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TABLE 2: Summary of major findings of the included 44 studies

Authors

Location

Participants

Study design

Main results

Prows and Latta, 1995

United States

28 staff-registered nurses from a childrens hospital medical center.

Age: Not reported

Race/Ethnicity: Not reported

Years of practice: Not reported

Pre/post design with three-, six- and 12 month follow-ups

Knowledge:

Knowledge significantly increased from pre-test to post-test scores.

Practice behavior:

Total number of genetic services continuously increased in three- and six-month follow-ups.

Program assessment:

Comments about the workshop were generally positive.

Although overall positive response, mixed comments about the preceptorship.

Huang et al., 1997

Taiwan

361 community health nurses and 74 maternal-child nurses.

Age: Median age = 30 years old (range 2047), for community health nurses and median age = 25 years old (range 2238) for maternal-child nurses



One-shot case study/descriptive cross-sectional

Knowledge:

Significantly higher scores for community health nurses versus maternal-child nurses.

Kolb et al., 1999

United States

121 primary healthcare providers from community health clinics (n = 85 registered nurses, n = 19 physicians, n = 8 vocational nurses, n = 8 social workers, and n = 1 dietitian).

Age: Not reported



Pre/post design

Knowledge:

Significantly increased from pre-test to post-test scores.

Attitudes:

Significantly improved toward providing genetic services from pre-test to post-test scores.

Gaff et al., 2001

Australia

10 oncology nurses attended a cancer genetics resource training course.

Age: Not reported



One-shot case study/descriptive cross-sectional with 6-month follow-up

Skills:

Counseling skills increased.

Practice behavior:

Increased genetics practice behavior (e.g., referring patients to an appropriate provider and applying new skills in practice).

Program assessment:

General satisfaction with the course (e.g. content usefulness, quality of teaching, relevance to work).

Swank et al., 2001

United States

100 registered nurses working at 177 reproductive health centers completed the baseline study (pre-test). Among them, 65 completed the post-test survey.

Age: Not reported


Years of practice: Practicing nurses for 16.9 years on average (SD = 9.9, range: 135 years) and practicing IVF nurses for 5.8 years on average (SD = 4.7, range: 0.116 years)

Pre/post design

Knowledge:


Self-efficacy:

Significantly increased from pre-test to post-test scores in identifying egg donors genetic risks.

Program assessment:

Exceptionally positive comments regarding the education in various aspects (e.g., content, format, and meeting learning objectives). Suggestions came from several participants regarding specific topics and delivery methods for future education.

Masny et al., 2003

United States

164 oncology nurses, who had more than 2 years of experience in oncology, were recruited by mail and word of mouth in five U.S. states to attend the familial cancer risk assessment course and completed a baseline survey. 141 nurses completed a post-test evaluation for the changes of cancer genetics knowledge. 100 nurses completed a post-test survey 6 months later for assessing the nurses role in the cancer risk assessment.

Age: Not reported


Years of practice: 11 years (range: 128 years)

Pre/post design with a 6-month follow- up

Knowledge:


Self-efficacy:

Significant increase from pre-test to six-month post-test in cancer family history taking, risk assessment based on family history, and follow-up recommendations.

Practice behavior:

Significant increase from pre-test to six-month post-test in collecting certain family histories and using certain methods to evaluate patients cancer risk. The number of participants that utilized the family pattern of cancer (p < .001) and information from genetic testing information (p 0.01) for communicating cancer risk also significantly increased.

Blazer et al., 2004

United States

710 community-based clinicians (mainly primary care physicians, gynecologists, oncologists, gastrointestinal specialists, and other physicians, nurses, and genetic counselors) attended either 1-hour seminars or a full-day conference. 69 clinicians completed the long-term (11-month) follow-up survey.

Age: Not reported



Pre/post design with an 11-month follow-up

Knowledge:

Significantly increased from pre-test to post-test scores for physicians, nurses, and genetic counselors.

