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Technical Guidelines for Environmentally Sound Management of Wastes Consisting of,

Containing or Contaminated with Polychlorinated Biphenyls, Polychlorinated

Terphenyls or Polybrominated Biphenyls

August, 2004

Technical Guidelines for ESM of wastes consisting of,containing or contaminated with PCBs, PCTs or PBBs

Table of Contents1.0 Introduction.............................................................................................................................1

1.1 Scope.......................................................................................................................................1

1.2 Description, production, use and wastes.................................................................................1

1.2.1 Description..............................................................................................................................1

1.2.2 Production...............................................................................................................................2

1.2.3 Use..........................................................................................................................................3

1.2.4 Wastes.....................................................................................................................................4

2.0 Relevant provisions of the Basel and Stockholm Conventions..............................................5

2.1 Basel Convention....................................................................................................................5

2.2 Stockholm Convention............................................................................................................7

3.0 Issues under the Stockholm Convention to be addressed cooperatively with the Basel Convention..............................................................................................................................8

3.1 Low POP content....................................................................................................................8

3.2 Levels of destruction and irreversible transformation............................................................9

3.3. Methods that constitute environmentally sound disposal.....................................................10

4.0 Guidance on Environmentally Sound Management (ESM).................................................10

4.1 General considerations..........................................................................................................10

4.1.1 Basel Convention..................................................................................................................10

4.1.2 Stockholm Convention..........................................................................................................10

4.1.3 Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD)..................................10

4.2 Legislative and regulatory framework..................................................................................10

4.3 Waste prevention and minimization.....................................................................................11

4.4 Identification and inventories................................................................................................12

4.4.1 Identification.........................................................................................................................12

4.4.2 Inventories.............................................................................................................................12

4.5 Sampling, analysis and monitoring.......................................................................................13

4.5.1 Sampling...............................................................................................................................13

4.5.2 Analysis.................................................................................................................................14

4.5.3 Monitoring............................................................................................................................15

4.6 Handling, collection, packaging, labelling, transportation and storage................................15

4.6.1 Handling................................................................................................................................15

4.6.2 Collection..............................................................................................................................15

4.6.3 Packaging..............................................................................................................................16

4.6.4 Labelling...............................................................................................................................16

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4.6.5 Transportation.......................................................................................................................16

4.6.6 Storage..................................................................................................................................16

4.7 Environmentally sound disposal...........................................................................................17

4.7.1 Pre-treatment.........................................................................................................................17

4.7.2 Destruction and irreversible transformation methods...........................................................18

4.7.3 Other disposal methods when destruction or irreversible transformation does not represent the environmentally preferable option..................................................................................33

4.7.4 Other disposal methods when the POP content is low.........................................................35

4.8 Remediation of contaminated sites.......................................................................................35

4.9 Health and safety...................................................................................................................35

4.9.1 High-volume, high-concentration or high-risk situations.....................................................36

4.9.2 Low-volume, low-concentration sites or low-risk situations................................................36

4.10 Emergency response.............................................................................................................37

4.11 Public participation...............................................................................................................37

Appendix 1: Synonyms and trade names for PCBs, PCTs and PBBs........................................................38

Appendix 2: References..............................................................................................................................39

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Abbreviations and AcronymsABS Acrylonitrile butadiene styreneBAT Best Available TechniquesBEP Best Environmental PracticesCOP Conference of the PartiesDE Destruction efficiencyDRE Destruction removal efficiencyESM Environmentally sound managementGC Gas chromatographyGPCR Gas phase chemical reductionHASP Health and Safety PlanLWPS Liquid Waste Pre-heater SystemMEO Mediated electro-chemical oxidationMS Mass spectrometry OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and DevelopmentPACT Plasma Arc Centrifugal TreatmentPBB Polybrominated biphenylPCB Polychlorinated biphenyl PCDD polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxinsPCDF Polychlorinated dibenzofuransPCT Polychlorinated terphenyl POP Persistent organic pollutantPWC Plamsa Waste ConverterSCWO Super-critical water oxidation ppb Parts per billionppm Parts per millionppt Parts per trillionTRBP Thermal Reduction Batch Processor UNECE United Nations Economic Commission for EuropeWHO World Health Organization

Units of measurementmg/kg Milligram(s) per kilogram. Corresponds to parts per million (ppm) by mass.μg/kg Microgram(s) per kilogram. Corresponds to parts per billion (ppb) by mass.ng/kg Nanogram(s) per kilogram. Corresponds to parts per trillion (ppt) by mass.

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Technical Guidelines for the ESM of wastes consisting of,containing or contaminated with PCBs, PCTs or PBBs

1.0 Introduction

1.1 Scope1. This document supersedes the Basel Convention’s Technical Guidelines on Wastes Comprising or Containing PCB, PCT and PBB (Y10), February 1997.

2. These Technical Guidelines provides guidance for the environmentally sound management (ESM) of wastes consisting of, containing or contaminated with polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in accordance with decisions V/8 and VI/23 of the Conference of the Parties (COP) to the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movement of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal, I/4, II/10 and III/XX of the Open-ended Working Group of the Basel Convention, and INC-6/5 and INC-7/6 of the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee for an International Legally Binding Instrument for Persistent Organic Pollutants. The COP to the Stockholm Convention will consider these Guidelines in accordance with Article 6.2 of that Convention.

3. Along with PCBs, these Technical Guidelines addresses Polychlorinated terphenyls (PCTs) and Polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs) as a class or category of substances owing to similarities in the physico-chemical and toxicological properties of these substances. Topics addressed include waste management, treatment and disposal. Please note that neither PCTs nor PBBs are subject to the Stockholm Convention.

4. This document should be used in conjunction with the General Technical Guidelines for Environmentally Sound Management of Wastes Consisting of, Containing or Contaminated with Persistent Organic Pollutants. This document provides more detailed information on the nature and occurrence of wastes consisting of, containing or contaminated with PCBs, PCTs or PBBs for purposes of their identification and management.

1.2 Description, production, use and wastes

1.2.1 Description1.2.1.1 PCBs5. PCBs, commonly known as chlorobiphenyls, are a group of halogenated aromatic hydrocarbons (arenes) characterized by the biphenyl structure (two phenyl rings (C6H5)2) and at least one chlorine atom substituted for hydrogen. The chlorine atoms can be attached at any of ten available sites. In theory, there are 209 congeners, although only about 130 congeners have actually been found in commercial chemical formulations (Holoubek, 2000). Typically four to six of the 10 possible substitution sites are occupied with a chlorine atom (Environment Canada, 1988). The more highly chlorinated PCB congeners are virtually insoluble in water and highly resistant to degradation.

6. PCBs include 12 congeners for which the World Health Organization (WHO) has assigned toxicity equivalency factors since they exhibit dioxin-like toxicity.

1.2.1.2 PCTs7. PCTs also constitute a group of halogenated hydrocarbons. They are very similar in chemical structure to PCBs, except that they contain three phenyl rings instead of two. Therefore, they can have up to 14 chlorine atoms attached. The number of possible PCT congeners is very large; however, only a few occur in commercial chemical formulations. PCTs and PCBs have very similar chemical and physical properties. PCTs are virtually insoluble in water and highly resistant to degradation. One difference between PCTs and PCBs is that PCTs are generally less volatile.

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1.2.1.3 PBBs8. PBBs are the bromine analogues of PCBs and thus have 209 possible congeners. However, only a few occur in commercial chemical formulations (Melber et al., 1994). They are solids or waxy substances at room temperature. They are virtually insoluble in water and highly resistant to degradation.

1.2.2 Production1.2.2.1 PCBs9. PCBs have excellent dielectric properties, longevity, non-flammability and resistance to thermal and chemical degradation. For this reason, prior to national bans, they were manufactured for use in electrical equipment, heat exchangers, hydraulic systems and several other specialized applications.

10. The main period of manufacture occurred from 1930 up to the late 1970s in the United States; 1974 in China (China State Environmental Protection Agency, 2002); the early 1980s in Europe and 1993 in Russia (AMAP, 2000); and from 1954 to 1972 in Japan.

11. PCBs were generally manufactured as mixtures of congeners, for example as progressive chlorination of batches of biphenyl until a certain target percentage of chlorine by weight was achieved. The manufactured PCBs were rarely used at full strength. For example, they were added in small quantities to ink, plastics, paints and carbon paper or were used in formulations of up to 70% PCBs in hydraulic fluid, transformer fluid and heating fluids. At room temperature, the majority of them are oily liquids or waxy solids.

12. Prominent trade names of PCB products include those listed below. (See Appendix 1 for a more detailed list of PCB trade names and synonyms and Section 4.4 for considerations regarding precautions to take when utilizing trade names in inventory exercises.)

i. Apirolio (Italy)

ii. Aroclor (US)

iii. Clophen (Germany)

iv. Delor (Czechoslovakia)

v. Elaol (Germany)

vi. Fenchlor (Italy)

vii. Kanechlor (Japan)

viii.Phenoclor (France)

ix. Pyralene (France)

x. Pyranol (US)

xi. Pyroclor (US)

xii. Santotherm (Japan)

xiii.Sovol (USSR)

xiv.Sovtol (USSR)

13. In the Aroclor series, a four-digit number follows the word “Aroclor”. The first two digits of the number are either “10” or “12”. The number “12” indicates a “normal” Aroclor while the number “10” indicates a distillation product of an Aroclor. The second two digits of the four-digit code indicate the percent chlorine in the mixture by weight. Therefore Aroclor 1254 contains approximately 54% chlorine by weight.

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14. Commercial PCB products and articles were sold for their industrial properties rather than for their chemical composition (International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS), 1992). They contained a number of impurities and were often mixed with solvents, such as tri- and tetrachlorobenzenes. Those PCBs mixed with tri- and tetrachlorobenzenes were called “askarel.” Contaminants in commercial mixtures include polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs) and chlorinated naphthalenes. Studies have found from 0.8 mg/kg to 40 mg/kg of PCDFs in commercial mixtures (IPCS, 1992). PCBs are also formed unintentionally in some thermal and chemical processes.

15. The cumulative worldwide production of PCBs has been estimated at 0.75-2 million tonnes.

1.2.2.2 PCTs16. PCTs were manufactured in much smaller quantities than PCBs and were given the same or similar trade names. They were used for the same sorts of applications as PCBs, although most were used in waxes, plastics, hydraulic fluids, paints and lubricants (Jensen and Jørgensen, 1983). In the US, Aroclor series PCTs are indicated by the digits 54 in the first two spaces of the four-digit code, e.g. Aroclor 5432, 5442 and 5460 (IPCS, 1992). See Appendix 1 for examples of trade names and Section 4.4 for a discussion of trade names in inventory identification.

17. Examples of trade names are:

i. Aroclor (US) and

ii. Kanechlor KC-C. (Japan).

18. PCTs were produced in the United States, France, Germany, Italy and Japan until the early 1980s when all production is thought to have ceased. The cumulative world production is estimated to have been 60,000 tonnes between 1955 and 1980 (United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE), 2002).

1.2.2.3 PBBs19. Information on the production of PBBs is scarce. It is estimated that at least 11,000 tonnes of PBBs were produced worldwide but production figures from some countries known to have produced PBBs are not available (IPCS, 1994). PBBs were manufactured in the United States until 1979, in Germany until the mid-1980s, and in France until at least the mid-1990s. PBBs may still be in production in Asia (Lassen et al., 1999).

20. The first PBB compound produced was hexabromobiphenyl, which was commercially known as “FireMaster®” in the United States. FireMaster® was produced from 1970 to 1974. Analysis has shown that FireMaster® contained up to 80% hexa- and up to 25% heptabromobiphenyl. In France, a commercial mixture of PBBs was sold as “Adine 0102.” In Germany, highly brominated PBBs were produced and sold as “Bromkal 80-9D.” See Appendix 1 for examples of trade names and Section 4.4 for a discussion of trade names in inventory identification.

1.2.3 Use1.2.3.1 PCBs21. PCBs were used in a very wide variety industrial and consumer applications. The WHO categorized the uses as completely closed, nominally closed and open ended (IPCS, 1992). The uses included:

i. completely closed systems

a. electrical transformers,b. electrical capacitors (including lamp ballasts),c. electrical switches, relays and other,d. electrical cables, and

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e. electric motors and magnets (very small amounts);

ii. nominally closed systems

a. hydraulic systems, andb. heat transfer systems (heaters, heat exchangers); and

iii. open-ended systems

a. plasticizer in polyvinyl chloride, neoprene, and other artificial rubbers,b. ingredient in paint and other coatings,c. ingredient in ink and carbonless copy paper,d. ingredient in adhesives,e. pesticide extender,f. ingredient in lubricants, sealants and caulking material,g. fire retardant in fabrics, carpets, polyurethane foam, etc. andh. lubricants (microscope oils, brake linings, cutting oils, other lubricants).

22. While electrical transformers containing PCBs are defined as a “completely closed” application, industrial practices caused these PCBs to be transferred to other types of equipment, thus creating additional points of contact with the environment. A common practice was to “top up” or recharge non-PCB (mineral oil) transformers with PCBs when no other fluid was available.

23. PCB oils were also added to or disposed with non-PCB fluids such as heating/cooling fluid, hydraulic fluid, brake fluid, engine oil and off-specification fuels. There are numerous anecdotal reports of employees in electrical utilities using PCB fluids to wash their hands and taking PCB fluids home for use in home heaters, hydraulic systems and motors (as a lubricant). Since most fluorescent lamp ballasts made before PCBs were banned contained PCBs, many homes and businesses that installed fluorescent lamps unknowingly acquired PCBs.

1.2.3.2 PCTs24. PCTs were used in almost exactly the same applications as PCBs but in much smaller amounts. However, little is known about remaining quantities because inventories have not been developed (UNECE, 2002). It is known that very little PCTs was used in electrical equipment (Danish Environmental Protection Agency, 2002).

1.2.3.3 PBBs25. The principal use of PBBs was as a fire retardant. PBBs were added to acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) plastic (10% PBBs), coatings, lacquers and polyurethane foam (IPCS, 1994; Melber et al., 1994).

