ithas inflamed passions, but never assuaged them. It sows no seeds but those ofhatred and destruction. Far from bringing about the reconciliation of contendingparties, it reduces men and political parties to the necessity of laboriouslyredoing the work of the past, building on the ruins that disharmony has left in itswake."68



An Immense Task

163. Hence among the very serious obligations incumbent upon men of highprinciples, We must include the task of establishing new relationships in humansociety, under the mastery and guidance of truth, justice, charity and freedom—relations between individual citizens, between citizens and their respectiveStates, between States, and finally between individuals, families, intermediateassociations and States on the one hand, and the world community on the other.There is surely no one who will not consider this a most exalted task, for it is onewhich is able to bring about true peace in accordance with divinely establishedorder.

164. Considering the need, the men who are shouldering this responsibility arefar too few in number, yet they are deserving of the highest recognition fromsociety, and We rightfully honor them with Our public praise. We call upon themto persevere in their ideals, which are of such tremendous benefit to mankind. Atthe same time We are encouraged to hope that many more men, Christiansespecially, will join their cause, spurred on by love and the realization of theirduty. Everyone who has joined the ranks of Christ must be a glowing point oflight in the world, a nucleus of love, a leaven of the whole mass. He will be so inproportion to his degree of spiritual union with God.

165. The world will never be the dwellingplace of peace, till peace has found ahome in the heart of each and every man, till every man preserves in himself theorder ordained by God to be preserved. That is why St. Augustine asks thequestion: "Does your mind desire the strength to gain the mastery over yourpassions? Let it submit to a greater power, and it will conquer all beneath it. Andpeace will be in you—true, sure, most ordered peace. What is that order? God asruler of the mind; the mind as ruler of the body. Nothing could be more orderly."(69)

The Prince of Peace

166. Our concern here has been with problems which are causing men extremeanxiety at the present time; problems which are intimately bound up with theprogress of human society. Unquestionably, the teaching We have given hasbeen inspired by a longing which We feel most keenly, and which We know isshared by all men of good will: that peace may be assured on earth.

167. We who, in spite of Our inadequacy, are nevertheless the vicar of Himwhom the prophet announced as the Prince of Peace, (70) conceive of it as Ourduty to devote all Our thoughts and care and energy to further this commongood of all mankind. Yet peace is but an empty word, if it does not rest uponthat order which Our hope prevailed upon Us to set forth in outline in thisencyclical. It is an order that is founded on truth, built up on justice, nurturedand animated by charity, and brought into effect under the auspices of freedom.



168. So magnificent, so exalted is this aim that human resources alone, eventhough inspired by the most praiseworthy good will, cannot hope to achieve it.God Himself must come to man's aid with His heavenly assistance, if humansociety is to bear the closest possible resemblance to the kingdom of God.

169. The very order of things therefore, demands that during this sacred seasonwe pray earnestly to Him who by His bitter passion and death washed awaymen's sins, which are the fountainhead of discord, misery and inequality; to Himwho shed His blood to reconcile the human race to the heavenly Father, andbestowed the gifts of peace. "For He is our peace, who hath made both one . . .And coming, He preached peace to you that were afar off; and peace to themthat were nigh." (71)

170. The sacred liturgy of these days reechoes the same message: "Our LordJesus Christ, after His resurrection stood in the midst of His disciples and said:Peace be upon you, alleluia. The disciples rejoiced when they saw the Lord." (72)It is Christ, therefore, who brought us peace; Christ who bequeathed it to us:"Peace I leave with you: my peace I give unto you: not as the world giveth, do Igive unto you." (73)

171. Let us, then, pray with all fervor for this peace which our divine Redeemercame to bring us. May He banish from the souls of men whatever mightendanger peace. May He transform all men into witnesses of truth, justice andbrotherly love. May He illumine with His light the minds of rulers, so that, besidescaring for the proper material welfare of their peoples, they may also guaranteethem the fairest gift of peace.

Finally, may Christ inflame the desires of all men to break through the barrierswhich divide them, to strengthen the bonds of mutual love, to learn tounderstand one another, and to pardon those who have done them wrong.Through His power and inspiration may all peoples welcome each other to theirhearts as brothers, and may the peace they long for ever flower and ever reignamong them.