Practice behavior:

Follow-up survey indicated that overall 1) 77% of participants used course information and referral guidelines to counsel patients about risk or to refer patients for further risk assessment and 2) 80% of participants shared the information with other clinicians.

Program assessment:

General satisfaction with the curriculum (e.g., content, delivery, and relevance to practice).

Blazer et al., 2005

United States

23 genetic counselors, 14 advanced practitioner nurses, and 3 physicians in clinical genetics practice passed a competitive selection process to attend the cancer genetics education program. Attendees filled out the post-course survey 6 months (n = 35) and 1 year (n = 29) after the program.

Age: Not reported



Pre/post design with 6-month and one-year follow-up

Knowledge:


Self-efficacy:

One year after the course, participants stated that the educational experience increased their self-efficacy in cancer genetics practice (76%) and cancer risk assessment and recommendation skills (62%).

Practice behavior:

One year after the course, 35 participants were actively practicing cancer risk assessment and 19 saw more patients for cancer risk assessments.

Program assessment:

General satisfaction with the course among participants.

Macri et al., 2005

United States

28 obstetrician-gynecologist residents at an urban, university-based residency program.

Age: Not reported



Pre/post design

Knowledge:


Self-efficacy:

Majority of the participants indicated that the training enhanced their confidence in family history taking, pedigree drawing, Web-based resource searching, and patient counseling.

Program assessment:

Most participants highly rated the program.

Bodzin, 2005

United States

41 health professionals (52% working in public health practice/research, 24% healthcare provision, and other fields such as nursing, education, counseling, and basic sciences) watched the Module 1 of Six Weeks to Genomics Awareness Web-based training.

Age: Not reported


Years of practice: Majority (63%) more than 10 years


Knowledge

On a 10-point scale, participants reported about a 7-point score, indicating that the training enhanced their genomics knowledge.

Self-efficacy

Majority of the participants did not feel confident enough to apply knowledge to their practice settings.

Program assessment:

Most participants highly rated the module.

Bell et al., 2007

United States

171 nurses (mainly registered nurses working in an acute care setting) attended a regional psychiatric conference entitled, Mental Health Nursing and Genomics. 119 completed both pre- and immediate post-conference surveys, and 59 filled out a 3-month follow-up survey.

Age: Not reported


Years of practice: More than 9 years

Pre/post design with a 3-month follow-up

Knowledge:

Significantly increased from pre-test to post-test scores and was maintained from the post-test to the follow-up.

Practice behavior:

From the pre-test to follow-up, there was an increase in using genomics information for self-education (~30% increase), patient education (10% increase), and education for colleagues (29% increase).

From the pre-test to the follow-up, there was an increase in positive response to this statement: the patient population with whom I work has experienced genetic testing.

Clyman et al., 2007

United States

143 general practitioners (68 physicians and 75 family practice residents) at the Mid-Hudson Family Health Institute

Age: Not reported



Pre/post design

Knowledge:


Program assessment:

Lectures were perceived as useful, easily understandable, of good quality, and impacting medical practice by most participants.

Mrazek et al., 2007

United States

41 physicians (psychiatrists and others), nurses, social workers, psychologists, researchers, and other mental health professionals at the Mayo Clinic

Age: Mean = 52.5 years old




Attitudes:

Religion, age, and gender affected

participants attitudes toward clinical

genetic testing (post-test data).

Altshuler et al., 2008

United States

60 pediatric residents at the Maimonides Infants & Childrens Hospital

Age: Not reported



Pre/post design

Comfort level:

Significantly increased in genetic clinical skills overall and in 5 of 12 specific tasks (pre-/post-test analysis).

Program assessment:

Participants reported valuable training experience (i.e., being relevant to clinical work, containing new information, and providing fair and valuable feedback, with intention to participate again).

Bethea et al., 2008

United Kingdom

217 general practitioners and practice nurses from four rural and urban areas served by 1 hospital-based genetics unit (29 participated in a genetic education outreach program and 188 were the control group.)