1.2.4 Wastes26. Wastes consisting of, containing or contaminated with PCBs, PCTs or PBBs are found in a number of physical forms, including:

i. equipment containing or contaminated with PCBs or PCTs (capacitors, circuit breakers, electric cables, electric motors, electromagnets, heat transfer equipment, hydraulic equipment, switches, transformers, vacuum pumps, voltage regulators);

ii. solvents contaminated with PCBs or PCTs;

iii. end-of-life vehicles and shredder light fraction (fluff) containing or contaminated with PCBs;

iv. demolition wastes containing or contaminated with PCBs (painted materials, resin-based floorings, sealants, sealed glazing units);

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v. oils consisting of, containing or contaminated with PCBs or PCTs (dielectric fluids, heat transfer fluids, hydraulic fluids, motor oil);

vi. electrical cables isolated by polymers containing or contaminated with PCBs or PBBs;

vii. soils and sediments, rock and aggregates (e.g. excavated bedrock, gravel, rubble) contaminated with PCBs, PCTs or PBBs;

viii.sludge contaminated with PCBs, PCTs or PBBs;

ix. plastics containing or contaminated with PBBs and equipment containing such materials;

x. fire suppression equipment containing or contaminated with PBBs; and

xi. containers contaminated through the storage of waste consisting of, containing or contaminated with PCBs, PBBs and PCTs.

27. Note that the categories above mainly apply to PCBs, which were produced in much larger quantities than PBBs or PCTs and have been stored as wastes awaiting disposal. PBBs and PCTs are rarely found in large bulk situations and therefore do not have the potential to form large amounts of waste.

2.0 Relevant provisions of the Basel and Stockholm Conventions

2.1 Basel Convention28. Article 1 (“Scope of Convention”) outlines the waste types subject to the Basel Convention. Article 1 paragraph 1(a) of the Basel Convention contains a two-step process for determining if a “waste” is a “hazardous waste” subject to the Convention. First, the waste must belong to any category contained in Annex I (“Categories of Wastes to be Controlled”). Second, the waste must possess at least one of the characteristics listed in Annex III (“List of Hazardous Characteristics”).

29. Annex I lists some of the wastes that may consist of, contain or be contaminated with PCBs, PCTs or PBBs. These include:

Y6 Wastes from the production, formulation and use of organic solventsY8 Waste mineral oils unfit for their originally intended useY9 Waste oils/water, hydrocarbons/water mixtures, emulsionsY10 Waste substances and articles containing or contaminated with

polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and/or polychlorinated terphenyls (PCTs) and/or polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs)

Y11 Waste tarry residues arising from refining, distillation and any pyrolytic treatment

Y12 Wastes from production, formulation and use of inks, dyes, pigments, paints, lacquers, varnish

Y13 Wastes from production, formulation and use of resins, latex, plasticizers, glues/adhesives

Y14 Waste chemical substances arising from research and development or teaching activities which are not identified and/or are new and whose effects on man and/or the environment are not known

Y18 Residues arising from industrial waste disposal operations Y39 Phenols; phenol compounds including chlorophenolY41 Halogenated organic solvents Y42 Organic solvents excluding halogenated solvents

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Y45 Organohalogen compounds other than substances referred to in this Annex (e.g. Y39, Y41, Y42, Y43, Y44)

30. Wastes contained in Annex I are presumed to exhibit an Annex III hazardous characteristic—which include H11 “Toxic (Delayed or Chronic)”; H12 “Ecotoxic”; and H6.1 “Poisonous (Acute)”—unless, through “national tests,” they can be shown to not exhibit the characteristics. National test may be useful for a particular hazard characteristic in Annex III until such time as the hazardous characteristic is fully defined. Guidance papers for each Annex III hazardous characteristics are currently being developed under the Basel Convention.

31. List A of Annex VIII describes wastes that are “characterized as hazardous under Article 1, paragraph 1 List A of Annex VIII describes wastes that are “characterized as hazardous under Article 1, paragraph 1(a)” although “their designation on this Annex does not preclude the use of Annex III to demonstrate that a waste is not hazardous.” List B of Annex IX lists wastes that will not be wastes covered by Article 1, paragraph 1(a), unless they contain Annex I material to an extent causing them to exhibit an Annex III characteristic. In particular the following Annex VIII wastes are applicable to PCBs, PCTs or PBBs:

PCBs, PCTs or PBBs

A1180 Waste electrical and electronic assemblies or scrap2 containing components such as accumulators and other batteries included on list A, mercury-switches, glass from cathode-ray tubes and other activated glass and PCB-capacitors, or contaminated with Annex I constituents (e.g., cadmium, mercury, lead, polychlorinated biphenyl) to an extent that they possess any of the characteristics contained in Annex III (note the related entry on list B B1110)1

A3180 Wastes, substances and articles containing, consisting of or contaminated with polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB), polychlorinated terphenyl (PCT), polychlorinated naphthalene (PCN) or polybrominated biphenyl (PBB), or any other polybrominated analogues of these compounds, at a concentration level of 50 mg/kg or more2

32. List A of Annex VIII includes a number of wastes or waste categories that have the potential to contain or be contaminated with PCBs, PCTs or PBBs, including:

A1090 Ashes from the incineration of insulated copper wire A1100 Dusts and residues from gas cleaning systems of copper smeltersA2040 Waste gypsum arising from chemical industry processes, when

containing Annex I constituents to the extent that it exhibits an Annex III hazardous characteristic (note the related entry on list B B2080)

A2060 Coal-fired power plant fly ash containing Annex I substances in concentrations sufficient to exhibit Annex III characteristics (note the related entry on list B B2050)

A3020 Waste mineral oils unfit for their originally intended useA3040 Waste thermal (heat transfer) fluidsA3050 Wastes from production, formulation and use of resins, latex,

plasticizers, glue/adhesives excluding such wastes specified on list B A3070 Waste phenols; phenol compounds including chlorophenol in the form of

liquids or sludges

1 This entry does not include scrap assemblies from electric power generation.

2 The 50 mg/kg level is considered to be an internationally practical level for all wastes. However, many individual countries have established lower regulatory levels (e.g., 20 mg/kg) for specific wastes.

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A3120 Fluff–light fraction from shreddingA3150 Waste halogenated organic solvents (note the related entry on list B

B4020)A3160 Waste halogenated or unhalogenated non-aqueous distillation residues

arising from organic solvent recovery operationsA4070 Wastes from the production, formulation and use of inks, dyes, pigments,

paints, lacquers, varnish excluding any such waste specified on list B (note the related entry on list B B4010)

A4100 Wastes from industrial pollution control devices for cleaning of industrial off-gases but excluding such wastes specified on list B

A4130 Waste packages and containers containing Annex I substances in concentrations sufficient to exhibit Annex III hazard characteristics

A4140 Wastes consisting of or containing off specification or outdated3 chemicals corresponding to Annex I categories and exhibiting Annex III hazard characteristics

A4150 Waste chemical substances arising from research and development or teaching activities which are not identified and/or are new and whose effects on human health and/or the environment are not known

A4160 Spent activated carbon not included on list B (note the related entry on list B B2060)

33. For further information please refer to section 2.1 of the General Technical Guidelines for Environmentally Sound Management of Wastes Consisting of, Containing or Contaminated with Persistent Organic Pollutants.

2.2 Stockholm Convention34. The Stockholm Convention differentiates between two categories of PCBs:

i. intentionally produced PCBs whose production and use are to be eliminated in accordance with the provisions of Annex A;

ii. unintentionally produced POPs listed in Annex C, where measures are required to be taken to reduce total releases derived from anthropogenic sources are to be minimized and, where feasible, ultimately eliminated. Unintentionally produced PCBs will be addressed in the Technical Guidelines on the Environmentally Sound Management of Wastes Consisting of, Containing or Contaminated with Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and Polychlorinated dibenzo-furans.

35. Annex A, Part II (“Polychlorinated biphenyls”), outlines specific requirements with respect to PCBs, as follows:

(a) With regard to the elimination of the use of polychlorinated biphenyls in equipment (e.g. transformers, capacitors or other receptacles containing liquid stocks) by 2025, subject to review by the Conference of the Parties, take action in accordance with the following priorities:

(i) Make determined efforts to identify, label and remove from use equipment containing greater than 10 per cent polychlorinated biphenyls and volumes greater than 5 litres;

(ii) Make determined efforts to identify, label and remove from use equipment containing greater than 0.05 per cent polychlorinated biphenyls and volumes greater than 5 litres;

3 Outdated means unused within the period recommended by the manufacturer.

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(iii) Endeavour to identify and remove from use equipment containing greater than 0.005 percent polychlorinated biphenyls and volumes greater than 0.05 litres;

(b) Consistent with the priorities in subparagraph (a), promote the following measures to reduce exposures and risk to control the use of polychlorinated biphenyls:

(i) Use only in intact and non-leaking equipment and only in areas where the risk from environmental release can be minimised and quickly remedied;

(ii) Not use in equipment in areas associated with the production or processing of food or feed;

(iii)When used in populated areas, including schools and hospitals, all reasonable measures to protect from electrical failure which could result in a fire, and regular inspection of equipment for leaks;

(c) Notwithstanding paragraph 2 of Article 3, ensure that equipment containing polychlorinated biphenyls, as described in subparagraph (a), shall not be exported or imported except for the purpose of environmentally sound waste management;

(d) Except for maintenance and servicing operations, not allow recovery for the purpose of reuse in other equipment of liquids with polychlorinated biphenyls content above 0.005 per cent;

(e) Make determined efforts designed to lead to environmentally sound waste management of liquids containing polychlorinated biphenyls and equipment contaminated with polychlorinated biphenyls having a polychlorinated biphenyls content above 0.005 per cent, in accordance with paragraph 1 of Article 6, as soon as possible but no later than 2028, subject to review by the Conference of the Parties;

(f) In lieu of note (ii) in Part I of this Annex, endeavour to identify other articles containing more than 0.005 per cent polychlorinated biphenyls (e.g. cable-sheaths, cured caulk and painted objects) and manage them in accordance with paragraph 1 of Article 6;

(g) Provide a report every five years on progress in eliminating polychlorinated biphenyls and submit it to the Conference of the Parties pursuant to Article 15;

36. For further information, please refer to section 2.2 of the General Technical Guidelines for Environmentally Sound Management of Wastes Consisting of, Containing or Contaminated with Persistent Organic Pollutants.

3.0 Issues under the Stockholm Convention to be addressed cooperatively with the Basel Convention

3.1 Low POP content37. As per Article 6.2(c) of the Stockholm Convention, the Stockholm COP shall cooperate closely with the appropriate bodies of the Basel Convention to “work to establish, as appropriate, the concentration levels of the chemicals listed in Annexes A, B and C in order to define the low persistent organic pollutant content referred to in paragraph 1 (d)(ii)”. Wastes consisting of, containing or contaminated with POPs above the low POP content should, in accordance with Article 6.1(d)(ii), be disposed of in such a way that the POP content is destroyed or irreversibly transformed or otherwise

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disposed of in an environmentally sound manner when destruction or irreversible transformation does not represent the environmentally preferable option.

38. Recognizing the following considerations:

i. disposal of wastes with a high POP content, including waste stockpiles, should be a priority;

ii. availability of treatment capacity;

iii. limit values within national legislation are relevant; and

iv. availability of analytical methods;

the following provisional definition for low POP content should be applied: PCBs: 50 [mg/kg].

3.2 Levels of destruction and irreversible transformation39. Recognizing the following considerations:

i. both destruction efficiency4 (DE) and destruction removal efficiency5 (DRE) are a function of the initial POP content;

ii. DE can be difficult to measure;

iii. DRE considers only emissions to air;

iv. BAT and BEP have not been identified for all disposal methods; and

v. existence of pertinent national legislation and international rules, standards and guidelines;

the following provisional definition for levels of destruction and irreversible transformation, based upon absolute levels (i.e. waste output streams treatment processes) should be applied:

i. atmospheric emissions6:

PCDDs and PCDFs: [0.080 ng TEQ/Rm3]7 [0.092 ng TEQ/Rm3]8

[0.140 ng TEQ/ Rm3]9 [0.2 ng TEQ/Rm3]10;

ii. aqueous emissions:

in accordance with pertinent national legislation and international rules, standards and guidelines, examples of pertinent national legislation can be found in Appendix 2 of the General Technical Guidelines for Environmentally Sound Management of Wastes Consisting of, Containing or Contaminated with Persistent Organic Pollutants;

iii. solid residues:

should be below the low POP content concentration defined in Section 3.1 of the General Technical Guidelines for Environmentally Sound Management of Wastes Consisting of,

4 Calculated on the basis of the mass of the POP content within the waste, minus the mass of remaining POPs in the gaseous, liquid or solid residues, divided by the mass of the POP content within the waste, i.e.DE = (POP content within waste – POP content within gas, liquid and solid residual) / POP content within the waste.5 Calculated on the basis of mass of the POP content within the waste, minus the mass of remaining POPs in the gaseous residues (stack emissions), dived by the mass of the POP content within the wastes, i.e.DRE = (POP content within waste – POP content within gas residual) / POP content within the waste.6 All values have been converted to the following reference conditions: 11% oxygen, 101.3 kPa and 25˚C7 Canada Wide Standards for Dioxins and Furans emission limit form hazardous waste incinerators8 Directive 2000/76/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 4 December 2000 on the incineration of waste emission limit values for waste incinerators9 United States 40 CFR Part 63 – Subpart EEE National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants for Hazardous Waste Comubustors10 1998 Protocol to the 1979 Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution on Persistent Organic Pollutants emission limit from hazardous waste incinerators

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Containing or Contaminated with Persistent Organic Pollutants.

In addition, technologies for destruction and irreversible transformation should be operated in accordance with BAT and BEP.

3.3. Methods that constitute environmentally sound disposal40. Section 4.7 contains a description of methods which may constitute environmentally sound disposal of wastes consisting of, containing or contaminated with PCBs.

