.
0 Universiti Malaysia PAHANG Engineering • TechnOlogy • Cre-atMty
SUPERVISOR'S DECLARATION
I hereby declare that I have checked this thesis and in my opinion, this thesis is
adequate in terms of scope and quality for the award of the degree of Doctor of
Philosophy in Chemical Engineering.
(Supervisor's Signature)
Full Name : DR. SUNARTI BINTI ABDUL RAHMAN
Position
Date :JANUARY2017
(Co-supervisor's Signature)
Full Name
Position
Date
0 Universiti Malaysia PAHANG EngtrteerWtg • Tecl'.nology • Creattvtty
STUDENT'S DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the work in this thesis is based on my original work except for
quotations and citations which have been duly acknowledged. I also declare that it has
not been previously or concurrently submitted for any other degree at Universiti
Malaysia Pahang or any other institutions.
(Student' s Signature)
Full Name : KHALID TURK! RASHID
ID Number : PKC 13009
Date : JANUARY2017
POLY (VINYLIDE 11rnrnrn 1 0000117844
LUOROPROPYLENE)
HG.J...J.L.A.J vv ~ - ~DRD lYLDlVlDKJ-\.l'llb FOR
MEMBRANE DISTILLATION
KHALID TURKI RASHID
Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy in Chemical Engineering
Faculty of Chemical & Natural Resources Engineering
UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA PAHANG
JANUARY 2017
I J 7 APR 20t
To my wife, my kids (Muhammad, Ali and Zahraa)
ii
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
In The Name of Allah Most Gracious Most Merciful. First, I would like to point out my gratitude and thanks to the One and The Almighty Creator, the Lord and Sustainer of the universe, and the Mankind, in particular; peace and blessings of Allah be upon the noblest of the Prophets and Messengers, our Prophet Mohammed and upon his family, companions and those who followed them in truth until the Day of Judgment. First and foremost I want to thank God for helping me to complete my thesis.
I would like to express my deepest thanks and gratitude to my supervisor Dr. Sunarti Binti Abdul Rahman for her support and assistance. I'm appreciate her suggestions, instructions and guidance over the research.
I would also like to thank my family for their enthusiasm for me to finish this attempt. I am also grateful to Iraqi Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research and University of Technology for giving me the permission for this study. I don't forget to thank to Professor Dr. Qusay F. Al Salhy, he is a first guide to me for scientific field research.
iii
ABSTRAK
Membran gentian berongga poly (vinylidene fluoride~co-hexafluoropropylene), PVDF-co-HFP, telah berjaya dibikin melalui satu penggunaan kaedah fasa songsangan. Polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) (MW, K-30) telah digunakan sebagai satu penambah pembentukan liang untuk meningkatkan morfologi, struktur dan juga ciri- ciri pada membran PVDF-co-HFP. Dimethylacetamide (DMAc) telah digunakan sebagai pelarut. Kesan kepekatan PVP dalam larutan dop ke atas struktur membran telah dikaji untuk mendapat satu membran dengan ciriciri yang baik dan sesuai untuk. Membran Penyulingan Terus Sentuh (DCMD). Pengaruh kepekatan sodium klorida akueus (NaCl), kadar aliran suapan, suhu suapan kepada fluks penelapan membran gentian berongga PVDF -co-HFP telah dinilai. Ciri ciri morfologi untuk semua gerongga telah di kaji menggunakan field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) dan juga atomic force microscopy (AFM). Pembentukan rongga mikro dalam membran PVDF-co-HFP telah diperhatikan dan sudut sentuh sedikit menurun dengan peningkatan PVP daripada (0 wt.% kepada 9 wt. %). Saiz liang pada gentian berongga nyata sekali meningkat daripada 0.097 Jlm kepada 0.286 Jlm dengan penambahan PVP (0 kepada 9) wt. %. PVP dalam larutan dop, memberi keputusan temyata meningkatkan fluks penelapan daripada 4.2 kepada 22 kg/m2h pada suhu suapan 80 °C. Juga, penolakan garam untuk semua gentian berongga ialah setinggi 99.98%. Ini juga telah menemukan ada peningkatan pada fluks penelapan daripada 14 kepada 22 kg/m2h pada suhu suapan 80°C dengan peningkatan pada kadar aliran suapan daripada 0.3 kepada 0.6 Llmin, di mana satu kenaikan pada kepekatan NaCl dalam aliran suapan 3.5 kepada 5 wt.