Age: Not reported



Quasi-experimental design

Knowledge:

Significantly increased from pre-test to post-test scores in the intervention (education) group for breast cancer risk categorization.

Self-efficacy:

Compared to the control group, the intervention group confidence was significantly increased in breast and bowel cancer risk assessment, family history collection, and low-risk patient reassurance.

Blaine et al., 2008

Canada

93 family physicians at two large Canadian family medicine (continuing education) conferences

Age: 60% < 44 years old


Years of practice: 10 years or more (57%)

Pre/post design

Knowledge:

Perceived increases in understanding of genetic testing (post-test).

Attitudes:

From pre/post-test analysis, significantly positive attitudes toward: 1) the importance of preparing a patient in advance for what to expect at a genetic appointment, 2) the purpose of a referral to genetics is to obtain genetic testing, and 3) the genetic counselor will decide whether or not the patient undergoes genetic testing.

Intention:

Increased intention to take thorough family histories among participants.

Self-efficacy:

Perceived increase in confidence in genetics referral (post-test).

Program assessment

Positive experience for most participants, and nearly all would recommend it to their colleagues.

Masny et al., 2008

United States

41 nurses, who intended to provide/actually provided cancer risk assessments at the Fox Chase Cancer Center, attended a nursing training program in familial cancer risk counseling.

Age: Not reported


Years of practice: cancer risk assessment experience < 1 year: 70%;

cancer risk counselling experience: 2 months5 years

Pre/post design with six-month follow-ups (course evaluation) and a post-course interview (mentorship evaluation)

Self-efficacy:

Significant improvements in all familial cancer risk assessments and counseling skills from baseline to six months after the program.

Comfort level:

Improved comfort level in consulting cases with genetic health professionals.

Practice behavior:

Increased numbers of nurses who had consulted cases with genetic nurses and counselors from baseline, three-month, and six-month post-intervention data.

Program assessment:

Positive comments for the mentorship, but there were differences in experiences regarding mentorship between nurses who had less than one year of cancer risk assessment/counseling experience and those with more than one year of experience.

Carroll et al., 2009

Canada

29 primary care providers who attended a full-day workshop. Program evaluation was based on 21 attendees who completed baseline and follow-up questionnaires (14 family physicians, 6 nurses/nurse practitioners, and one other).

Age: Mean = 46 years old for 21 attendees


Years of practice: 1019 years (62%), > 20 years (29%)


Knowledge:

Significant increase in adult-onset genetic disorders (self-rated knowledge) and colorectal cancer genetic knowledge (objective knowledge test) (pre-test and follow-up data comparison).

Attitudes:

Significant increase in agreements regarding the statement genetic testing is beneficial in the management of adult-onset genetic diseases (pre-test and follow-up data comparison).

Intention:

Intention to improve family history taking (71%).

Self-efficacy:

Significantly improved in confidence in clinical practice related to adult-onset genetic disorders and several specific tasks related to genetic risk assessment, genetic testing, and counseling (pre-test and follow-up data comparison).

Significantly improved in confidence in acting as a resource person in adult-onset genetic disorders for their colleagues. (Pre-test and follow-up data comparison)

Program assessment:

Workshop rated as effective and relevant to practice by most participants.

Laberge et al., 2009

United States

79 primary care physicians (e.g., family physicians, pediatricians, internists, obstetricians, gynecologists, and internal medicine specialists) and 21 genetic professionals (i.e., clinical geneticists and genetic counselors) from 20 teaching medical universities (evaluation data were based on 19 universities)

Age: Not reported



One-shot case study/descriptive cross-sectional (follow-up evaluation after three years of completing the training)

Practice behavior:

86% of primary care physician participants reported more clinical genetic practice.

Program assessment:

Overall positive comments from both primary care physicians and genetic professional participants regarding the program, and they would recommend it to their colleagues. However, participants identified several challenges in real practice.