4.0 Guidance on Environmentally Sound Management (ESM)

4.1 General considerations

4.1.1 Basel Convention41. One of the main vehicles for the promotion of ESM is the preparation and dissemination of technical guidelines such as this one and the General Technical Guidelines for Environmentally Sound Management of Wastes Consisting of, Containing or Contaminated with Persistent Organic Pollutants. For further information please refer to section 4.1.1 of the General Technical Guidelines.

42. Parties planning or reviewing their national ESM programme should consult, inter alia, the Basel Convention 2003 guidance document Preparation of a National Environmentally Sound Plan for PCB and PCB-Contaminated Equipment: Training Manual (UNEP, 2003a).

4.1.2 Stockholm Convention43. The term ESM is not defined in the Stockholm Convention. However, environmentally sound methods for disposal of wastes consisting of, containing or contaminated with PCBs is to be determined by the COP in cooperation with the appropriate bodies of the Basel Convention.

44. Parties should consult Interim guidance for developing a national implementation plan for the Stockholm Convention (UNEP, 2003b).

4.1.3 Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD)45. The OECD also promotes ESM through its “Core Performance Elements” (OECD, 2004). For further information please refer to section 4.1.3 of the General Technical Guidelines for Environmentally Sound Management of Wastes Consisting of, Containing or Contaminated with Persistent Organic Pollutants.

4.2 Legislative and regulatory framework46. Parties to the Basel and/or Stockholm Conventions should examine national controls, standards and procedures to ensure these are in line with Convention provisions and their obligations under them, including as these pertain to ESM of wastes consisting of, containing or contaminated with POPs.

47. Elements of a regulatory framework applicable to PCBs, PCTs and PBBs could also include the following:

i. enabling environmental protection legislation (sets release limits and environmental quality criteria);

ii. prohibitions on the manufacture, sale, import and export (for use) of PCBs, PCTs and PBBs;

iii. phase-out dates for PCBs that remain in service, inventory or storage;

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iv. hazardous materials and waste transportation requirements;

v. specifications for containers, equipment, bulk containers and storage sites;

vi. specification of acceptable analytical and sampling methods for PCBs, PCTs and PBBs;

vii. requirements for waste management and disposal facilities;

viii.general requirement for public notification and review of proposed government regulations, policy, certificates of approval, licenses, inventory information and national emissions data;

ix. requirements for identification and remediation of contaminated sites;

x. requirements for health and safety of workers; and

xi. other potential legislative controls (waste prevention and minimization, inventory development, emergency response).

48. The timing of the phase-out of PCBs (and to a lesser extent PCTs and PBBs) will likely be the most critical legislative concern for most countries, given that most of them already have some form of legislative framework dealing with PCBs.

49. For further information please refer to section 4.2 of the General Technical Guidelines for Environmentally Sound Management of Wastes Consisting of, Containing or Contaminated with Persistent Organic Pollutants.

4.3 Waste prevention and minimization50. Both the Basel and Stockholm Convention advocate waste prevention and minimization, while PCB compounds are targeted in the Stockholm Convention for complete phase-out. PCBs, PCTs and PBBs should be taken out of service and disposed of in an environmentally sound manner.

51. Quantities of waste containing these compounds should be minimized through isolation and source separation in order to prevent mixing and contamination of other waste streams. For example PCBs in electrical equipment, painted materials, resin-based floorings, sealants and sealed glazing units can contaminate large amounts of demolition waste if not separated prior to demolition.

52. Mixing of wastes with a PCB content above a defined low POP content with another material solely for the purpose of generating a mixture with a POP content below the defined low POP content is not environmentally sound. However, mixing of materials prior to waste treatment may be necessary in order to optimize treatment efficiencies.

53. Efforts should also be made to reduce and eliminate releases of unintentionally produced PCBs, PCTs and PBBs and thereby minimize wastes containing or contaminated with these substances. Efforts undertaken to reduce the incidental generation and releases of PCDDs and PCDFs should also reduce the generation and release of unintentionally produced PCBs that are generated by the same processes. Parties to the Stockholm Convention should consult, inter alia the Standardized Toolkit for the Identification and Quantification of Dioxins and Furans (UNEP, 2003c).

54. For further information, please refer to paragraph 7 and section 4.3 of the General Technical Guidelines for Environmentally Sound Management of Wastes Consisting of, Containing or Contaminated with Persistent Organic Pollutants.

4.4 Identification and inventories

4.4.1 Identification55. PCBs, PCTs and PBBs have historically been found several locations, these include:

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i. electrical utilities – transformers, capacitors, switches, voltage regulators, circuit breakers, light ballasts and cables;

ii. industrial facilities – transformers, capacitors, voltage regulators, circuit breakers, light ballasts, heat transfer fluids, hydraulic fluids and fire suppression systems;

iii. railroad systems – transformers, capacitors, voltage regulators and circuit breakers;

iv. underground mining operations – hydraulic fluids and earthing coils;

v. military installations – transformers, capacitors, voltage regulators, hydraulic fluids and fire suppression systems;

vi. residential/commercial buildings – capacitors, circuit breakers, light ballasts and fire suppression systems;

vii. research laboratories – vacuum pumps, light ballasts, capacitors and circuit breakers;

viii.electronics manufacturing plants – vacuum pumps, light ballasts, capacitors and circuit breakers;

ix. waste water discharge facilities – vacuum pumps and well motors; and

x. automotive service stations – re-used oil.

56. It is important to note that even experienced technical persons may not be able to determine the nature of an effluent, substance, container or piece of equipment by its appearance or markings. PCB equipment, for example, was typically not labelled as to the type of dielectric fluid it contained. Experienced inspectors may be able to determine the original contents from other information on the nameplate, by using guidance manuals such as Guidelines for the Identification of PCB and Materials Containing PCB (UNEP, 1999) or by contacting the manufacturer.

57. When identifying PCBs, PCTs and PBBs information on production, use and waste types outlined in Section 1.2 may be useful.

4.4.2 Inventories58. Inventories are an important tool in identifying, quantifying and characterizing wastes. A national inventory may be used to:

i. establish a baseline quantity of products, articles and wastes consisting of, containing or contaminated with PCBs, PCTs and PBBs;

ii. assist with regulatory inspections

iii. assist with the preparation of emergency response plans; and

iv. track process with respect to the minimization and phase-out of these chemicals, where applicable.

When developing an inventory, priority should be placed on the identification of wastes with a high POP concentration.

59. The development of a national inventory requires a long-term commitment by the national government, cooperation of owners and manufacturers of PCBs, PCTs and PBBs, a sound administrative process for collecting information on an ongoing basis and a computerized database system for storage of information. In some cases, government regulations may be required to ensure that owners report their holdings and cooperate with government inspectors.

60. A complete inventory of all PCBs, PCTs and PBBs is impossible to compile, mainly because of dispersive uses of these chemicals (use in inks, plasticizers, paint, flame retardants in small components,

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lubricants, etc.).

61. For further information, please refer to section 4.4.2 of the General Technical Guidelines for Environmentally Sound Management of Wastes Consisting of, Containing or Contaminated with Persistent Organic Pollutants.

4.5 Sampling, analysis and monitoring

4.5.1 Sampling62. Sampling in this section refers to the taking of a sample of gas, liquid or solid for later analysis either in the field or in a laboratory.

63. The types of matrices that are sampled for analysis of PCBs, PCTs and PBBs are shown below.

i. Liquids

a. water (surface water, rainwater, groundwater, soil pore water, drinking water, industrial process water, effluent water, condensate);

b. askarel (PCBs and PCTs) liquid from transformers or other equipment or in bulk storage;c. mineral oil from transformers contaminated with PCBs or in bulk storage;d. waste motor oil and other waste oils, fuels and organic liquids;e. liquid fire suppressants and retardants (PBBs);f. biological liquids (blood, urine); andg. liquids collected from spills or from free-product subsurface recovery systems at

contaminated sites.

ii. Solids

a. solid or semi-solid PCB, PCT or PBB products; b. containers or equipment (rinse or wipe sample);c. soil, sediment, rubble, compost;d. paint chips, pieces of caulking and sealant, plastic chips, pieces of wire and cable, auto-

shredder “fluff,” ceramics, wood, mixed solid wastes;e. tissues or fabric used in the collection of wipe samples;f. filter materials;g. solids extracted from a liquid or sludge (suspended solids, precipitates, coagulated solids,

filtered material);h. solids from industrial or disposal processes (fly ash, bottom ash, slag, still bottoms, other

residues);i. ice, snow and other frozen materials;j. plant materials and food; andk. biological solids (whole animals, tissues, faeces).

iii. Gases

a. product or waste gases in containers;b. stack gases from industry and treatment processes;c. volatile emissions from products, wastes, processes and contaminated sites;d. soil and groundwater gases;e. air (ambient, personal breathing, confined space); andf. biological gases (exhaled air, gases released by organisms).


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4.5.2 Analysis65. Analysis refers to the determination of the physical, chemical or biological properties of a material using documented, peer-reviewed and “accepted” laboratory methods.

66. Each country should identify, through guidelines or legislation, standard methods that are required to be used for PCBs, PCTs and PBBs and the situations in which the methods should be used.

67. The methods specified should cover all aspects of the analytical process for each type of sample that could be collected, as per the list of sample materials in subsection 4.5.1. The steps in analysis are some or all of the following:

i. sample handling and storage;

ii. sample preparation (drying, weighing, grinding, chemical digestion, etc.);

iii. extraction of contaminants (organic solvent extraction, leachate production);

iv. dilution or concentration of sample or extract;

v. calibration of equipment;

vi. the actual analytical or bioassay test method;

vii. calculation or determination of results; and

viii.reporting of results.

68. There are numerous methods available for each step of the process. The key for any country is to adopt standard methods and to then require their use by commercial, government and research laboratories. In very general terms, the methods available for chemical analysis for PCBs (UNEP, 1999) are the following:

i. Thin-layer chromatography – typically for soils and oils (not the most precise method);

ii. Gas-liquid chromatography/electron capture – typically for air samples;

iii. Packed-column gas chromatography (GC)/electron capture – typically for oil samples that may have a high concentration of PCBs (from equipment and spills);

iv. Capillary column GC – for solids and liquids contaminated with PCBs;

v. GC/Hall electrolytic conductivity detector – for oils and liquids (less precise than GC/electron capture);

vi. GC/mass spectrometry (MS) – for determining individual PCB congeners. May not be able to detect low concentrations;

vii. Thermal extraction/GC/MS – for soils, sludges and solids; this is an alternative to solvent extraction prior to GC/MS analysis.

69. Certification and testing of laboratories is another important aspect of a national analytical programme. All laboratories should be able to meet certain quality standards as set and tested by government, by an independent body such as International Organization for Standardization or by an association of laboratories.

4.5.3 Monitoring70. Monitoring programs should be implemented for operations managing wastes consisting of, containing or contaminated with PCBs, PCTs and PBBs. For further information please refer to section 4.5.3 of the General Technical Guidelines for Environmentally Sound Management of Wastes Consisting of, Containing or Contaminated with Persistent Organic Pollutants.

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4.6 Handling, collection, packaging, labelling, transportation and storage71. Handling and transport are critically important steps as the risk of a spill, leak or fire during handling and transport (e.g., in preparation for storage or disposal) is equal to or greater than that during the normal operation of the equipment. In addition, movement of hazardous wastes is carefully regulated under international agreement and national laws. The Basel Convention: Manual for Implementation (UNEP, 1995a), the International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code (IMO, 2002), the International Air Transport Association Dangerous Goods Code and the United Nations Transport of Dangerous Goods Code should be consulted to determine specific requirements for transport and transboundary movement of hazardous wastes.

4.6.1 Handling72. Handling of wastes consisting of, containing or contaminated with PCBs, PCTs or PBBs should be done with the objective of minimizing releases to the environment and contamination of additional materials. In addition, such wastes should where practicable be handled separately from other waste types in order to prevent contamination of these other waste streams. Recommended practices for this purpose include:

i. inspecting containers for leaks, holes, rust, high temperature;

ii. handling wastes at temperatures below 25oC, if possible, due to the increased volatility at higher temperatures;

iii. ensuring that spill containment measures are adequate and would contain liquid wastes if spilled;

iv. placing plastic sheeting or absorbent mats under containers before opening containers if the surface of the containment area is not coated with a smooth surface material (paint, urethane, epoxy;

v. removing the liquid wastes either by removing the drain plug or by pumping with a peristaltic pump and Teflon or silicon tubing;

vi. using dedicated pumps, tubing and drums to transfer liquid wastes (not used for any other purpose);

vii. cleaning up any spills with cloths or paper towels;

viii.triple rinsing of contaminated surfaces with a solvent such as kerosene to remove all of the residual PCBs, PCTs or PBBs; and

ix. treating all absorbents, disposable protective clothing and plastic sheeting as wastes consisting of, containing or contaminated with PCBs, PCTs or PBBs waste when appropriate.

73. Staff should be trained in the correct methods of handling hazardous wastes.

4.6.2 Collection74. A significant part of the total national amount of PCBs, PCTs and PBBs may be held in small quantities by small business owners and homeowners (e.g. in PCB fluorescent light ballasts, other small electrical devices, heat exchangers and heaters containing PCB or PCT fluids, PBBs in fire suppression systems, small containers of pure products and small stockpiles). It is difficult for small-quantity owners to dispose of these materials. For example, the regulatory situation may require that they be a registered waste generator, logistical considerations may prevent or discourage pick up (e.g., no industrial waste pick-up allowed/available in a residential neighbourhood), and costs may be prohibitive. National, regional or municipal governments should consider establishing collection stations for these small quantities so that each small-quantity owner does not have to make individual transport and disposal

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arrangements.

75. Collection depots and/or collection times for wastes consisting of, containing or contaminated with PCBs, PCTs or PBBs should be separate from those for all other wastes. Such wastes should not be mixed with other wastes as they may contaminate the other wastes.

76. It is imperative that collection depots not become long-term storage facilities for wastes consisting of, containing or contaminated with PCBs, PCTs or PBBs. The risk of environmental and human health impairment is higher for a large amount of wastes, even if properly stored, than for small quantities scattered over a large area.