% telah menjadi punca penurunan pada fluks penelapan daripada 22 kepada 14.7 kg/m2h pada membran dengan PVP 9 wt. %. Kejayaan pengubahsuaian menggunakan asid formik ke atas membran PVDF -co-HFP dengan PVP 5 wt. % telah terbukti dengan sudut sentuh meningkat daripada 97.8° kepada 109.9°, tekanan kemasukan cecair bagi air meningkat daripada 2 kepada 2.4 bar. Fluks penelapan terbaik bagi membran yang diubahsuai dengan PVP 9 wt. % adalah 23.9 kg/m2 h pada suhu suapan 80°C dengan suapan air laut. Pengoptimuman parameter operasi bagi membran gentian berongga PVDF-co-HFP untuk DCMD sistem telah dikaji. Pengaruh parameter operasi seperti suhu suapan ( 40-80) °C, kadar alir suapan (0.3-0.6 Llmin), juga kepekatan suapan di beza- bezakan daripada 3.5wt % hingga 5.0 wt. %, dan interaksi antara mereka kepada fluks penelapan membran PVDF-co-HFP telah dikaji ... Parameter operasi yang optimum telah ditentukan menggunakan Full Factorial dan teknik pengoptimuman Taguchi untuk mendapat kan bacaan fluks penelapan yang baik. Keputusan menunjukan yang membran PVDF-co-HFP mempunyai prestasi terbaik pada 20.4 (kg/m2 h) dengan suhu panas suapan pada 78.8 °C, 0.6 Llmin kadar alir suapan dan kadar kepekatan NaCl 3.5 wt. % . Keputusan ramalan dengan pembangunan model menunjukkan satu persetujuan dengan data eksperimen dengan kesalahan 6.95 %.
iv
ABSTRACT
The poly (vinylidene fluoride-co-hexafluoropropylene), PVDF-co-HFP, hollow fibre membrane was successfully fabricated through an adoption in the phase inversion method. Polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) (MW, K-30) was utilized as a pore-forming additive to improve the morphology, structure and also characteristics of the PVDF-co-HFP membrane. Dimethylacetamide (DMAc) was used as solvent. Effects of the PVP concentration in dope solution on membrane structure were studied to obtain a membrane with good characteristics and be appropriate for Direct Contact Membrane Distillation (DCMD) applications. The impact of the concentration of aqueous NaCl solution, feed flow rate, and feed temperature on PVDFco-HFP hollow fibre permeation flux was evaluated. Morphological properties of all fibres were studied via field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) and also atomic force microscopy (AFM). The formation of microvoids in the PVDF-co-HFP membrane was observed and the contact angle was slightly declined with an increase of PVP from (0 wt. % to 9 wt. %). Pore size of the hollow fibre increased significantly from 0.097 Jlm to 0.286 Jlm with the addition of PVP (0 to 9) wt. %. PVP in the dope solution, resulting in a remarkable increase in the water permeation flux from 4.2 to 22 kg/m2h at feed temperature of 80 °C. Also, the salt rejection for all hollow fibres was as high as 99.98%. It was also discovered that there was an increase in the permeate flux from 14 to 22 kg/m2h at feed temperature of 80°C by increasing the feed flow rate from 0.3 to 0.6 L/min, whereas an increment in the NaCl concentration in the feed stream from 3.5 to 5 wt.% led to a decline in the membrane permeate flux from 22 to 14.7 kg/m2h of membrane with 9 wt.% PVP. The success of formic acid modification onto PVDFco-HFP membrane with 5 wt.% PVP was proven by contact angle which increased from 97.8° to 109§, liquid entry pressure ofwater increased from 2 to 2.4 bar. Best permeate flux of the modified membrane with 9 wt. % PVP was about 23.9 kg/m2 h at 80°C feed temperature of sea water feed. The optimisation of the operating parameters of PVDF-co-HFP hollow fibre membrane for DCMD system was studied. The influence of the operation parameters, such as the feed temperature ( 40-80) °C, the feed flow rate (0.3-0.6 L/min), as well as the feed concentration varied from 3.5wt% to 5.0 wt. %, and their interactions on the PVDF-co-HFP membrane flux were investigated. The optimum operating parameters have been specified using Full Factorial and Taguchi optimization technique in order to obtain a good value of permeate flux. The results showed that PVDF-co-HFP membrane has best performance of20.4 (kg/m2 h) with the hot feed temperature of 78.8 °C, 0.6 L/min feed flow rate and 3.5 wt.% NaCl feed concentration. The predicted results by the developed model show a good agreement with the experimental data with a 6.95% error.