Antoun et al., 2010

Lebanon

168 Lebanese and Arab primary care practitioners with specialties in family medicine, internal medicine, and general practice, among others, attended a symposium entitled "Genetics for Primary Care Physicians. Further, 128 practitioners completed the first survey regarding demographic information and practice in genetic testing and counseling before the symposium, and 48 completed an evaluation survey after the symposium.

Age: Mean = 41 years old for the 128 who completed the first survey

Race/Ethnicity: Most were Lebanese for the 128 who completed the first survey.


One-shot case study/descriptive cross-sectional $

Intention:

Participants expressed willingness to start or refer patients for genetic testing and counseling (post-test data).

Pestka et al., 2010

Singapore

85 nurses from Singapore Health Services attended the semester and 76 completed the evaluation survey after the semester

Age: Not reported


Years of practice: > 9 years (65%)


Knowledge:

Of the ten genomic assessment and intervention items from a case study, 5.8 items on average were checked.

Pestka et al., 2010

United States

160 psychiatric nurses at a large medical center (who might have participated in previous genomic education activities) attended a genomic staff development session and 65 completed a survey after the session.

Age: Not reported


Years of practice: > 6 years nursing experience (68%) and psychiatric nursing experience (63%)


Knowledge:

Of the ten genomic assessment and intervention checklist items from a case study, 5.5 items on average were checked.

Zembles, 2010

United States

50 pharmacists, residents, students, and interns at the Childrens Hospital of Wisconsin attended an in-service program and 40 completed the program evaluation survey.c.

Age: Not reported



One-shot case study/descriptive cross-sectional with a 6-month follow-up

Knowledge:

All participants reported an increase in knowledge (post-test, subjective knowledge).

Overall, all participants answered

correctly in knowledge questions (6-month follow-up, objective knowledge).

Program assessment:

General satisfaction with the program (e.g., clear and understandable content and useful for practice).

Blazer et al., 2011

United States

131 participants (48 physicians, 41 advanced-practice nurses, and 42 genetic counselors) attended genetics cancer risk assessment training, and 57 completed post-course surveys.

Age: Not reported

Race/Ethnicity: White (81.7%), Hispanic (11.5%), Black (7.6%), Asian (6.1%), and American Indian/Alaska Native (0.8%)

Years of practice: > 10 years (58%)

Pre/post design with a 14-month post-course follow-up

Knowledge

Overall, significantly increased from pre-test (baseline) to post-Phase II test scores, and varied according to discipline.

Skills:

Overall, significantly increased from pre-test to post-Phase II test scores, and varied according to discipline.

Self-efficacy:

Overall, significantly increased from pre-test to post-Phase II test scores, and the scores were maintained 14 months after the baseline.

Practice behavior:

Overall, significantly increased from pre-test to post-Phase III test scores in cancer genetics-related practice.

Carroll et al., 2011

Canada

Using stratified sampling, 125 family physicians (61 in the intervention group and 64 in the control group) were recruited from two urban and rural areas. Among them, 80 completed both the pre-and post-intervention surveys (47 in the intervention group and 33 in the control group).

Age: Intervention group: 48 years old (range: 4069 years old) and control group: 46 years old (range: 3160 years old)


Years of practice: Intervention group: 18 years (range: 440 years) and control group: 16 years (range: 231 years)

Experimental design (randomized control trial with pre-test data collected 1 month before the intervention and post-test data collected 6 months after the intervention)

Knowledge:

Higher referral decision score in the intervention group compared to the control group.

Self-efficacy:

Significantly increased confidence in adopting all genetic competencies into practice in the intervention group than control group.

Program assessment:

General satisfaction with the program, and participants would recommend it to their colleagues.

Srinivasan et al., 2011

United States

279 residents in pediatrics, internal medicine and family medicine from three university hospitals were enrolled, and 210 residents finished the training

Age: Not reported



Pre/post design

Self-efficacy:

Moderate at baseline, but significantly increased (by 15%) after the training

Practice behavior:

Significantly increased utilization of what participants learned about ELSI perspectives in a patient care setting.