4.6.3 Packaging77. Wastes consisting of, containing or contaminated with PCBs, PCTs or PBBs should be packaged prior to storage or transport. Liquid wastes should be placed in double-bung steel drums. Regulations governing transport often specify containers of a certain quality (e.g., 16-gauge steel coated inside with epoxy). Therefore, containers used for storage should meet transport requirements in anticipation that they may be transported in the future.

78. Large, drained equipment may be stored as is, or may be placed inside a large container (over-pack drum) or heavy plastic “wrap” if leakage is a concern. Small pieces of equipment whether drained or not, should be placed in drums with an absorbent material. Numerous small pieces of equipment may be placed in one drum, so long as an adequate amount of absorbent material is present in the drum. Loose absorbents may be purchased from safety suppliers. Sawdust, vermiculite or peat-moss may also be used.

79. Drums and equipment may be placed on pallets for movement by forklift truck and for storage. Equipment and drums should be strapped to the pallets prior to movement.

4.6.4 Labelling 80. All drums, containers and equipment containing or contaminated with PCBs, PCTs or PBBs should be clearly labelled with both a hazard warning label and a label that gives the details of the equipment or drum. The details include the contents of the drum or equipment (exact counts of equipment or volume of liquid), the type of waste, and the name and telephone number of the responsible person.

4.6.5 Transportation 81. Transportation of dangerous goods and wastes is regulated in most countries and the transboundary movement of wastes is controlled by the Basel Convention.

82. Persons transporting wastes within their own country should be qualified and/or certified as a shipper of hazardous materials and wastes.

4.6.6 Storage83. While many countries have adopted PCB storage regulations or developed PCB storage guidelines, most do not have specific storage regulations or guidance related to PCTs and PBBs. However, it can be assumed that the storage procedures should be similar to PCBs since the properties and toxicity of PCTs and PBBs are similar. While recommended practice varies somewhat from country to country, there are many common elements to safe storage of these wastes.


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4.7 Environmentally sound disposal

4.7.1 Pre-treatment85. This section presents commercially available pre-treatment technologies that may be required for the proper and safe operation of the disposal technologies described in sections 4.7.2 to 4.7.4. Where only part of a product or waste, such as waste equipment, contains or is contaminated with PCBs, PCTs or PBBs, it should be separated and then disposed of according to sections 4.7.1 to 4.7.4 as appropriate.

4.7.1.1 Adsorption / absorption

86. Sorption is the general term for both absorption and adsorption processes. Sorption is a pre-treatment method that uses solids for removing substances from liquids or gases. Adsorption involves the separation of a substance (liquid, oil) from one phase and its accumulation at the surface of another (activated carbon, zeolite, silica, etc.) Absorption is the process whereby a material transferred from one phase to another interpenetrates the second phase to form a solution (e.g., contaminant transferred from liquid phase onto activated carbon).

87. Adsorption/absorption can used to concentrate contaminants and separate them from aqueous wastes. The concentrate and the adsorbent or absorbent may require treatment prior to disposal.

4.7.1.2 Dewatering

88. Dewatering is a pre-treatment process that partially removes water from the wastes to be treated. Dewatering can be employed for disposal technologies which are not suitable for aqueous wastes. For example, over a certain temperature and pressure environment, water can react explosively with molten salts or sodium. Depending on the nature of the contaminant, resulting vapours may require condensation or scrubbing and/or further treatment.

4.7.1.3 Oil/water separation

89. Some treatment technologies are not suitable for aqueous wastes; others are not suitable for oily wastes. Oil/water separation can be employed in these situations to separate the oily phase from the water. Both the water and the oily phase may be contaminated after the separation and both may require treatment.

4.7.1.4 pH adjustment

90. Some treatment technologies are most effective in a defined pH range and in these situations, alkali, acid or CO2 are often used to control pH levels. Some technologies may also require pH adjustment as a post-treatment step.

4.7.1.5 Screening

91. Screening as a pre-treatment step can be used to remove larger-sized debris from the waste stream or for technologies that may not be suitable for both soils and solid wastes.

4.7.1.6 Shredding

92. Some technologies are only able to process wastes within a certain size limit. For example, some may handle POP-contaminated solid wastes only if less than 200 microns in diameter. Shredding can be used in these situations to reduce the waste components to a defined diameter. Other disposal technologies require slurries to be prepared prior to waste injection into the main reactor. Note that shredders may become contaminated when shredding wastes consisting of, containing or contaminated with POPs. Precautions should therefore be taken to prevent subsequent contamination of POP-free waste streams.

4.7.1.7 Solvent washing

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93. Solvent washing can be used to remove POPs from electrical equipment such as capacitors and transformers. This technology has also been used for the treatment of contaminated soil and sorption materials used in adsorption/absorption pre-treatment.

4.7.1.8 Thermal desorption

94. Low-temperature thermal desorption (LTTD), also known as low-temperature thermal volatilization, thermal stripping and soil roasting, is an ex-situ remedial technology that uses heat to physically separate volatile and semi-volatile compounds and elements (most commonly petroleum hydrocarbons) from contaminated media (most commonly excavated soils). Such processes have been used for the decontamination of the non-porous surfaces of electrical equipment such as transformer carcasses that formerly contained PCB-containing dielectric fluids. Thermal desorption of wastes consisting of, containing or contaminated with POPs may result in the formation of unintentional POPs, which may require additional treatment.

4.7.2 Destruction and irreversible transformation methods95. The following disposal operations, as provided for in Annex IVA and IVB of the Basel Convention, should be permitted for the purpose of destruction and irreversible transformation of the POP content in wastes when applied in such a way as to ensure that the remaining wastes and releases do not exhibit the characteristics of POPs:

D9 Physico-chemical treatment,

D10 Incineration on land, and

R1 Use as a fuel (other than in direct incineration) or other means to generate energy.

96. This section describes commercially available operations for the environmentally sound destruction and irreversible transformation of the POP content in wastes. Further information regarding these technologies of others currently in the pilot or test phase can be found within Review of Emerging, Innovative Technologies for the Destruction and Decontamination of POPs and the Identification of Promising Technologies for Use in Developing Countries (UNEP, 2004a).

4.7.2.1 Alkali reduction

97. Process description: Alkali reduction involves the treatment of wastes with dispersed metallic alkali. Metallic alkali reacts with chlorine in halogenated waste to produce salt and non-halogenated waste. Typically, the process operates at atmospheric pressure and temperatures between 100˚C and 180˚C. Treatment can take place either in-situ (i.e. PCB contaminated transformers) or ex-situ in a reaction vessel. There are several variations of this process (Piersol, 1989). Although potassium has been utilized, metallic sodium is the most commonly used reducing agent. The remaining information is based on experiences with the metallic sodium variation.

98. Efficiency: DE nor DRE has been reported. However the sodium reduction process has been demonstrated to meet regulatory criteria in the EU, United States, Canada, South Africa, Australia and Japan for PCB transformer oil treatment, i.e. less than 2 ppm in solid and liquid residues (Piersol, 1989; UNEP, 2004a).

99. Waste types: Sodium reduction has been demonstrated with PCB-contaminated oils containing concentrations up to 10,000 ppm (UNEP, 2004a). Some vendors have also claimed that this process is capable of treating whole capacitors and transformers (UNEP, 2000).

100. Pre-treatment: Little pre-treatment will be required for in-situ treatment of PCB contaminated transformers. However, ex-situ treatment of PCBs can be done following solvent extraction of PCBs. Treatment of whole capacitors and transformers could be done following size reduction through shredding (UNEP, 2000).

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101. Potential emissions and residues: Air emissions include nitrogen and hydrogen gas. Emissions of organics are expected to be relatively minor (Piersol, 1989). Residues produced during the process include sodium chloride, polybiphenyls and water (UNEP 2004a). In some variations, a solidified polymer is also formed (UNEP, 2000).

102. Post-treatment: After the reaction, the by-products can be separated out from the oil through a combination of filtration and centrifugation. The decontaminated oil can be reused, the sodium chloride can either be reused as a neutralizing agent or disposed of in a landfill, and the solidified polymer can be disposed of in a landfill (UNEP, 2000).

103. Energy requirements: Energy requirements are expected to be relatively low due to low operating temperatures associated with the sodium reduction process.

104. Material requirements: Significant amounts of sodium are required to operate this process (UNEP, 2004a).

105. Portability: This process is available in transportable and fixed configurations (UNEP, 2004a).

106. Health and safety: Dispersed metallic sodium can react violently and explosively with water, presenting a major hazard to operators. Metallic sodium can also react with a variety of other substances to produce hydrogen – a flammable gas that is explosive in admixture with air. Great care must be taken in process design and operation to absolutely exclude water (and certain other substances, e.g. alcohols) from the waste and from any other contact with the sodium.

107. Capacity: Mobile facilities are capable of treating 15,000 litres/day of transformer oil (UNEP, 2004a).

108. Other practical issues: Sodium reduction used for in-situ treatment of PCB contaminated transformer oils may not destroy all the PCBs contained in the porous internals of the transformer. Some authors have noted that there is a lack of information on the characterization of residues (UNEP, 2004a).

109. Economics: Cost estimates provided by vendors include:

i. transformer oils: US$0.15/L, £500 - £1000/t, CAN$4/gallon, CAN$0.90/kg; and

ii. waste oils: CAN$0.60/kg (UNEP, 2000).

It is not clear whether these estimates include costs associated with pre-treatment or disposal of residues.

110. State of commercialization: This process has been used commercially for approximately 20 years (Piersol, 1989).

111. Vendor(s): Include:

i. ABB Transformatoren GmbH - www.abb.lt;

ii. EarthFax Engineering Inc. - www.earthfax.com;

iii. Kinectrics Inc.- www.kinectrics.com;

iv. Powertech Labs Inc.- www.powertechlabs.com; and

v. Sanexen Environmental Services Inc.- www.sanexen.com.

112. Additional information: Available from UNEP, 1998b; UNEP, 2000; and UNEP, 2004a.

4.7.2.2 Base catalyzed decomposition (BCD)

113. Process description: The BCD process involves treatment of wastes in the presence of a reagent mixture consisting of hydrogen donor oil, alkali metal hydroxide and a proprietary catalyst. When the mixture is heated to above 300°C, the reagent produces highly reactive atomic hydrogen. The atomic hydrogen reacts with the waste to remove constituents that confer the toxicity to compounds.

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http://www.sanexen.com/

http://www.powertechlabs.com/

http://www.kinectrics.com/

http://www.earthfax.com/

http://www.abb.lt/


114. Efficiency: DEs of 99.99 – 99.9999% have been reported for DDT, HCB, PCBs, PCDDs and PCDFs (UNEP, 2004a). It has also been reported that reduction of chlorinated organics to less than 2 mg/kg is achievable (UNEP, 2001).

115. Waste types: As noted above, BCD has been demonstrated with DDT, HCB, PCBs, PCDDs and PCDFs. BCD should also be applicable to other POPs (UNEP, 2004a; Vijgen, 2002). BCD should be capable of destroying high concentration wastes, with demonstrated applicability to wastes containing greater than 30% PCBs (Vijgen, 2002). In practice, however it has been noted that the formation of salt within the treated mixture can limit the concentration of halogenated material able to be treated (CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997; Rahuman, Pistone, Trifirò and Miertu, 2000; UNEP 2001). Applicable waste matrices include soil, sediment, sludge and liquids. BCD Group, Inc. also claims that the process has been demonstrated to destroy PCBs in wood, paper and metal surfaces of transformers.

116. Pre-treatment: Soils may be treated directly. However, different types of soil pre-treatment may be necessary:

i. larger particles may need to be removed by sifting and crushed to reduce their size; or

ii. pH and moisture content may need to be adjusted.

Thermal desorption has also been used in conjunction with BCD to remove POPs from soils prior to treatment. In these situations the soil is premixed with sodium bicarbonate prior to being fed into the thermal desorption unit (CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997). Water will need to be evaporated from aqueous media, including wet sludge, prior to treatment. Capacitors can be treated following size reduction through shredding (CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997; UNEP 2001). If volatile solvents are present, such as occurs with pesticides, they should be removed by distillation prior to treatment (CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997).

117. Potential emissions and residues: Air emissions are expected to be relatively minor. The potential to form PCDDs and PCDFs during the BCD process is relatively low. Other residues produced during the BCD reaction include sludge containing primarily water, salt, unused hydrogen donor oil and carbon residue. The vendor claims that the carbon residue is inert and non-toxic (BCD Group, Inc. literature).

118. Post-treatment: Depending on the type of hydrogen donor oil utilized, the slurry residue may be treated in different ways. If No. 6 fuel oil has been used, the sludge may be disposed of as a fuel in a cement kiln. If more refined oils are used, these may be removed from the sludge by gravity or centrifuge separation. The oils can then be re-used and the remaining sludge can be further treated for usage as a neutralizing agent or disposed of in a landfill (UNEP, 2004a). In addition, BCD plants are equipped to with activated carbon traps to minimize releases of volatile organics in gaseous emission (BCD Group, Inc. literature).

119. Energy requirements: Energy requirements are expected to be relatively low due to low operating temperatures associated with the BCD process.

120. Material requirements: Include:

i. Hydrogen donor oil, such as No. 6 fuel oil or Sun Par oils No. LW-104, LW-106 and LW-110.

ii. Alkali or alkali earth metal carbonate, bicarbonate or hydroxide, such as sodium bicarbonate. Amounts range from 1 to about 20% by weight of the contaminated medium. The amount of alkali required is dependent on the concentration of the halogenated contaminant contained in the medium (CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997; UNEP 2001).

iii. Proprietary catalyst amounting to 1% by volume of the hydrogen donor oil.

Equipment associated with this process is thought to be readily available (Rahuman et al., 2000).

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121. Portability: Modular, transportable or fixed plants have been built.

122. Health and safety: In general the health and safety risks associated with operation of this technology are thought to be low (CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997; Rahuman et al., 2000), although a BCD plant in Melbourne, Australia was rendered inoperable following a fire in 1995. The fire is thought to have resulted from the operation of a storage vessel without a nitrogen blanket (CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997). Some associated pre-treatments such as alkaline pre-treatment of capacitors and solvent extraction have significant fire and explosion risks, although they can be minimised through appropriate precautions (CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997).