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TABLE OF CONTENT
DECLARATION
TITELPAGE i
DEDICATION ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii
ABSTRAK iv
ABSTRACT v
TABLE OF CONTENT vi
LIST OF TABLES xi
LIST OF FIGURES xii
LIST OF SYMBOLS XV
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xviii
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Problem Statement 8
1.3 Objectives of Study 9
1.4 Scopes of Study 10
1.5 Research Contribution 10
1.6 Thesis Arrangement 10
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 12
2.1 Introduction 12
2.2 Applications of Membrane Distillation 13
vi
2.3 Advantage ofMD Process 14
2.4 Membrane Preparation 14
2.4.1 Phase Inversion Method 15
2.4.2 Interfacial Polymerization (IP) 17
2.5 Membrane Bulk Modification 17
2.5.1 Additives and Blending Methods 17
2.5.2 Chemical Treatment 23
2.6 Membrane Surface Modification 24
2.6.1 Super hydrophobic Membrane 29
2.6.2 Coating Process 31
2.6.3 Plasma Modification Technique 32
2.6.4 Effect of formic acid on membrane structure 35
2.7 Modification for Other Applications ofMD 36
2.7.1 Gas Separation Application 36
2.7.2 Food Industries 41
2.7.3 Waste Water Treatment 41
2.8 Membrane Modules Modifications 42
2.9 Membrane Fouling 46
2.9.1 Fouling due to the Crystallisation 48
2.9.2 Fouling due to Corrosion 49
2.10 Flux Reduction 49
2.11 Heat and Mass Transfer Phenomena in DCMD 50
2.11.1 Heat and Mass Transfer Modelling 51
2.11.2 Heat Transfer 52
2.11.3 Heat Transfer Model 52
2.11.4 Mass Transfer 58
vii
2.11.5 Mass Transfer Model 59
2.12 DCMD Optimisation 62
CHAPTER 3 MATERIALS & METHODOLOGY 64
3.1 Introduction 64
3.2 Research Methodology Framework 65
3.3 Materials 66
3.4 Preparation ofPolymer Solution 66
3.5 Membrane Fabrication 67
3.6 Membrane Modification 70
3. 7 Membrane Characterization 70
3. 7.1 Contact Angle 70
3. 7.2 Liquid Entry Pressure (LEP) 73
3. 7.3 Porosity 74
3.7.4 Thickness ofMembrane Layer 75
3. 7.5 Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy (FESEM) 75
3.7.6 Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) 75
3.7.7 Fourier Transfer Infrared (FTIR) 75
3.8 DCMD Performance 76
CHAPTER4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 79
4.1 Introduction 79
4.2 Membrane Characterization 79
4.2.1 Contact Angle 79
4.2.2 Liquid Entry Pressure (LEP) 81
4.2.3 Membrane Porosity 82
viii
4.3 The Effects ofPVP Content on the Membrane Structure 84
4.4 Morphology of Membrane Surface 89
4.5 Membrane Performance 94