Program assessment:

Most participants were satisfied with the training and would likely to recommend it to other residents.

Wallen et al., 2011

United States

129 healthcare professionals (i.e., nurses, dieticians, social workers, and lab technicians) attended a basic genetics education program for healthcare providers that was developed by the National Institutes of Health, and 69 attendees completed the post-test assessment.

Age: > 50 years (35%), 4150 years old (33%), 3140 years old (20%), and 2030 years old (12%)

Race/Ethnicity: White (81%), African American (5%), Latino (4%), and Asian Pacific Islander (7%)

Years of practice: > 20 years (47%), 1620 years (17%), 610 years (12%), < 1 year (9%), 1115 years (8%), 15 years (6%)

Pre/post design

Knowledge:

Significantly increased in total scores for participants. However, the individual knowledge scores in specific content areas, such as labeling a pedigree, probability calculation, risk identification, assessing genetic resources, and ELSI of genetic testing in minors were unchanged.

Program assessment:

Participants reported that the program was effective in access, convenience, course structure, and design.

Blazer et al., 2012

United States

96 community-based clinicians with previous experience and training in clinical oncology or genetics, including physicians, advanced practice nurses, and genetic counselorsthe cohort in 2009 was used as a comparison group (n = 44), and the cohort in 2010 was formed as an intervention group (n = 52).

Age: Not reported

Race/Ethnicity: Intervention group: White (73.1%), Black (7.7%), and Asian (19.2%) in the race category, and Latino (9.6%) in the ethnicity category. Comparison group: White (81.8%), Black (6.8%), and Asian (2.7%) in the race category and Latinos (13.6%) in the ethnicity category.

Years of practice: Intervention group: > 10 years (48.1%), 15 years (28.8%), 610 years (21.2%), and < 1 year (1.9%). Comparison group: > 10 years (59.1%), 15 years (22.7%), 610 years (13.6%) and < 1 year (4.5%)

Quasi-experimental design

Knowledge:

Significantly increased from the pre-test to the post-test in both the intervention and control groups.

Significantly greater increase in the intervention group than in the comparison group.

Skills:

Significantly increased from pre-test to post-test scores in both the intervention and control groups.

Self-efficacy:

Significantly increased from the pre-test to the post-test in both the intervention and control groups.

Burke et al., 2012

United Kingdom

70 hemophilia nurses attended a genetics workshop at a professional conference, and 47 completed the evaluation assessment.

Age: Not reported

Race/Ethnicity/Race: Not reported


Pre/post design

Intention

Some participants reported that they would adopt what they had learned to change their practice, such as taking more family histories and drawing pedigrees.

Self-efficacy

Significantly increased in family history taking, pedigree drawing, genetic risk assessment, and identifying and accessing genetic resources.

Program assessment:

Majority of participants stated that the workshop was relevant to their practice.

Roter et al., 2012

United States

40 physician assistants attended a professional conference (18 in the intervention group and 22 in the control group).

Age: 41 years old (range: 2657 years old) for all participants

Race/Ethnicity: Mostly White (75%)

Years of practice: 11.6 years on average

Experimental design (randomized control trial)

Skills:

Significantly lower patient-centered communication style in topics such as lifestyle and psychosocial issues in the intervention group than in the control group.

Significantly more comprehensive and detailed family history and cancer history collection in the intervention group than in the control group.

Chen et al., 2013

United States

207 Texas health educators who were either Certified Health Education Specialists or Master Certified Health Education Specialists enrolled in the Web-based genomics training program. 173 completed the training, and 137 completed the 3-month follow-up training assessment.

Age: 35 years old (SD = 9.9) for 173 health educators participating in the training

Race/Ethnicity: White (59%), Hispanic/Latino (19.7%), Black (16.2%), Asian (4.6%), and Native American (0.6%) for 173 health educators participating in the training

Years of practice: 7.5 years (SD = 6.9) for 173 health educators participating the training

Pre/post design

Knowledge:

Significantly increased in genetic knowledge from pre-test to post-test scores. The knowledge score decreased in the follow-up survey, but remained significantly higher than the baseline.

