© Tefko Saracevic 1

Part 1:Information seekingPart 2: User modeling

“Knowledge is of two kinds. We know a subject ourselves, or we know where we can find information upon it.”Samuel Johnson (1709-1784)

© Tefko Saracevic 2

But what when we do not know where to find it?

And we still want information?

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Part 1:Information seeking

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Definitions

Information – many different sensesInformation-as-process – the communication

actInformation-as-knowledge – an increase or

reduction in uncertaintyInformation-as-thing – objects that may

impart information (Buckland, 1991)

Information is anything that can change person’s knowledge (Belkin, 1978)

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Definitions …

Information as we consider it includes objects in the world potentially conveying

information what is transferred from people or objects to a

person’s cognitive system components of internal knowledge in people’s

mind

To seek information people seek to change their state of their knowledge

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Definitions …

Information seekingProcess in which humans purposefully engage in

order to change their state of knowledge (Marchionini, 1995)

A conscious effort to acquire information in response to a need or gap in your knowledge (Case, 2002)

The process of construction within information seeking involves fitting information in with what one already knows and extending this knowledge to create new perspectives (Kuhlthau, 2004)

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Information seeking as an area of study

Long history in a number of fields part of the broader area of studies in human

information behavior

In library & information science also related to studies on users & use, involving variety of fields &

populations information search process studies on roles of mediators & user modeling

Literature diverse and large

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Central question In information seeking studies:

What factors – variables – are involved when people seek information? Translation: What is really going on when we go about

finding information about something? In everyday life we really do not care – we just go on

doing it – but as professionals we have to understand the process in order to deal with it

The question has many sub-questions such as

in relation to what are people seeking information? how is information seeking (as a broader process)

related to information search (as a narrower process)?

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In pursuit of central question

A number of models have been developed enumerating factors & relationships involved

A few theories have been proposed suggesting explanations

Number of studies have connected information seeking to specific aspects – reviewed here: tasks in information seeking information seeking and the search process

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Task

Generally, information seeking is not an end in itself

Generally, it serves a work task task is a process in relation to which

information is neededTasks have been categorized from simple

to complex (and a number in-between) complex tasks have a number of sub-tasks the more complex a task the complexity of

information needed increases

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Summary of findings

Byström's (1999) formulated 11 statements from results of information seeking studies:

S1: as soon as information acquisition requires an effort people as sources are more popular than documentary sources.

S2: the more information types are needed, the greater the share of people as sources.

S3: the more information types are needed, the greater the share of general-purpose sources and the smaller the share of task-oriented sources.

S4: the more information types are needed, the more sources are used.

S5: the internality of different source types is loosely connected to the information types.

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summary (cont.)

S6: the higher the degree of task complexity, the more probable is the need for multiple information types: first task information, then task and domain information, and finally task, domain and [problem] solving information.

S7: the higher the degree of task complexity, the more information types are needed, and the greater the share of people as sources and the smaller the share of documentary sources.

S8: the higher the degree of task complexity, the more information types are needed and the greater the share of general-purpose sources and the smaller the share of task-oriented sources.

S9: the higher the degree of task complexity, the more information types are needed, and the higher the number of sources used.

S10: task complexity is distinctly related to increasing internality of people as sources and decreasing internality of documentary sources.

S11: Increasing task complexity fosters the use of people as sources.

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Information seeking & searching

Several studies connected information seeking with the search process posit information seeking as a broader

context (process) for a more specific process of searching

Exemplify factors – variables – involved showing that there is more to searching than

we think usually

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Kuhlthau model of the information search process (ISP)

Originally studying pupils & undergraduates but subsequently looking at other user groups as well, Kuhlthau (1991, 2004) formulated a six-stage information search process (ISP), each stage representing differing needs, behaviors, and cognitive and affective states

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Kuhlthau six stages

1. Initiation: user “becomes aware of a lack of knowledge or understanding”

2. Selection: user needs to “identify and select the general topic to be investigated”

3. Exploration: user needs to “investigate information on the general topic in order to extend personal understanding”

4. Formulation: user forms “a focus from the information encountered”

5. Collection: user needs “to gather information related to the focused topic”

6. Presentation: user completes the search and presents findings

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Kuhlthau model (cont.)

Each stage – task - in the information search process incorporates three realms:

1. Affective (feelings)2. Cognitive (thoughts)3. Physical (actions)

“The process of information seeking involves construction in which the user actively pursues understanding and seeks meaning from the information encountered over a period of time.”

Links the process to reduction of uncertainty

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Kuhlthau model (cont.)