123. Capacity: BCD can process as much as 2600 gallons per batch, with a capability of treating 2-4 batches/day (Vijgen, 2002; UNEP, 2004a).

124. Other practical issues: Since the BCD process involves stripping chlorine from the waste compound, the treatment process may result in an increased concentration of lower chlorinated species. This can be of potential concern in the treatment of PCDDs and PCDFs, where the lower congeners are significantly more toxic than the higher congeners. It is therefore important that the process be appropriately monitored to ensure that the reaction continues to completion. In the past, it has been reported that the BCD process was unable to treat high concentration wastes due to salt build-up (CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997). More recently, however it has been reported that this problem has been overcome (Vijgen, 2002).

125. Economics: The following cost estimates have been reported by BCD Group, Inc.:

i. Licence fees vary;

ii. Operating royalties range from 5 to 10% of gross revenues/sales;

iii. Capital costs range from US$800,000 to US$1,400,000 for a 2,500 gallon BCD liquid reactor; and

iv. Operating costs range from US$728 to US$1,772 depending on the POP concentration.

It is not clear whether these estimates include potential costs associated with pre-treatment and disposal of residues.

126. State of commercialization: BCD has been used at two commercial operations within Australia. Another commercial system has been operating in Mexico for the past two years. In addition BCD systems have been utilized for short-term projects in Australia, Spain and the United States.

127. Vendor(s): The patent for this technology is held by BCD Group, Inc., Cincinnati, OH 45208, USA (www.bcdinternational.com). BCD Group, Inc. sells licences to operate the technology. Currently, licences are held by companies based in Australia, Japan, Mexico and the United States.

128. Additional information: Available from CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997; Costner, Luscombe and Simpson, 1998; Rahuman et.al, 2000; UNEP, 1998b; UNEP, 2001; UNEP, 2004a; and Vijgen, 2002.

4.7.2.3 Cement kiln co-incineration

129. Process description: Cement kilns typically comprise a long cylinder of 50 to 150 metres, inclined slightly from the horizontal (3 to 4 percent gradient) which is rotated at about 1 to 4 revolutions per minute. Raw materials, such as limestone, silica, alumina and iron oxides are fed into the upper or “cold end” of the rotary kiln. The slope and rotation cause the materials to move toward the lower or “hot” end of the kiln. The kiln is fired at the lower end of the kiln where temperatures reach 1400-1500°C. As the materials move through the kiln, they undergo drying and pyroprocessing reactions to form the clinker.

130. Efficiency: DREs of greater than 99.995 percent have been reported for PCBs (UNEP, 2004b).

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http://www.bcdinternational.com/


131. Waste types: As mentioned above cement kilns have been demonstrated with PCBs, but should be applicable to other POPs. Cement kilns are capable of treating both liquid and solid wastes (CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997; Rahuman et al., 2000; UNEP, 2004b).

132. Pre-treatment: Pre-treatment can involve:

i. thermal desorption of solid wastes prior; and/or

ii. homogenization of solid and liquid wastes through drying, shredding, mixing and grinding.

133. Potential emissions and residues: Potential emissions include carbon dioxide, cement kiln dust, hydrogen chloride, PCBs, PCDDs, PCDFs and water vapour (CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997; Karstensen, 2001). It should be noted however, that cement kilns can comply with PCDD and PCDF air emission levels below 0.1 ng TEQ/Nm3 (UNEP, 2004b). Residues include cement kiln dust captured by the air pollution control system.

134. Post-treatment: Process gases require treatment to remove heat (to minimize formation of PCDDs and PCDFs), cement kiln dust and organic compounds from process gases. Treatments include usage of electrostatic precipitators, fabric filters and activated carbon filters (CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997; Karstensen, 2001; UNEP, 2004b). It has been reported that PCDD and PCDF concentrations within cement kiln dusts range between 0.4 and 2.6 ppb11 (UNEP, 2004b). Therefore recovered cement kiln dusts should be put back into kilns to the maximum extent practicable, while the remainder may require disposal in a specially engineered landfill.

135. Energy requirements: Due to the high operating temperatures and long retention times the fossil fuel requirements for cement kilns are likely to quite high. New kiln systems with 5 cyclone preheater stages and precalciner will require on average of 2900-3200 MJ to produce 1 Mg of clinker (UNEP, 2004b).

136. Material requirements: Cement manufacturing requires large amounts of materials including limestone, silica, alumina, iron oxides and gypsum (CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997).

137. Portability: Cement kilns are available only in fixed configurations.

138. Health and safety: Treatment of wastes within cement kilns can be regarded as relatively safe if properly designed and operated (CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997).

139. Capacity: Cement kilns incinerating wastes as a co-fuel are normally limited up to a maximum of 40 percent of the heat requirement (UNEP, 2004b). It has been noted however, that cement kilns can potentially treat significant quantities of waste due to their high through-put (UNEP, 1998).

140. Other practical issues: Cement kilns treating solid wastes require major modifications to the rotary kiln (CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997; UNEP, 2004b). Solid wastes cannot be fed into the hot end of the kiln, as they will discharge into the clinker without adequate treatment and they cannot be fed into the cool end of the kiln since they will volatilise and will not be adequately destroyed. Solids should be fed midway down the kiln via a specially designed hopper. In addition, older cement kilns may not suitable for treatment of hazardous wastes. Expert advice is required to assess whether any kiln can be used for treatment of hazardous waste (Karstensen, 2001; Rahuman et.al, 2000).

141. Economics: Unknown.

142. State of commercialization: Cement kilns in Canada, United States and Europe have been used to treat hazardous wastes (Karstensen, 2001).

143. Vendor(s): A number of existing cement kiln co-incineration operations are identified within Inventory of World-wide PCB Destruction Capacity (UNEP, 1998).

11 TEQ were not indicated.

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144. Additional information: Available from CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997; Costner et al., 1998; Karstensen, 2001; Rahuman et al., 2000; Stobiecki, Cieszkowski, Silowiecki and Stobiecki, 2001; UNEP, 1998 In addition, information on BAT and BEP with respect to cement kilns firing hazardous waste is available from the European Commission (2001) and UNEP (2004b).

4.7.2.4 Gas phase chemical reduction (GPCR)

145. Process description: The GPCR process involves the thermo-chemical reduction of organic compounds. At temperatures greater than 850°C and low pressures, hydrogen reacts with chlorinated organic compounds to yield primarily methane and hydrogen chloride.

146. Efficiency: DEs of 99.9999% have been reported for DDT, HCB, PCBs, PCDDs and PCDFs (CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997; Kümmling, Gray, Power and Woodland, 2001; Rahuman et al., 2000; UNEP, 2004a; and Vijgen, 2002).

147. Waste types: As noted above, GPCR has been demonstrated with DDT, HCB, PCBs, PCDDs and PCDFs. However, GPCR should also be capable of treating wastes consisting of, containing or contaminated with all other POPs (CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997; UNEP, 2004a; Vijgen, 2002). GPCR is capable of treating high-strength POP wastes (UNEP, 2004a; Vijgen, 2002). GPCR is capable of treating any type of POP waste, including aqueous and oily liquids, soils, sediments, transformers and capacitors (CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997; UNEP, 2004a; Vijgen, 2002).

148. Pre-treatment: Depending on the waste type, one of the following three pre-treatment units is used to volatilize wastes prior to treatment in the GPCR reactor:

i. thermal reduction batch processor (TRBP) for bulk solids, including those in drums;

ii. the TORBED reactor for contaminated soils and sediments, but also adapted for liquids; and

iii. liquid waste pre-heater system (LWPS) for liquids (CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997; Kümmling et al., 2001; UNEP, 2001; UNEP, 2004a; Vijgen, 2004.

In addition, other pre-processing is required for large capacitors and building rubble. Large capacitors are punctured and drained, while rubble and concrete must be reduced in size to less than one square metre (CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997).

149. Potential emissions and residues: Potential emissions include hydrogen chloride, methane and low molecular weight hydrocarbons. Residues from the GPCR process include used liquor and water. Solid residues will also be generated from solid waste inputs (UNEP, 2004a; Vijgen, 2002). Since the GPCR process takes place in a reducing atmosphere the possibility of PCDD and PCDF formation is said to be limited (CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997; Rahuman et al., 2000).

150. Post-treatment: Gases leaving the reactor are scrubbed to remove water, heat, acid and carbon dioxide (Kümmling et al., 2001; CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997; Rahuman et al., 2000). Scrubber residue and particulate will require disposal off-site (Rahuman et.al, 2000; Vijgen, 2002). Solid residues generated from solid waste inputs should be suitable for disposal in a landfill (UNEP, 2004a).

151. Energy requirements: Methane produced during the process can provide much of the fuel needs (CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997; Rahuman et al., 2000; UNEP, 2001; UNEP, 2004a, Vijgen, 2002). It has been reported that electricity requirements range from 96 kWh per tonne of soil treated to around 900 kWh per tonne of pure organics treated (CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997).

152. Material requirements: There is a possible need for hydrogen supplies, at least during start-up. It has been reported that methane produced during the GPCR process can be used to form enough hydrogen to operate the process (CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997; Rahuman et al., 2000; UNEP, 2004a; Vijgen, 2002). However, the hydrogen production unit has been plagued by reliability problems

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in the past (CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997). Other material requirements include caustic for the acid scrubber (UNEP, 2004a).

153. Portability: GPCR is available in fixed and transportable configurations (UNEP, 2001; UNEP, 2004a; Vijgen, 2002).

154. Health and safety: Use of hydrogen gas under pressure requires suitable controls and safeguards to ensure that explosive air-hydrogen mixtures are not formed (CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997). Operating experience gained to date has indicated that the GPCR process can be undertaken safely (CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997; UNEP, 2004a).

155. Capacity: GPCR process capacity is dependent on the capacity of the three pre-treatment units.

i. TRBP has a capacity of up to 100 tonnes of solids per month or up to 4 litres per minute of liquids. Two TRBPs can be used in parallel to double capacity.

ii. TORBED reactor has a capacity of up to 5000 tonnes of soils and sediments per month, although this pre-treatment unit is still in the development stage.

iii. LWPS has a capacity of 3 litres per minute (UNEP, 2004a; Vijgen, 2002).

156. Other practical issues: Contaminants such as sulphur and arsenic were found to inhibit treatment in earlier development stages, although it is unclear whether this is an on-going problem (CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997).

157. Economics: The following cost estimates have been reported for the GPCR process:

i. AUS$4000 to AUS$6000 per tonne for organochloride pesticide solids;

ii. AUS$4000 to AUS$8000 per tonne for PCBs and organochloride pesticide liquids; and

iii. AUS$6000 to AUS $11,000 per tonne for PCB contaminated capacitors (CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997).

158. State of commercialization: Commercial scale GPCR plants have operated in Canada and Australia. The GPCR plant in Australia operated for more than five years. In addition, a semi-mobile GPCR plant has recently been licensed in Japan (CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997; Kümmling et al., 2001; Ray, 2001; UNEP, 2004a; Vijgen, 2002).

159. Vendor(s): The patent for this technology is held by ELI Eco Logic International Inc. (www.ecologic.ca). ELI Eco Logic International Inc sells licences to operate the technology.

160. Additional information: Available from CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997; Costner et al., 1998; Kümmling et al., 2001; Rahuman et al., 2000; Ray, 2001; UNEP, 2001; UNEP, 2004a; and Vijgen, 2002.

4.7.2.5 Hazardous Waste Incineration

161. Process description: Hazardous waste incineration uses controlled flame combustion to treat organic contaminants. Typically a process for treatment of halogenated materials involves heating to a temperature greater than 1000°C, with a residence time greater than 2 seconds, under conditions that assure appropriate mixing. Hazardous waste incinerators are available in a number of configurations including rotary kiln incinerators, high efficiency boilers and light weight aggregate kilns.

162. Efficiency: DREs of greater than 99.9999 percent have been reported for treatment of wastes consisting of, containing or contaminated with POPs (Federal Remediation Technologies Roundtable, (FRTR) 2002; Rahuman et al., 2000; UNEP, 1998; UNEP, 2001).

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163. Waste types: As noted above hazardous waste incinerators are capable of treating wastes consisting of, containing or contaminated with any POP. Incinerators can be designed to accept wastes in any concentration or any physical form, i.e. gases, liquids, solids, sludges and slurries (UNEP, 1995b).

164. Pre-treatment: Depending upon the configuration, pre-treatment requirements may include: blending, dewatering, screening and shredding of wastes (UNEP, 1995b; UNEP, 1998; UNEP, 2004b).

165. Potential emissions and residues: Potential emissions include carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, HCB, hydrogen chloride, particulate manner, PCDDs, PCDFs and PCBs and water vapour (UNEP, 1995b; UNEP, 1998; UNEP, 2004b). It has been reported that inappropriate use of incinerators and poor management procedures can cause incinerators to produce and release PCDDs and PCDFs (UNEP, 2001). However, modern incinerators designed for high temperature and equipped with reformation prevention and dedicated PCDD and PCDF removal facilities have removed the problem of dangerous PCDD and PCDF emissions (UNEP, 2001). Residues include bottom ash, fly ash, salts and scrubber water.

166. Post-treatment: Process gases may require treatment to remove hydrogen chloride and particulate matter and to prevent the formation of and remove unintentionally produced POPs. This can be achieved through a combination types of post-treatments, including: cyclones and multi-cyclones, electrostatic filters, static bed filters, scrubbers, selective catalytic reduction, rapid quenching systems and carbon adsorption (UNEP, 2004b; United States Environmental Protection Agency, 1998). Depending upon their characteristics, bottom and fly ashes may require disposal within a specially engineered landfill (United States Army Corps of Engineers, 2003).

167. Energy requirements: Fossil fuel requirements are likely to be relatively high due to the high temperatures utilized in hazardous waste incineration. However, the exact amount of combustion fuel required will depend upon the calorific value of the waste.

168. Material requirements: Material requirements include cooling water and lime or another suitable material for removal of acid gases.

169. Portability: Hazardous waste incinerators are available in both portable and fixed units.

170. Health and safety: Health and safety hazards include those associated with high operating temperatures and potentially high pressures (United States Army Corps of Engineers, 2003).