4.5.1 Effects of PVP Content on Membrane Performance 94
4.5.2 Effects of Operating Conditions on DCMD Performance 96
4.5 .2.1 Feed Temperature 96
4.6 Membrane Salt Rejection Factor 104
4.7 Membrane Surface Modification Process 105
4.7.1 Chemical Surface Modification 105
4.7.2 Morphology Affected by Modification Process 106
4.7.3 Contact Angle Affected by Modification Process 108
4.7.4 FTIR Analysis 110
4.7.5 Liquid Entry Pressure 111
4.7.6 Performance ofModified PVDF--co-HFP Membrane 112
CHAPTER 5 OPTIMISATION AND MODELLING 114
5.1 Introduction 114
5.2 Optimisation of Operating Parameters 114
5.3 Analysis ofVariance (ANOVA) 116
5.4 Evaluating and Analysing Results 118
5.5 Parameters Interactions 120
5.6 Normal Probability Plot 121
5.7 Equivalence and Independence for Difference Assumptions 122
5.8 Response Surface Analysis 124
5.9 Optimisation ofDCMD Permeate Flux 128
5.10 Validity of Optimized Parameters 129
ix
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5.11 Mathematical Model and Experimental Results 129
CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 133
6.1 Introduction 133
6.2 Conclusions 133
REFERENCES 136
APPENDIX A 161
APPENDIXB 167
APPENDIXC 168
APPENDIXE 177
X
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Table 2.1
Table 3.1
Table 3.2
Table 4.1
Table 4.2
Table 4.3
Table 4.4
Table 4.5
Table 5.1
Table 5.3
Table 5.4
LIST OF TABLES
Nusselt number correlations for laminar flow system. 58
Formulation of PVDF-co-HFP casting solutions 66
Spinning condition of the PVDF-co-HFP hollow fibre membrane 68
Contact angle ofPVDF-co-HFP hollow fibres 81
Meart pore size, (LEP), porosity and roughness of the inner and outer surfaces of the PVDF-co-HFP fibres 94
Comparison the performances ofPVDF-co-HFP membranes reported in the literature with that found in this work, (FS) is Flat-sheet; (HF) is Hollow fibre 96
Roughness of the outer and inner surface ofM1, M1*, M4 and M4*. PVDF-co-HFP hollow fibre membrane 106
LEPw of unmodified (M) and modified (M*) PVDF-co-HFP hollow fibre membranes 112
Codes and levels of input variables 115
AN OVA Analysis ofV ariance for PVDF -co-HFP flux rate. Response Surface Regression: J versus T; F; C 116
ANOVAforJ 117
Table 5.5 Unusual Observations of J 117
Table 5.6 Predicted Response for New Design Points Using Model for J 118
Table (A1) Contact angle ofhollow fibre membrane before and after modification 166
xi
Figure 1.1
Figure 2.1.
Figure 2.2.
Figure 2.3.
Figure 2.4.