Intention:

Significantly increased from pre-test to post-test scores. The intention score decreased in the follow-up survey, but remained significantly higher than the baseline.

Self-efficacy:

Significantly increased from pre-test to post-test scores. The self-efficacy scores decreased in the follow-up survey, but remained significantly higher than the baseline.

Practice behavior:

Significantly increased in family health history practice from the pre-test to the 3-month follow-up.

Program Assessment:

Majority of participants who found the training helpful in understanding family health history were satisfied/very satisfied with the training, and were willing/very willing to recommend this training to their colleagues.

Kulatunga et al., 2013

Sri Lanka

10 doctors participated in a Web-based continuing professional development program on medical genetics

Age: Not reported



Pre/post design

Knowledge:


Program Assessment:

The majority of participants (78%) rated the quality of the program as average, very good, or excellent.

Kuo et al., 2013

United States

673 practicing pharmacists attended national, state, and local pharmacy meetings.

Age: 45 years old ( 14 years)

Race/Ethnicity: White (75.3%), Asian (13.4%), Black (2.7%), Native Hawaiian (0.6%), and Native Indian (0.3%) in the race category, and Non-Hispanic (88.1%) and Hispanic (4.2%) in the ethnicity category.

Years of practice: 19 years ( 13 years)

Pre/post design

Knowledge:


Self-efficacy:

Self-reported ability to explain pharmacogenomics testing to clients significantly increased from the pre-test to the post-test.

Program Assessment:

Majority of the participants rated the quality of the program as good or useful.

Formea et al., 2013

United States

84 pharmacists attended Web-based and in-person pharmacogenomics continuing education and completed both pre-test and post-test surveys

Age: Not reported


Years of practice: < 1 year (7.2%), 15 years (38.6%), 610 years (19.3%), 1120 years (19.3%), 2130 years (8.4%) and > 30 years (7.2%)

Pre-/post-test design

Knowledge:


Program Assessment:

The majority of participants agreed that this educational program helped increase their pharmacogenomics knowledge.

Houwink et al., 2013

The Netherlands

80 general practitioners were randomized into either intervention or control groups (40 for each group). 20 general practitioners in the intervention group and 24 in the control group completed the protocols in this study and were included in the final analysis.

Age: 3039 years old (intervention: 50%, control: 54.2%), 4049 years old (intervention: 25%, control: 29.2%), 5059 years old (intervention: 25%, control: 12.5%), and 6069 years old (intervention: 0%, control: 4.2%)


Years of practice: < 10 years (intervention: 60.0%, control: 54.2%), 1019 years (intervention: 20.0%, control: 29.2%). 2029 years (intervention: 5.0%, control: 12.5%), and 3039 years (intervention: 15.0%, control: 4.2%)

Experimental design (randomized control trial with a 6-month follow-up)

Knowledge:

Significantly greater increase in the intervention group than in the control group.

Program Assessment:

Both the intervention and control groups were generally satisfied with the training module and found newly gained knowledge to be clinically applicable.


The Netherlands

88 general practitioners were randomized into the intervention or control groups (46 for the intervention group and 42 for the control group). 38 general practitioners in the intervention group and 18 in the control group completed the protocols in this study and were included in the final analysis.

Age: 3039 years old (intervention: 36.8%, control: 16.7%) 4049 years old (intervention: 15.8%, control: 27.8%), 5059 years old (intervention: 31.6%, control: 38.9%), 6069 years old (intervention: 10.5%, control: 11.1%), and unknown (intervention: 5.3%, control: 5.6%)


Years of practice: < 10 years (intervention: 23.7%, control: 22.2%), 1019 years (intervention: 18.4%, control: 16.7%), 2029 years (intervention: 15.8%, control: 38.9%), 3039 years (intervention: 5.3%, control: 0%), 4049 years (intervention: 2.6%, control: 0%), and unknown (intervention: 34.2%, control: 22.2%)

Experimental design (randomized control trial with a 3-month follow-up)

Skills:

Significant increase in oncogenetics consultation skills from the pre-test to the post-test.