171. Capacity: Hazardous waste incinerators can treat between 82 and 270 tons per day of waste (European Commission, 2004) or between 30,000 and 100,000 tons per year (UNEP, 2004b).

172. Other practical issues: None to report at this time.

173. Economics: The following cost structure has been reported for a 70,000 ton per year hazardous waste incineration (European Commission, 2004).

Investment Costs: EurosPlanning/approval 3,000,000Machine parts 16,000,000Other components 14,000,000Electrical works 10,000,000Infrastructure works 6,000,000Construction time 3,000,000Total Investment Costs 54,000,000

Operational Costs EurosCapital financing costs 5,000,000Personnel 3,000,000Maintenance 4,000,000

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Administration 300,000Operating resources/energy 1,300,000Waste disposal 800,000Other 300,000Total Operational Costs 14,700,000Per ton incineration costs (without revenues) 200 – 300

Gate fees at hazardous waste incinerators within Europe have been reported to range between 50 and 1500 Euros (European Commission, 2004).

174. State of commercialization: There is a long history of experience with hazardous waste incineration (UNEP, 2001).

Vendor(s): A number of existing hazardous waste incineration facilities are identified within Inventory of World-wide PCB Destruction Capacity (UNEP, 1998).

175. Additional information: Available from FRTR, 2002; Rahuman et al., 2000; UNEP, 1995b; UNEP, 1998; UNEP, 2001; United States Army Corps of Engineers, 2003. In addition, information on BAT and BEP with respect to hazardous waste incinerators is available from the European Commission (2004) and UNEP (2004b).

4.7.2.6 Mediated electro-chemical oxidation (MEO)

176. MEO is available in different configurations, two of which are described below.

4.7.2.6.1 CerOx

177. Process description: The CerOx process uses electrochemical cells for the generation of the active cerium(IV) oxidant at the anode, a liquid phase reactor for primary organic destruction, a gas phase reactor to destroy any fugitive emissions from the liquid reactor and an acid gas scrubber for removal of acid gases prior to venting to the atmosphere. The process operates at low temperature (90-95˚C) and at atmospheric pressure.

178. Efficiency: DEs of greater than 99.995% for chlordane have been reported under pilot scale tests (Nelson, Neustedter, Steward, Pells, Oberg and Varela, 2001; UNEP 2004a; Vijgen, 2002).

179. Waste types: The CerOx process is applicable to solids, liquids and sludges (UNEP, 2004a). As mentioned above, CerOx has been demonstrated with chlordane under pilot scale tests. In addition, the vendor claims that this process is also applicable to PCDDs, PCBs and all other organic compounds. It has also been reported that the CerOx process should be applicable to all POPs, including high-strength wastes (UNEP, 2004a).

180. Pre-treatment: Solids will require size reduction. Both solids and sludges require homogenization in order that they can be pumped as a liquid. Prior to treatment, liquefied wastes are passed through an ultrasonic mixer which emulsifies immiscible organics (UNEP, 2004a).

181. Potential emissions and residues: Potential air emissions include carbon dioxide and molecular chlorine. The operation of the CerOx process at atmospheric pressure and relatively low temperature, precludes the formation of unintentionally produced POPs during the treatment process (Vijgen, 2002). Residues include hypochlorite in addition to residues from other hetero-atoms present, i.e. nitrate, sulphate and phosphate (Nelson et al. 2001; UNEP, 2004a).

182. Post-treatment: The CerOx process includes an acid gas scrubber for removal of molecular chlorine from gaseous emissions (UNEP, 2004a).

183. Energy requirements: Electrical requirements range from 40 kWh to 23,000 kWh depending on the size of the operation (UNEP, 2004a).

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184. Material requirements: Process tanks for anolyte solutions are titanium, while process tanks for the catholyte are made of stainless steel. Proprietary electrochemical T-CELLs are constructed from polyvinylidene fluoride. Cerium(IV) utilized during the process is regenerated from the reduced cerium(III) by re-oxidation in the electrochemical cell (CerOx Corporation literature). Large quantities of nitric acid are used in the CerOx process (UNEP, 2001).

185. Portability: Potentially transportable in small units (UNEP, 2004a).

186. Health and safety: The CerOx process is relatively easy to control, since the reaction requires application of a continuous electrical current. Due to low production of gaseous emissions, all emissions and residues can be contained and analysed prior to release (Nelson et al., 2001).

187. Capacity: The CerOx process is available in configurations with the following capacities:

i. base unit consisting of two electrochemical cells has a processing capacity of 25 gallons/day;

ii. single units based on multiple electrochemical cells are available with a capacity of up to 100 gallons/day; and

iii. treatment plants with a bank of 30 electrochemical cells, with a capacity of 2-4000 gallons/per day.

All of the above are based on a 50% organic liquid input. Larger installations can be produced from multiples of the above configurations (UNEP, 2004a).

188. Other practical issues: Although the vendor claims that solid wastes can be processed, it is not clear whether the CerOx process could cope with large amounts of inert solids (UNEP, 2001).

189. Economics: No specific information is available regarding economics, although it has been noted that the largest cost component is electricity (UNEP, 2001).

190. State of commercialization: At least two commercial systems have been sold. However, there is no commercial scale experience with wastes consisting of, containing or contaminated with POPs. One system has been installed at the University of California Irvine and was expected to begin processing waste in 2003. Another system was being installed in Merck, New Jersey (Vijgen, 2002).

191. Vendor(s): CerOx Corporation (www.cerox.com) has a patent for the CerOx process, including the cerium process chemistry and specialized equipment for its practice.

192. Additional information: Additional information is available from Costner et al., 1998; Nelson et al.2001; UNEP, 2001; UNEP, 2004a and Vijgen, 2002.

4.7.2.6.2 SILVER II

193. Process description: The SILVER II process uses silver(II) to oxidise organic waste streams. Reactions take place in an electro-chemical cell similar to the type utilized in the chlor-alkali industry. The process operates at low temperature (approximately 90˚C) and at atmospheric pressure.

194. Efficiency: No DEs have been reported for any waste consisting of, containing or contaminated with POPs. However DEs of 99.9999% have been achieved with other wastes (UNEP, 2004a, Vijgen, 2002).

195. Waste types: SILVER II has not been demonstrated with wastes consisting of, containing or contaminated with POPs. However, it has been reported that this technology should theoretically be applicable to all POPs (UNEP, 2004a). SILVER II has been utilized with aqueous wastes, oils, solvents and selected solids (Turner, 2001; UNEP, 2001). There are widely conflicting reports available regarding the effect of waste concentration of the SILVER II process (UNEP, 2001; UNEP, 2004a).

196. Pre-treatment: Solids and some liquids will require significant size reduction and/or mixing (UNEP, 2001).

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197. Potential emissions and residues: Potential air emissions include molecular chlorine and carbon dioxide. The operation of the SILVER II process at atmospheric pressure and relatively low temperature, precludes the formation of unintentionally produced POPs during the treatment process (Turner, 2001; Vijgen, 2002). Residues include hypochlorite plus residues from other hetero-atoms present, i.e. nitrate, sulphate and phosphate (Turner, 2001; Vijgen, 2002).

198. Post-treatment: Scrubbing of gas streams will be necessary to remove acid gases prior to discharge to the atmosphere. Acid effluents can be neutralised by lime and the resulting residue can be disposed of in a landfill (Turner, 2001).

199. Energy requirements: Electrical requirements have not been reported, however they are likely similar to the CerOx process.

200. Material requirements: SILVER II utilizes commercial electro-chemical cells also utilized in the chlor-alkali industry. Materials such as water, acid and silver are recycled in the SILVER II process (Turner, 2001).

201. Portability: Self-contained containerised plants; transportable modular containerised plants and large static plants have been developed (Turner, 2001; Vijgen, 2002).

202. Health and safety: The SILVER II process is relatively easy to control, since the reaction requires application of a continuous electrical current. Due to low production of gaseous emissions, all emissions and residues can be contained and analysed prior to release (Turner, 2001).

203. Capacity: The SILVER II system has been demonstrated with a plant size of up to 12 kW, which equates to a treatment of 30 kg/day (UNEP, 2004a).

204. Other practical issues: Mainly laboratory scale experience with the treatment of POP-related wastes (Turner, 2001; UNEP, 2004a; Vijgen, 2002). With chlorine-containing wastes, the chloride content will precipitate as silver chloride (Turner, 2001). The silver chloride can be treated to recover the silver. However, it has been reported that the process for silver recovery has not yet been developed (UNEP, 2004b). Oxygen gas is required for nitric acid regeneration (UNEP, 2004a).

205. Economics: Overall costs associated with treatment of chemical warfare agents and other military wastes have been estimated to be 30% of those associated with incineration (UNEP, 2001).

206. State of commercialization: Plants have been demonstrated at bench-top and pilot scale and using full-scale industrial electrolytic cells (Turner, 2001). However there is currently no information available regarding the demonstration of the SILVER II process on wastes consisting of, containing or contaminated with POPs. AEA Technology has proposed the evaluating effectiveness of the SILVER II process on pesticides (Turner, 2001).

207. Vendor(s): AEA Technology’s (www.aeat.com) SILVER II process has been patented for the mineralization of a wide range of organic substrates.

208. Additional information: Available from Costner et al., 1998; Rahuman et al., 2000; Turner, 2001; UNEP, 2001, UNEP, 2004a; and Vijgen, 2002.

4.7.2.7 Plasma arc

209. Plasma arc systems are available in several different configurations. Three of these are described below.

4.7.2.7.1 PLASCON

210. Process description: The PLASCON process utilizes a plasma arc with temperatures in excess of 3000˚C to pyrolyse wastes. Together with argon, wastes are injected directly into the plasma arc. The high temperature causes compounds to dissociate into their elemental ions and atoms. Recombination

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occurs in a cooler area of the reaction chamber, followed by a quench resulting in the formation of simple molecules (CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997).

211. Efficiency: Bench scale tests with PCBs have achieved destruction removal efficiencies ranging from 99.9999 to 99.999999% (Rahuman et al., 2000; UNEP, 2004a).

212. Waste types: As mentioned above, PLASCON has been demonstrated with PCB oils containing 60% PCBs. Recently, a PLASCON plant in Australia has been configured to destroy pesticide wastes (UNEP, 2004a). Waste types to be treated must be liquid, gas or solids if in the form of a pumpable fine slurry. Very viscous liquids or sludges thicker than 30 to 40 weight motor oil cannot be processed without pre-treatment. Other solid wastes cannot be treated unless some form of pre-treatment is undertaken (CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997; UNEP, 2004a).

213. Pre-treatment: Pre-treatment is not required for most liquids. Solids such as contaminated soils, capacitors and transformers can be pre-treated using thermal desorption or solvent extraction (CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997; UNEP, 2004a).

214. Potential emissions and residues: Emissions include gases consisting of argon, carbon dioxide and water vapour. Residues include an aqueous solution of inorganic sodium salts, i.e. sodium chloride, sodium bicarbonate and sodium fluoride. Bench-scale tests with PCBs, showed PCDD levels in scrubber water and stack gases in the part per trillion (ppt) range (CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997; Rahuman et al., 2000). At a PLASCON plant in Australia used to destroy a variety of wastes, the level of PCBs in the effluent discharged complies with the 2 ppb limit (UNEP, 2004a). POP concentrations in solid residues are unknown (UNEP, 2004a).

215. Post-treatment: Currently, there is little information available regarding post-treatment requirements.

216. Energy requirements: A 150 kW PLASCON unit requires 1000 to 3000 kWh of electricity per tonne of waste (CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997).

217. Material requirements: Currently, there is little information available regarding material requirements. However, it has been noted that this process does require argon gas, oxygen gas, caustic and cooling water (CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997; UNEP, 2004a).

218. Portability: PLASCON is available in transportable and fixed units (UNEP, 2004a).

219. Health and safety: Since the PLASCON process has a low waste inventory, there is a low risk associated with release of partially treated wastes following process failure (CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997; UNEP, 2004a). Currently, there is little additional information available regarding health and safety.

220. Capacity: A 150 kW PLASCON unit can process 1 to 3 tonnes/day of waste (CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997; UNEP, 2004a).


222. Economics: The capital cost of a 150 kW PLASCON unit has been approximated at US$1 million, depending upon the configuration. Operating costs including labour vary, but are estimated to be under AUS$3000. Typically operating costs range from AUS$1500–2000/tonne. The cost will range depending upon factors such as:

i. waste feed – molecular structure, weight and concentration;

ii. electricity costs;

iii. argon and oxygen costs;

iv. geographic location and site specific issues;

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v. caustic costs; and

vi. required emission limits (CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997; Rahuman et al., 2000; UNEP, 2004a).

It is not clear whether the above includes costs associated with the pre-treatment of solid wastes.

223. State of commercialization: Currently, a plant in Queensland, Australia is operating for the treatment of high-strength PCB wastes (UNEP, 2004a). Two other commercial plants have also been used in Australia for treatment of herbicide wastes and ozone-depleting substances (CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997; Ray, 2001).

224. Vendor(s): The patent for this technology is held by BCD Group, Inc., Cincinnati, OH 45208, USA (www.bcdinternational.com). BCD Group, Inc. sells licences to operate the technology.

225. Additional information: Available from CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997; Costner et al., 1998; Rahuman et al., 2000; Ray, 2001; UNEP, 1998b; UNEP, 2000; UNEP, 2001 and UNEP, 2004a.

4.7.2.7.2 Plasma Arc Centrifugal Treatment (PACT)

226. Process description: The PACT process uses heat generated by a plasma arc to melt the inorganic portion of waste while treating the organic portion. Wastes are fed into a centrifugal chamber heated by a plasma torch. The molten materials reach a temperature of approximately 3000˚C, while gas temperatures range between 927 and 1200˚C. Molten material is drained and cast into a steel slag mould. Process gases are passed into a secondary combustion chamber heated by another plasma torch. Process gases are maintained within the secondary chamber for a 2-second residence time at a temperature of 1200˚C.