172. And so, dear brothers, with the ardent wish that peace may come upon theflocks committed to your care, for the special benefit of those who are mostlowly and in the greatest need of help and defense, lovingly in the Lord Webestow on you, on Our priests both secular and regular, on religious both menand women, on all the faithful and especially those who give wholeheartedobedience to these Our exhortations, Our Apostolic Blessing. And upon all men ofgood will, to whom We also address this encyclical, We implore from God healthand prosperity.

Given at Rome, at St. Peter's, on Holy Thursday, the eleventh day of April, in theyear 1963, the fifth of Our Pontificate.



JOHN XXIII

NOTES

LATIN TEXT: Acta Apostolicae Sedis, 55 (1963), 257-304.

ENGLISH TRANSLATION: The Pope Speaks, 9 (1963), 13-48.

REFERENCES:

(1) Ps. 8:1.

(2) Ps. 103:24.

(2a) In the Latin text this paragraph is part of the preceding one, hence we havenot assigned it a number. For format reasons we have broken paragraphs downin a few places but have kept our numbering system keyed to the Latinparagraphs.—Ed. of TPS

(3) Cf. Gen. 1:26.

(4) Ps. 8:5-6.

(5) Rom. 2:15.

(6) Cf. Ps. 18:8-11.

(7) Cf. Pius XII's broadcast message, Christmas 1942, AAS 35 (1943) 9-24; andJohn XXIII's sermon, Jan. 4, 1963, AAS 55 (1963) 89-91.

(8) Cf. Pius XI's encyclical letter Divini Redemptoris, AAS 29 (1931) 78; and PiusXII's broadcast message, Pentecost, June 1, 1941, AAS 33 (1941) 195-205.

(9) Cf. Pius XII's broadcast message, Christmas 1942, AAS 35 (1943) 9-24.

(10) Divinae Institutiones, lib. IV, c.28.2; PL 6.535.

(11) Encyclical letter "Libertas praestantissimum," Acta Leonis XIII, VIII, 1888,pp. 237-238.


(13) Cf. Pius XI's encyclical letter Casti connubii, AAS 22 (1930) 539-592, andPius XII's broadcast message, Christmas 1942, AAS 35 (1943) 9-24.

(14) Cf. Pius XII's broadcast message, Pentecost, June 1 ,1941, AAS 33 (1941)201.

(15) Cf. Leo XIII's encyclical letter Rerum novarum, Acta Leonis XIII, XI, 1891,pp. 128-129.



(16) Cf John XXIII's encyclical letter Mater et Magistra, AAS 53 (1961) 422.

(17) Cf. Pius XII's broadcast message, Pentecost, June 1, 1941, AAS 33 (1941)201.

(18) John XXIII's encyclical letter Mater et Magistra, AAS 53 (1961) 428.

(19) Cf. ibid., p. 430; TPS v. 7, no. 4, p. 318.

(20) Cf. Leo XIII's encyclical letter Rerum novarum, Acta Leonis XIII, XI, 1891,pp. 134-142; Pius XI's encyclical letter Quadragesimo anno, AAS 23 (1931) 199-200; and Pius XII's encyclical letter Sertum laetitiae, AAS 31 (1939) 635-644.

(21) Cf. AAS 53 (1961) 430.


(23) Cf. Pius XII's broadcast message, Christmas 1944, AAS 37 (1945) 12.


(25) Eph. 4:25.


(27) Summa Theol. Ia-IIae, q. 19, a.4; cf. a.9.

(28) Rom. 13:1-6.

(29) In Epist. ad Rom. c. 13, vv. 1-2, homil. XXIII; PG 60. 615.

(30) Leo XIII's encyclical epistle Immortale Dei, Acta Leonis XIII, V, 1885, p. 120.


(32) Cf. Leo XIII's encyclical epistle Diutumum illud, Acta Leonis XIII, 11, 1881,p. 274.

(33) Cf. ibid., p. 278; also Leo XIII's encyclical epistle Immortale Dei, Acta LeonisXIII, V, 1885, p. 130.