Figure 2.5
Figure 3.4
Figure 3.5
LIST OF FIGURES
Membrane distillation configurations 3
Distributions ofPS/Ti02 membranes pore size of (a) 0 wt. % Ti02, b: 1 wt.% Ti02, c: 2 wt.% Ti02, and d: 3 wt.% Ti02 21
Schematic illustration of CF4 plasma modification of the porous membranes 34
Structure ofMatrimid polyimide 37
Flux with different module designs configuration 45
Different module design and hollow fibre geometries configurations 45
Contact angle measurement for the inner surface. (A) Schematic diagram of the instrument for measuring the internal contact angle. (B) Force balance at interface boundary 72
Experimental set-up for measurement of water entry pressure. (1) Nitrogen tank, (2) regulating pressure valve, (3) pressure gauge, (4) water vessel, and (5) hollow fibre sample. 74
Figure 3.6 Schematic DCMD experimental setup 77
Figure 3. 7 Hollow fibre module 78
Figure 4.2 Effect ofPVP added on water entry pressure ofthe PVDF-HFP hollow fibre membranes 82
Figure 4.7 3D & 2D AFM images ofthe PVDF-HFP fibre M1 (A) inner surface; (B) outer surface 90
Figure 4.9 3D & 2D AFM images of the PVDF-HFP fibre M3 (A) inner surface; (B) outer surface 92
Figure 4.10 3D & 2D AFM images ofthe PVDF-HFP fibre M4 (A) inner surface; (B) outer surface 93
Figure 4.11 Permeate flux of the fibres M1, M2, M3and M4 under feed temperature of 80 °C and flow rate of 0.6 Llmin 95
Figure 4.12 Effects of feed temperature on the DCMD permeate flux for M1, M2, M3 and M4 97
Figure 4.13 Vapor pressure of feed stream as a function oftemperature 98
Figure 4.14 Permeation flux of the fibres as a function of flow rate ofthe feed at Tf 80 °C for M1, M2, M3, and M4 membranes 99
Figure 4.15 Effects ofNaCl feed concentration on the permeate flux for M1, M2, M3, and M4 membranes 101
Figure 4.16 Flux of permeate solution as a function of temperature of permeate side for M1, M2, M3 and M4 membrane with 0.6 Llmin feed flow rate at 80 ° C 102
Figure 4.17 Flow pattern in the hollow fibre membrane module A: Co-current, B: Counter-current configuration 103
xii
Figure 4-19 Effect of feed temperature on salt rejection for solution at 35000 ppm and 0.6 L/min feed flow rate 105
Scheme 4.1 Reaction ofPVDF-co-HFP membrane with formic acid. 106
Figure 4.20 3D & 2D AFM images of the PVDF-HFP fibre M1 (A) inner surface; (B) outer surface 107
Figure 4.21 3D & 2D AFM images of the PVDF-HFP fibre M4 (A) inner surface; (B) outer surface 108
Figure 4.23 Contact angle for Ml, M1 *, M2, M2*, M3, M3*, M4 and M4* PVDF-co-HFP hollow fibre membrane 110
Figure 4.24 FTIR spectra ofthe unmodified M4 membrane (1) and modified (2)111
Figure 5.1 Pareto Chart of the Parameters impacts on flux 119
Figure 5.2. Major impact plot for membranes permeate flux 120
Figure 5.3 Interaction plots for fibres permeate flux 121
Figure 5.4. Normal probability plot of residuals for PVDF-co-HFP fibres flux 122
Figure 5.5 Plot of residuals with data order. 123
Figure 5.6 The residuals versus fitted values Plot 123
Figure 5.7 A three-dimensional response surface for the expected flux as a function of feed flow rate and feed temperature at fixed fed concentration 125
Figure 5.8 Contour plot of the response surface of the expected flux as a function of feed flow rate and feed temperature 125
Figure 5.9 A three-dimensional response surface plot of the expected flux as a function of feed flow rate and feed concentration at fixed feed temperature 126
Figure 5.10 A contour plot of the response surface of the expected flux as a function of feed flow rate and feed concentration 126
Figure 5.11 A three-dimensional response surface plot of the expected flux as a function of feed temperature and feed concentration at fixed feed flow rate 127
Figure 5.12 A contour plot of the response surface of the expected flux as a function of feed temperature and feed concentration 127