227. Efficiency: DRE of 99.99% have been reported with this process (CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997; Rahuman et al., 2000). In addition, the vendor claims that DREs of greater than 99.9999% have been achieved with HCB-contaminated diesel (Womack, 1999).

228. Waste types: As mentioned above, the PACT process has been demonstrated with HCB waste. The PACT process is capable of treating any type of waste at any concentration, i.e. solid, liquid and gaseous wastes (CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997).

229. Pre-treatment: As the process is able to directly treat diverse waste types, pre-treatment is not usually required (CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997).

230. Potential emissions and residues: The PACT process can be operated under pyrolytic conditions with a reducing atmosphere to avoid or minimize PCDD formation and the volume of gases (CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997; Rahuman et al., 2000). Depending on the waste feed, residues include a solid slag-like material. It has been reported that no data have been found to describe the concentrations of undestroyed chemicals in process residues (CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997). However, the vendor claims that the solid slag-like material meets leachability criteria for consideration as a non-hazardous material (Womack, 1999).

231. Post-treatment: Treatment of gaseous emissions will be required prior to release in order to remove acid gases and particulates. Typical gas treatment can consist of a quench tank, a jet scrubber, a packed-bed scrubber and a de-mister (CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997).

232. Energy requirements: Currently there is no specific information available regarding energy requirements. However, it is likely that large amounts of electricity are required to generate the plasma arc.

233. Material requirements: Currently there is little specific information available regarding material requirements. However it is likely that this process will require significant amounts of water for cooling.

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234. Portability: It has been reported that the PACT process is transportable in smaller plant sizes (CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997).

235. Health and safety: Health and safety risks associated with this technology appear to be low for several reasons, including:

i. waste drums can be fed into the process unopened, eliminating direct exposure to personnel to hazardous wastes;

ii. use of mechanical seals and operation at negative pressure prevents release of fugitive emissions; and

iii. utilization of water-cooled chambers reduces exterior surface temperatures and allows for relatively fast shutdown (CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997; Naval Facilities Engineering Service Centre, 2001).

236. Capacity: The vendor has claimed that full-scale systems are able to treat 1000 kg/hr (ReTech literature).

237. Other practical issues: Removal of volatile metals and particulates which are formed from inorganic portions of the waste may require removal by a conventional gas scrubber or gas treatment system (CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997).

238. Economics: It has been reported that the PACT process has a relatively high capital cost (CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997; Rahuman et al., 2000). Operating costs have been reported to be between AUS$4000-8000/tonne (CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997; Rahuman et al., 2000).

239. State of commercialization: At least six production scale operations have been reported (CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997; ReTech literature; Womack, 1999). However it is not clear if any of these operations process wastes consisting of, containing or contaminated with POPs.

240. Vendor(s): Include Retech Systems LLC – www.retechsystemsllc.com.

241. Additional information: Available from CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997; Costner et al., 1998; Naval Facilities Engineering Service Centre, 2001; Rahuman et al., 2000; Ray, 2001; UNEP, 1998b; UNEP, 2000; UNEP, 2001 and Womack, 1999.

4.7.2.7.3 Plasma Waste Converter (PWC)

242. Process description: PWC forces gas through an electrical field to ionise gas into a plasma. The plasma operates at a temperature in the order of 3000 to 5000˚C. The plasma chamber operates at normal atmospheric pressure. Wastes are reduced to their metallic components, a slag and a gas (CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997).

243. Efficiency: Currently there is no specific information available regarding efficiencies.

244. Waste types: The PWC process is capable of treating any type of waste at any concentration, i.e. solid, liquid and gaseous wastes (CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997; UNEP, 2004a). It has been reported that PWC is capable of treating pesticide wastes (UNEP, 2004a). The vendor claims that this process is applicable to treatment of PCBs.

245. Pre-treatment: As the process is able to directly treat diverse waste types, pre-treatment is not usually required (CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997).

246. Potential emissions and residues: It has been reported that gaseous emissions include carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and hydrogen (UNEP, 2004a). It has also been reported that gas recovered from the top of the treatment chamber can be treated and re-used as chemical feed stock or fuel gas (CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997). Solid residues include metals and inert silicate stone (CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997).

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247. Post-treatment: It is likely that post-treatment of gaseous emissions will be required prior to release in order to remove acid gases and particulates. Typical gas treatment can consist of a quench tank, a jet scrubber, a packed-bed scrubber and a de-mister.

248. Energy requirements: It has been reported that moderate energy inputs are required to operate this process (UNEP, 2004a).

249. Material requirements: It has been reported that moderate cooling water supplies will be required (UNEP, 2004a).

250. Portability: The PWC process is available in both fixed and portable configurations (CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997; UNEP, 2004a).

251. Health and safety: It has been reported that there is a risk of explosion from internal cooling water leaks (UNEP, 2004a). In addition, it has been reported that care will be required during handling of the molten metal and slag produced by the process (CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997).

252. Capacity: PWC has been demonstrated to treat 50-100kg per hour and that commercial units have been designed for 10 tonnes per day (UNEP, 2004a).


254. Economics: A 180 kg/hour unit costs approximately AUS$1.6 million. Operating costs have been reported at approximately AUS$413/tonne, but will depend on the waste being treated (CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997).

255. State of commercialization: One vendor has reported the existence of commercial facilities in Japan, with one facility for the treatment of PCB wastes (Startech Environmental Corp. literature). In addition, it has been reported that PWC is a proven, operating, commercial technology (UNEP, 2004a).

256. Vendor(s): Vendors include Startech Environmental Corp. – www.startech.net.

257. Additional information: Available at CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997; Costner et al., 1998; UNEP, 1998b; UNEP, 2000; UNEP, 2001 and UNEP, 2004a.

4.7.2.8 Super-critical water oxidation (SCWO)

258. Process description: SCWO treats wastes in an enclosed system, using an oxidant (e.g. oxygen, hydrogen peroxide, nitrite, nitrate, etc.) in water at temperatures and pressures above the critical point of water (374°C and 218 atmospheres). Under these conditions, organic materials become highly soluble in water and are oxidised to produce carbon dioxide, water and inorganic acids or salts.

259. Efficiency: DREs as high as 99.9999% have been demonstrated for POPs in bench-scale tests with PCDDs, pesticides and pesticides (CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997; Rahuman et al., 2000; Vijgen, 2002).

260. Waste types: SCWO is thought to be applicable to all POPs (UNEP, 2004b). Applicable waste types include aqueous wastes, oils, solvents and solids with a diameter less than 200 µm. Organic content of the waste is limited to less than 20% (CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997; Rahuman et al., 2000; Vijgen, 2002).

261. Pre-treatment: Concentrated wastes may have to be diluted prior to treatment in order to reduce the organic content to less than 20 percent. If solids are present they will have to be reduced to less than 200 µm in diameter.

262. Potential emissions and residues: It has been reported that emissions contain no oxides of nitrogen or acid gases such as hydrogen chloride or sulphur oxide and that process residues consist of water and solids if the waste contains inorganic salts or organics with halogens, sulphur or phosphorus (CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997). Limited information has been reported regarding potential

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concentrations of undestroyed chemicals (CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997; UNEP, 2004a). The process is designed such that emissions and residues can be captured for reprocessing if needed (UNEP, 2004a).

263. Post-treatment: Currently, there is no specific information available regarding post-treatment requirements.

264. Energy requirements: It would be expected that energy requirements would be relatively high due to the combinations of high temperatures and pressures. However, it has been claimed that as long as relatively high hydrocarbon content is present in the feed, no energy input is required to heat up the feed to supercritical temperatures (Rahuman et al., 2000).

265. Material requirements: The SCWO reaction vessel must be constructed of materials capable of resisting corrosion caused by halogen ions (Vijgen, 2002). At the temperatures and pressures utilized in the SCWO process material corrosion can be severe. In the past, the use of titanium alloys has been proposed to address this problem. Current vendors claim to have overcome this problem through the use of advanced materials and engineering designs (Vijgen, 2002).

266. Portability: Currently utilized in a fixed configuration, but SCWO units are thought to be transportable (UNEP, 2004a; Vijgen, 2004).

267. Health and safety: The high temperatures and pressures used in this process require special safety precautions (CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997).

268. Capacity: Current SCWO demonstration units are capable of treating 500 kg/hr, while full-scale units are going to be designed to treat 2700 kg/hr (UNEP, 2004a; Vijgen, 2002).

269. Other practical issues: Earlier designs were plagued by reliability, corrosion and plugging problems. However, current vendors claim to have addressed these problems through the use of special reactor designs and corrosion resistant materials (UNEP, 2004a; Vijgen, 2002).

270. Economics: Costs of $120 to $140 per dry ton assuming some pre-treatment have been reported (CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997). It is not clear whether this estimate incorporates capital costs or costs associated with the disposal of any residues.

271. State of commercialization: A commercial full-scale plant has recently begun operating in Japan. In addition, the SCWO process has been approved for full-scale development and use in the US Chemical Weapons programme.

272. Vendor(s): Include:

i. General Atomics – www.ga.com, and

ii. Foster Wheeler Development Corporation – www.fosterwheeler.com

273. Additional information: Available from CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997; Costner et al., 1998; Rahuman et al., 2000; UNEP, 2001; and UNEP, 2004a.

4.7.3 Other disposal methods when destruction or irreversible transformation does not represent the environmentally preferable option274. Where destruction or irreversible transformation does not represent the environmentally preferable option, for wastes with a POP content above the low POP content referred to in section 3.1, a country may allow such wastes to be disposed of by other means.

275. Wastes containing or contaminated with POPs where other disposal methods may be considered include the following.

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http://www.fosterwheeler.com/

http://www.ga.com/


i. Waste from power stations and other combustion plants (except iv.); iron and steel industry; and aluminium, lead, zinc, copper and other non-ferrous thermal metallurgy. These include bottom ash, slag, salt slags, fly ash, boiler dust, flue-gas dust, other particulates and dust, solid wastes from gas treatment, black drosses, wastes from treatment of salt slags and black drosses, dross and skimmings.

ii. Carbon-based and other linings and refractories from metallurgical processes.

iii. The following construction and demolition waste:

a. mixtures of, or separate fractions of concrete, bricks, tiles and ceramics;b. soil including excavated soil from contaminated sites, stones and dredging spoil;c. inorganic fraction of soil and stones;d. construction and demolition wastes containing PCBs, excluding PCB containing

equipment.iv. Wastes from incineration or pyrolysis of waste: solid wastes from gas treatment, bottom ash,

slag, fly ash and boiler dust.

v. Vitrified wastes and waste from vitrification including: fly ash and other flue-gas treatment wastes and non-vitrified solid phase.

vi. Automobile shredder residue containing PCBs.

276. The relevant authority of the country concerned should be satisfied that destruction or irreversible transformation of the POP content, performed according to best environmental practice or best available techniques, does not represent the environmentally preferable option.

277. Other disposal methods when destruction or irreversible transformation does not represent the environmentally preferable option include those described below.

4.7.3.1 Specially engineered landfill278. A specially engineered landfill typically has features such as installed drainage to recover leakage, providing for leachate management including recirculation and gas control systems where appropriate. Operational permits should include specifications regarding types and concentrations of wastes to be accepted, leachate and gas control systems, monitoring, on-site security, and closure and post-closure.

279. The following wastes containing or contaminated with PCBs are not suitable for disposal within hazardous waste landfills:

i. liquids and materials containing free liquids,

ii. empty containers unless they are crushed, shredded or similarly reduced in volume, and

iii. explosives, flammable solids, spontaneously combustible materials, water-reactive materials, oxidizers and organic peroxides.

280. Further information is available within Technical Guidelines on Specially Engineered Landfill (D5) (UNEP, 1995b).

4.7.3.2 Permanent storage in underground mines281. Permanent storage in facilities located in salt mines (and hard rock) is an option to separate hazardous wastes from the biosphere for geological periods of time. A site-specific security assessment according to pertinent national legislation such as the provisions contained in Appendix A to the Annex of the European “Council Decision 2003/33/EC of 19 December 2002 establishing criteria and procedures for the acceptance of waste at landfills pursuant to Article 16 of and Annex II to Directive 1999/31/EC” should be performed for every planned underground storage.

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282. Any waste to be disposed of in an underground storage should be subject to an acceptance procedure laid down by the competent authority. The wastes should be stored in chemically and mechanically secure containers. They should be disposed of in such a way that any undesirable reaction between different wastes as well as between wastes and storage lining is excluded. Wastes that are either liquid, gaseous, causing toxic gases, explosive, flammable or infectious should be excluded from underground storage. The competent authority may define waste types which should be generally excluded.

283. The following should be considered in the selection of permanent storage in underground mines for disposal of wastes consisting of, containing or contaminated with PCBs:

i. caverns or tunnels used for storage should be completely separated from active mining areas and should not to be opened for mining again;

ii. caverns or tunnels should be located in a geologic formation that is well below the zone of available groundwater in the area, or a formation that is completely isolated (by impermeable rock or clay layers) from water bearing zones; and

iii. caverns and tunnels should be located in a geologic formation that is extremely stable and not within an earthquake zone.

4.7.4 Other disposal methods when the POP content is low284. In addition to the disposal methods described above, wastes containing or contaminated with POPs at concentrations beneath the low POP content may be disposed in accordance with pertinent national legislation and international rules, standards and guidelines, including those the Specific Technical Guidelines developed under the Basel Convention. Examples of pertinent national legislation can be found in Appendix 2 of the General Technical Guidelines for Environmentally Sound Management of Wastes Consisting of, Containing or Contaminated with Persistent Organic Pollutants.

4.8 Remediation of contaminated sites285. Poor handling and storage practices may lead to releases of PCBs at sites storing these chemicals, resulting in sites contaminated with high levels of PCBs. Such highly contaminated sites may pose serious health concerns. For information on the identification and remediation of contaminated sites please refer to section 4.8 of the General Technical Guidelines for Environmentally Sound Management of Wastes Consisting of, Containing or Contaminated with Persistent Organic Pollutants.