(34) Acts 5:29.

(35) Summa Theol. Ia-IIae, q. 93., a.3 ad 2um; cf. Pius XII's broadcast message,Christmas 1945, AAS 37 (1945) 5-23.

(36) Cf. Leo XIII's encyclical epistle Diuturnum illud, Acta Leonis XIII, II, 1881,pp. 271-273; and Pius XII's broadcast message, Christmas 1944, AAS 37 (1945)5-23.



(37) Cf. Pius XII's broadcast message, Christmas 1942, AAS 35 (1943) 13, andLeo XIII's encyclical epistle Immortale Dei, Acta Leonis XIII, V, 1885, p. 120.

(38) Cf. Pius XII's encyclical letter Summi Pontificatus, AAS 31 (1939) 412-453.

(39) Cf. Pius XI's encyclical Mit brennender Sorge, AAS 29 (1937) 159, and hisencyclical letter Divini Redemptoris, AAS 29 (1937) 65-106.

(40) Leo XIII's encyclical letter Immortale Dei." Acta Leonis XIII, V, 1885, p. 121.

(41) Cf. Leo XIII's encyclical letter Rerum novarum, Acta Leonis XIII, XI, 1891,pp. 133-134.

(42) Cf. Pius XII's encyclical letter Summi Pontificatus, AAS 31 (1939) 433.

(43) AAS 53 (1961) 417.

(44) Cf. Pius XI's encyclical letter Quadragesimo anno, AAS 23 (1931) 215.

(45) Cf. Pius XII's broadcast message, Pentecost, June 1, 1941, AAS 33 (1941)200.

(46) Cf. Pius XI's encyclical letter Mit brennender Sorge, AAS 29 (1937) 159, andhis encyclical Divini Redemptoris, AAS 29 (1937) 79; and Pius XII's broadcastmessage, Christmas 1942, AAS 35 (1943) 9-24.

(47) Cf. Pius XI's encyclical letter Divini Redemptoris, AAS 29 (1937) 81, and PiusXII's broadcast message, Christmas 1942, AAS 35 (1943) 9-24.





(52) Cf. Leo XIII's apostolic letter Annum ingressi, Acta Leonis XIII, XXII, 1902-1903, pp. 52-80.

(53) Wisd. 6:2-4.



(56) De civitate Dei, lib. IV, c. 4; PL 41. 115; cf. Pius XII's broadcast message,Christmas 1939, AAS 32 (1940) 5-13.




(58) Cf. John XIII's encyclical letter Mater et Magistra, AAS 53 (1961) 439.

(59) Cf. Pius XII's broadcast message, Christmas 1941, AAS 34 (1942) 17, andBenedict XV's exhortation to the rulers of the belligerent powers, August 1, 1917,AAS 9 (1917) 418.

(60) Cf. Pius XII's broadcast message, August 24, 1939, AAS 31 (1939) 334.

(61) AAS 53 (1961) 440-441.



(64) Cf. Pius XII's address to Young Members of Italian Catholic Action, Rome,Sept. 12, 1948, AAS 40 (1948) 412.

(65) Cf. John XXIII's encyclical letter Mater et Magistra, AAS 53 (1961) 454.

(66) Ibid., p. 456.

(67) Ibid., p. 456; cf. Leo XIII's encyclical epistle Immortale Dei, Acta LeonisXIII, V, 1885, p. 128; Pius XI's encyclical letter Ubi arcano, AAS 14 (1922) 698;and Pius XII's address to the Union of International Sodalities of CatholicWomen, Rome, Sept. 11, 1947, AAS 39 (1947) 486. AAS 39 (1947) 486.

(68) Cf. Pius XII's address to Italian workers, Rome, Pentecost, June 13, 1943,AAS 35 (1943) 175.

(69) Miscellanea Augustiniana . . . St. Augustine, Sermones post Maurinosreperti, Rome, 1930, p. 633.

(70) Cf. Is. 9:6.

(71) Eph. 2:14-17.

(72) Responsory at Matins, Feria VI Within the Octave of Easter.

(73) John 14:27.

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