Program Assessment:

The intervention group was satisfied overall with the training workshop and reported that the training had a high clinical applicability.

Christensen et al., 2015

United States

20 physicians (11 primary care physicians and 9 cardiologists) attended genomics education training.

Age: Mean age = 51.7 years old (range: 3265 years old)

Race/Ethnicity: White (75%), Asian (20%), Black (5%)


Pre/post design

Self-efficacy

Primary care practitioners were more likely to improve their self-efficacy compared to cardiologists.

Program Assessment:

Nearly all participants felt the education program was useful and beneficial.


The Netherlands

42 general practitioners participated in an online continuing professional development module (intervention group), and 50 general practitioners attended a live training module (control group).

Age: Not reported



Experimental design (randomized control trial with a 1-year follow up)

Knowledge:

Significantly more awareness about genetic issues in the control group than in the intervention group at the 1-year follow-up.

Practice behavior:

The control group reported more genetic referrals for referring patients to clinical genetic centers at the 1-year follow up.

Michelazzo et al., 2015

Italy

142 health professionals specializing in genetics and genetic laboratories, public health/healthcare system management, primary care, oncology, gynecology, and neurology received distance-learning training in genetics and genomics testing.

Age: 50 years old (33.1%) and > 50 years old (66.9%)



Pre/post design

Knowledge:

Significantly increased from pre-test to post-test scores for participants, except for the geneticists and genetic laboratory specialists.

Reed et al., 2015

United States

33 physicians and one physician assistant attended a genomics education course.

Age: 3140 years old (8.8%), 4150 years old (26.5%), 5160 years old (17.6%), 6170 years old (44.1%) and > 71 years old (2.9%)


Years of practice: 110 years (8.8%), 1120 years (26.5%), 2130 years (32.4%), 31 years (32.4%)


Knowledge:

Significantly increased in genetic from pre-test to post-test scores and was maintained at the 6-month follow-up.

Self-efficacy:

Among 10 practice skills related to confidence, eight significantly increased from pre-test to post-test scores, and five continually increased significantly during the 6-month follow-up.

Practice behavior:

The majority of participants changed their genetics practice skills based on what they learned from the program.

Kisor et al., 2015

United States

20 pharmacists participated in a pharmacogenomics certification training program. Among them, 19 pharmacists completed the pre-test survey and 16 filled out the post-test survey.

Age: Not reported



Pre/post design

Self-efficacy:

Participating pharmacists saw significant increases in self-reported competence in pharmacogenomics.

Haspel et al., 2016

United States

86 pathology residents from 61 pathology residency programs (most were U.S. programs) participated in a one-day, team-based learning genomic pathology workshop at 3 national conferences in the U.S.

Age: Not reported




Program Assessment:

The majority of the participants were satisfied with the workshop and would recommend it to their colleagues.

Nguyen et al., 2016

United States

279 trainees in first-year categorical pediatrics, first-year child neurology, and fourth-year combined-medicine pediatrics (31 trainees per year for nine years) attended a medical genetics rotation in the pediatric residency program at the University of Texas Medical School at Houston. The trainees included genetic counseling students; maternal-fetal medicine, molecular genetic pathology, and pediatric endocrinology fellows; and residents of medical genetics and pediatrics-medical genetics.

Age: Not reported




Knowledge:

Participants overall felt knowledgeable in clinical practice related to pediatrics.

Self-efficacy

Participants overall felt confident in clinical practice related to pediatrics.

Luzum et al., 2016

United States

12 physicians (i.e., residents, fellows, and attendees) participated in pharmacogenetics training and completed both pre-test and post-test surveys.

Age: Not reported



Pre/post design

Attitudes

Significantly more positive attitudes in four of eight attitude questions from pre-test to post-test score.

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