4.9 Health and safety286. A health and safety plan for an individual facility should be developed by a trained health and safety professional with experience in PCB, PBB and/or PCT management. In general there are three main ways to protect workers from chemical hazards (in order of preference):

i. Keep the worker away from all possible sources of contamination

ii. Control the contaminants so that the possibility of exposure is minimized

iii. Protect the worker using personal protective equipment.

287. All health and safety plans should adhere to the above principles and recognize local or national labour standards. For further information please refer to section 4.9 of the General Technical Guidelines for Environmentally Sound Management of Wastes Consisting of, Containing or Contaminated with Persistent Organic Pollutants.

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4.9.1 High-volume, high-concentration or high-risk situations288. High-volume, high-concentration or high-risk PCB, PCT or PBB situations may include:

i. electrical rooms with large or multiple PCB transformers;

ii. handling for transport;

iii. dedicated (large volume) storage sites;

iv. treatment and disposal areas; and

v. sites contaminated with a high concentration of PCBs, PCTs or PBBs at or near the surface.

289. At a minimum, the following should be included in PCB, PCT or PBB health and safety plans for high-volume, high-concentration situations or high-risk situations:

i. the Health and Safety Plan (HASP) should be in writing, with a copy posted at each site;

ii. each worker who is to have access to the site should read the HASP and sign that they have read and understood it;

iii. the HASP may be written to encompass all hazards at a site but should have a section or chapter specifically detailing procedures for PCBs, PCTs or PBBs;

iv. workers should only be present at a site when necessary for the servicing or inspection of equipment or stored materials;

v. workers entering a site should have appropriate health and safety and operational training for chemical, physical and biological hazards;

vi. health and safety training should be performed annually;

vii. PCBs, PCTs and PBBs should be routinely monitored for these contaminants in air;

viii.when appropriate, workers entering a site should wear appropriate respiratory protection and impermeable fabric should cover the entire body (i.e., coveralls with hood, face-shield, gloves and boot covers or a full-body suit);

ix. spill cleanup kits and personal decontamination materials should be present in all areas containing PCBs, PCTs or PBBs;

x. workers who are, or are expected to be, routinely entering sites or working with these substances should be medically monitored including a baseline medical examination;

xi. where PCBs, PCTs or PBBs are to be handled in an open system, or where it is reasonably expected that the protective clothing of a worker may contact PCBs, PCTs or PBBs, a “contaminant reduction” zone should be established where workers can be decontaminated and remove their protective equipment; and

xii. the HASP and general work procedures should be reviewed at least annually and revised if necessary to enhance safety and health at the site.

4.9.2 Low-volume, low-concentration sites or low-risk situations290. The recommended health and safety practice in Section 4.9.1 do not apply to sites that contain PCBs, PCTs and/or PBBs in amounts or concentrations that are not seen as acute or chronically hazardous to human health and the environment. Low-volume, low-concentration or low-risk situations may include:

i. electrical transformers or other equipment with low-level PCB-contaminated mineral oil;

36 August, 2004


ii. properties that contain products or articles that contain or are contaminated with PCBs in small quantities or low concentrations (e.g. light ballasts containing PCBs in the fluorescent fixtures);

iii. facilities that unintentionally generate and release PCBs, PCTs or PBBs in very low concentrations with respect to human exposure limits; and

iv. sites contaminated with a low concentration of PCBs, PCTs or PBBs or where the contamination cannot directly come into contact with workers (i.e., contamination is underground or under water and is not being excavated).

291. Despite the low-risk, some health and safety measures should be taken to minimize exposure, including health and safety training of personnel who are likely to come into contact with PCBs, PCTs or PBBs.

4.10 Emergency response292. Emergency response plans should be in place for PCBs, PBBs and PCTs that are in-service, in storage, in transport and at a disposal site. Further information on Emergency response plans can be found in section 4.10 of the General Technical Guidelines for Environmentally Sound Management of Wastes Consisting of, Containing or Contaminated with Persistent Organic Pollutants or Preparation of a National Environmentally Sound Plan for PCB and PCB-Contaminated Equipment: Training Manual (UNEP, 2003a).

4.11 Public participation293. Parties to the Basel or Stockholm Convention should have an open public participation process. For further information please refer to section 4.11 of the General Technical Guidelines for Environmentally Sound Management of Wastes Consisting of, Containing or Contaminated with Persistent Organic Pollutants.

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Appendix 1: Synonyms and trade names for PCBs, PCTs and PBBsChemical Some Synonyms and Trade Names12

PCBs Aceclor, Adkarel, ALC, Apirolio (Italy), Arochlor, Arochlors, Aroclor/Arochlor(s) (US), Arubren, Asbestol, Ask/Askarel/Askael, Auxol, Bakola, Biphenyl, Biphenyl, Chlorinated, Chlophen, Chloretol, Chlorextol, Chlorfin, Chlorinal/Chlorinol, Chlorinated biphenyl, Chlorinated diphenyl , Chlorobiphenyl, Chlorodiphenyl, Chlorphen, Chorextol, Chorinol, Clophen/Clophenharz (Germany), Cloresil, Clorinal, Clorphen, Decachlorodiphenyl, Delor, Delorene , Diaclor, Dicolor, Diconal, Diphenyl, chlorinated, DK, Duconal, Dykanol, Educarel, EEC-18, Elaol (Germany), Electrophenyl, Elemex, Elinol, Eucarel, Fenchlor (Italy), Fenclor, Fenocloro, Gilotherm, Hydol, Hyrol, Hyvol, Inclor, Inerteen, Inertenn, Kanechlor (Japan), Kaneclor, Kennechlor, Kenneclor, Leromoll, Magvar, MCS 1489, Montar, Nepolin, NoFlamol, No-Flamol, Non-Flamol, Olex-sf-d, Orophene, Pheaoclor, Phenochlor, Phenoclor, Plastivar, Polychlorinated diphenyl, Polychlorinated diphenyls, Polychlorobiphenyl, Polychlorodiphenyl, Prodelec, Pydraul, Pyraclor, Pyralene (France), Pyranol (US), Pyroclor (US) Phenoclor (France), Pyronol, Safe-T-Kuhl, Saf-T-Kohl, Saf-T-Kuhl, Santosol, Santotherm (Japan), Santovac, Solvol, Sorol, Soval, Sovol (USSR), Sovtol, Terphenychlore, Therminal, Therminol, Turbinol

PCTs Aroclor (US), Clophen Harz (W), Cloresil (A,B,100), Electrophenyl T-50 and T60, Kanechlor KC-C (Japan). Leromoll, Phenoclor, Pydraul

PBBs Adine 0102, BB-9, Berkflam B10, Bromkal 80, Firemaster BP-6, Firemaster FF-1, Flammex B-10, hbb, hexabromobiphenyl, HFO 101, obb, BB-8, Berkflam B10

12 The list of trade names is not intended to be exhaustive.

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Appendix 2: ReferencesAMAP, 2000. Multilateral Co-operative Project on Phase-out of PCB Use and Management of

PCBcontaminated Wastes in the Russian federation – Phase I: Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme. Oslo, Norway.

China State Environmental Protection Agency, 2002. Terms of Reference: Development of a PCB Inventory Methodology and a Draft Strategy on PCB Reduction and Disposal in China (Draft). Document prepared for the World Bank, Beijing, China.

CMPS&F – Environment Australia, 1997. Appropriate Technologies for the Treatment of Scheduled Wastes Review Report Number 4. Available at www.deh.gov.au

Costner, P., D. Luscombe and M. Simpson, 1998. Technical Criteria for the Destruction of Stockpiled Persistent Organic Pollutants. Greenpeace International Service Unit.

European Commission, 2001. Reference Document on Best Available Techniques in the Cement and Lime Manufacturing Industries. Available at http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/ippc/

European Commission, 2004. Draft Reference Document on Best Available Techniques for Waste Incineration, March, 2004. Available at http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/ippc/

Environment Canada, 1988. Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCB) – Fate and Effects in the Canadian Environment. Environment Canada report EPS 4/HA/2, May, 1988.

FRTR, 2002. Remediation Technologies Screening Matrix and Reference Guide, Version 4.0. Available at www.frtr.gov/matrix2/top_page.html

Jensen, A.A. and K.F Jørgensen, 1983. Polychlorinated terphenyls (PCT) uses, levels and biological effects. Sci. Total Environ. 27:231-250.

Karstensen, K.H. , 2001. Disposal of obsolete pesticides in cement kilns in developing countries. Lessons learned – How to proceed. 6th International HCH & Pesticides Forum Book, 20-22 March 2001, Poznan, Poland, November 2001.

Kümmling, K. Elizabeth, Douglas J. Gray, Jim P. Power and Sherri E. Woodland, 2001 Gas-phase chemical reduction of hexachlorobenzene and other chlorinated compounds: Waste treatment experience and applications. 6th International HCH & Pesticides Forum Book, 20-22 March 2001, Poznan, Poland, November 2001.

Holoubek, I., 2000. Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCB) World-Wide Contaminated Sites. Downloaded from http://www.recetox.chemi.muni.cz/PCB/content173.htm.

IMO, 2002. International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code. Avaliable at www.imo.org

IPCS, 1992. Environmental Health Criteria 140: Polychlorinated Biphenyls and Polychlorinated Terphenyls. Published by UNEP, ILO and WHO, Geneva.

IPCS, 1994. Environmental Health Criteria 152: Polybrominated Biphenyls. Published by UNEP, ILO and WHO, Geneva.

Lassen, C., Løkke, S. and Andersen, L.I. 1999. Brominated flame retardants – substance flow analysis and assessment of alternatives. Environmental Project No. 494, Danish EPA, Copenhagen. Available at www.mst.dk/udgiv/Publications/1999/87-7909-416-3/html/default_eng.htm

Naval Facilities Engineering Service Centre, 2001. Joint Service Pollution Prevention Opportunity Handbook, II-10 Plamsa Arc Technology. Available at http://p2library.nfesc.navy.mil/P2_Opportunity_Handbook

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http://p2library.nfesc.navy.mil/P2_Opportunity_Handbook

http://www.mst.dk/udgiv/Publications/1999/87-7909-416-3/html/default_eng.htm

http://www.imo.org/

http://www.frtr.gov/matrix2/top_page.html

http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/ippc/

http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/ippc/

http://www.deh.gov.au/


Nelson, Norvell, Thomas Neustedter, G. Anthony Steward, Wendell Pells, Steve Oberg and Juan Varela, 2001. Destruction of highly chlorinated pesticides and herbicides using the CerOx process. 6th International HCH & Pesticides Forum Book, 20-22 March 2001, Poznan, Poland, November 2001.

OECD, 2004. Draft Recommendation of the Council on the Environmentally Sound Management (ESM) of Waste C(2004)100. Adopted June 9, 2004. Available at www.oecd.org

Piersol, P. 1989. The Evaluation of Mobile and Stationary Facilities for the Destruction of PCBs. Environment Canada Report EPS 3/HA/5, May 1989.

Rahuman, M.S.M. Mujeebur; Luigi Pistone; Ferruccio Trifirò and Stanislav Miertu, 2000. Destruction Technologies for Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs). Available at www.unido.org

Ray, Ian D., 2001. Management of chlorinated wastes in Australia. 6th International HCH & Pesticides Forum Book, 20-22 March 2001, Poznan, Poland, November 2001.

Stobiecki, S., J. Cieszkowski, A. Silowiecki and T. Stobiecki. Disposal of pesticides as an alternative fuel in cement kiln: project outline. 6th International HCH & Pesticides Forum Book, 20-22 March 2001, Poznan, Poland, November 2001.

Turner, Andrew D., 2001. Implications of the ACWA SILVER II programme for pesticide and herbicide destruction. 6th International HCH & Pesticides Forum Book, 20-22 March 2001, Poznan, Poland, November 2001.

UNECE, 2002. Report on Production and Use of PCT (draft). Prepared for the UNECE Expert Group on POPs.

UNEP, 1995a. Basel Convention: Manual for Implementation. Available at www.basel.int

UNEP, 1995b. Technical Guidelines on Incineration on Land (D10). Available at www.basel.int

UNEP, 1998. Inventory of World-Wide PCB Destruction Capacity. Available at www.chem.unep.ch

UNEP, 1999. Guidelines for the identification of PCB and materials containing PCB. Available at www.chem.unep.ch

UNEP, 2000. Survey of Currently Available Non-Incineration PCB Destruction Technologies. Available at www.chem.unep.ch

UNEP, 2001. Destruction and Decontamination Technologies for PCB and Other POPs Wastes Part III. Available at www.basel.int

UNEP, 2003a. Preparation of a National Environmentally Sound Plan for PCB and PCB-Contaminated Equipment: Training Manual. Available at www.basel.int

UNEP, 2003b. Interim guidance for developing a national implementation plan for the Stockholm Convention. Available at www.pops.int

UNEP, 2003c. Standardized Toolkit for the Identification and Quantification of PCDD and PCDF. Available at www.pops.int

UNEP, 2004a. Review of the Emerging, Innovative Technologies for the Destruction and Decontamination of POPs and the Identification of Promising Technologies for Use in Developing Countries. Available at www.unep.org/stapgef

UNEP, 2004b. Draft Guidelines on Best Available Techniques and Provisional Guidance on Best Environmental Practices. Available at www.pops.int

United States Army Corps of Engineers, 2003. Safety and Health Aspects of HTRW Remediation Technologies. Available at www.usace.army.mil

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http://www.usace.army.mil/

http://www.pops.int/

http://www.unep.org/stapgef/



http://www.basel.int/


http://www.chem.unep.ch/





http://www.unido.org/

http://www.oecd.org/


United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2003. On-Site Incineration: Overview of Superfund Operating Experience. Available at www.epa.gov

Vijgen, John, 2002. NATO/CCMS Pilot Study: Evaluation of Demonstrated and Emerging Technologies for the Treatment of Contaminated Land and Groundwater. Available at www.unep.org/stapgef

Womack, R.K., 1999. Using the Centrifugal Method for the Plasma-Arc Vitrification of Waste. JOM: The Member Journal of the Minerals, Metals and Materials Society. Available at www.tms.org/pubs/journals/JOM

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http://www.tms.org/pubs/journals/JOM

http://www.unep.org/stapgef/

http://www.epa.gov/

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