  

Tasks       Initiation       Selection   Exploration   Formulation   Collection   Presentation---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- →Feelings uncertainly optimism confusion clarity sense of satisfaction

or(affective) frustration direction/ disappointment

doubt confidence

Thoughts vague-------------------------------------→focused(cognitive) -----------------------------------------------→

increased interest

Actions seeking relevant information----------------------------→seeking pertinent information(physical) exploring documenting

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Uncertainty Principle

Uncertainty is a cognitive state which commonly causes affective symptoms of anxiety and lack of confidence. Uncertainty and anxiety can be expected in the early stages of the information search process. 

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Uncertainty Principle

The affective symptoms of uncertainty, confusion, and frustration are associated with vague, unclear thoughts about a topic or question. As knowledge states shift to more clearly focused thoughts, a parallel shift occurs in feelings of increased confidence. Uncertainty due to a lack of understanding, a gap in meaning, or a limited construction initiates the process of information seeking.

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Uncertainty Principle

Uncertainty initiates the process of information seeking

Corollary Definition

Process Constructing meaningFormulation Forming a focused perspectiveRedundancy Encountering the expected and 

                unexpectedMood Assuming a posture or attitudePrediction Making choices based on expectationsInterest     Increasing intellectual engagement  

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Model for information system design and use (Allen,

1996) Steps needed to get to the last step:1. Needs analysis: determining user goals,

purposes, and objectives;2. Task analysis: determining the tasks and

activities that users accomplish in meeting their needs;

3. Resource analysis: investigating the resources (both cognitive and social) that are used in completing the tasks;

4. User modeling: synthesizing needs, tasks, and resources; and

5. Designing for usability: assessing how users’ needs, tasks, and resources interact with system characteristics to create usable systems –

also can be considered for use of resources

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The iterative search process ( copy from Hembrook et al. 2005)

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Part 2:User modeling

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Definition

User modeling is a process of identifying, understanding, and defining user information needs, context, requirements, and preferences, together with factors or attributes in the profile of the user that affect subsequent search for information

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Definition …in addition

But user modeling should also deal with identifying user’s conceptions about how the information system or resource works, together with related expectations, with possible explanations on how it really works and what could be really expected

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in other words

In user modeling you identify not only everything about the information

need and question at hand but also a number of other factors inherent

with the user that may be a guide or even be decisive in selection of resources, search strategy and tactics, evaluation and provision of results

and use the occasion to verify user conceptions and expectations and possibly provide reality explanations – there could be a mismatch

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User modeling is user+

Identifying elements about a user that impact interaction, selection of resources searching, types of retrieval …

Three general categories: information requirements (need, context …) user profile: general user characteristics &

attributes user mental model of system/resource &

expectations

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Information requirements

Informational questions what is the problem, task at hand that

generated a need for information? what is the context, environment of that?

what information is needed for that problem/task? what is the question?

what will the information be used for? what are any requirements, restrictions on the

type of information needed? what information resources were already

utilized? any history of previous efforts? results?

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Information requirements (cont.)

Cognitive, affective state of user: how much does the user know about the topic

of the question at hand? how uncertain is the user? how much wanted, how fast? tolerance for amount, variety of information?

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User profile

Demographic data about the user that may be relevant for search education subject, level

relation to problem/task at hand job, profession, position age group, if relevant gender if relevant language skills, if relevant other factors, as specific to a given

information need & question

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User profile - stereotypes

At times user stereotypes are applied in user modeling common characteristics of a group of users

and their needs e.g. third graders, PhD dissertation students, patent

attorneys a question on black holes by an astronomer

requires search of different resources than a black hole question by a tenth grader

these exhibit similar needs and information behavior

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stereotypes (cont.) Study and application of user stereotypes

is used in computer science & other fields to design & adapt components of an information

system to user requirements e.g. interface design recommender systems apply in machine learning

Looking for characteristics that may be applied in personalization of automated processes

p.s. term "stereotype” is a bit loaded, thus other related terms are being used as well

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User mental model of system, resource

Conceptions that user has about the system, resource, mediator … at hand for the submitted need what does the user think the system can

accomplish? what are the expectations?

Used to compare, match with reality of system possibilities and expectations may affect user changing other aspects

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Conclusions

Searching is always done in a context of information seeking by a user (or a group of users) – the user certainly treats it that way understanding user’s information seeking is

necessary to place the role & define the conduct of a given search

Information seeking has many dimensions User modeling is your effort to understand

and effectively apply relevant dimensions in a search

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these are not graphic models of user modeling, (unless???) but they are fun …

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thank youM. C. Escher

can you figure out people walking up & down the steps?

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you can find more on the site of M.C. Escher Foundation & in many lectures on geometry, psychology, illusions. As far as I know, this is the first time they are used in a lecture on user modeling. Why not?