Figure 5.13 Optimisation chart of operational variables for maximum flux for sea water 128
Figure 5.14 Modelling and experimental permeate flux as a function of feed temperatures 130
Figure 5.15 Modelling and experimental permeate flux as a function of feed flow rate 131
Figure 5.16 Modelling and experimental permeate flux as a function of feed concentration 132
FigureA.1 Calibration curve for NaCl concentration with conductivity 162
xiii
FigureA2
FigureA3
Figure B1
Figure C.2
Figure C.3
Figure C.4
Figure C.5
Figure D.1
Membrane weight for M1 after modification process
membrane for M1 after modification process
FTIR spectra of the modified for M1, M2, M3
164
165
167
Cross-section structure of fibres prepared with various concentrations ofPVD-HFP copolymer: A: C17, B: C19, C: C20, D: C22 and E: C24 169
SEM images foruncoated surface ofPVDF membrane 170
SEM images for coated surface ofPVDF membrane with chitosan 2.0% (w/v) 171
Schematic illustration of the effect of anti -plasticisation 172
PVDF-co-HFP hollow fibre spinning system 173
Figure D.2 Picture ofDCMD system: 1, 2: Thermometers.3, 4: Gauge pressure.5: Module. 6: Permeate pump.7: Feed pump.8, 9: Permeate &Feed Flow meter 10: Water bath.11: Refrigerator .12: Feed tank.13: Permeate tank 174
Figure D.3 Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy (FESEM) 175
Figure D.4 Atomic force microscopy (AFM) 176
xiv
LIST OF SYMBOLS
Symbol Description
A Membrane Active Area (m2)
B Geometric Factor
Mass transfer coefficient (m/sec)
Concentration of Feed Aqueous NaCI Solution (mol/L)
Specific Heat Capacity (J/K)
Concentration of Permeate Aqueous NaCl Solution (mol/L)
Hydraulic Diameter (m)
Inner Hollow Fibre Membrane Diameter (mm)
Outer Hollow Fibre Membrane Diameter (mm)
Maximum Pore Diameter (J.lm)
F Surface Tension Force (N/m)
g Acceleration due to Gravity (m/s2)
G Collecting Permeate Water Reading (L/h)
H Water Level Between Cusp and Water Surface in the Beaker (mm)
HEC Hydraulic Energy Consumption
XV
hr Heat Transfer Coefficient of the Feed Zone W/(m2K)
Heat Transfer Coefficient of the Membrane W/(m2K)
Heat Transfer Coefficient of the Permeate Zone W/(m2K)
J Vapor Flux (kg/m2 h)
Effective Membrane Conductivity (W /mK)
Solid and Vapour Thermal Conductivity Coefficient
L Effective Length of Hollow Fibres (m)
N Number of Fibres inside the Module
p Total Pressure inside the Membrane (bar)
Air Pressure in the Membrane (bar)
Diffusion Coefficient (m2/s)
Partial Pressures of Water at the Feed and Permeate Part (bar)
R Universal Gas Constant (kg m2 /mol K s2)
r Pore Radius (J..Lm)
R% Membrane Salt Rejection Factor of Aqueous NaCl Solution
Liquid-Vapour Interface (Feed and Permeate) Temperatures (0 C)
Feed and Permeate Temperatures e C)
Mean Temperature e C)
xvi
u
xA
y
Nu
Pr
Re
y
e
AV
p
Feed Velocity (m/s)
Mole Fraction of Water Vapor in the Pore
Liquid Mole Fraction
wetted perimeter (m)
Nusselt number
Prandtl number
Reynolds number
Liquid Surface Tension (N/m)
Membrane Porosity (%)
Contact Angle Between the Membrane Surface and the Solution (degree)
Dynamic viscosity, N s/m2
Latent Heat of Vaporization (J/kg)
Water Density (kg /m3)
Membrane Tortuosity (No unit)
Thickness of the Membrane (mm)
Weight loss (g)
xvii
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
AFM Atomic force microscopy
AGMD Air Gap Membrane Distillation
ANOVA Analysis of Variance
CFD Computational Fluid Dynamics
c~ Methane
CMF Critical Membrane Flux
CMS Carbon molecular sieves
Carbon dioxide
DCMD Direct Contact Membrane Distillation
DDS Dimethydichlorosilane
DI Deionized Water
DMAc Dimethylacetamide
DSC Differential Scanning Calorimetric
EDA Ethylenediamine
EE Thermal Efficiency
xviii
------- ---~------ - -----
FESEM Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy
FTIR Fourier transforms infrared spectroscopy
Hydrogen Gas
LEP Liquid entry pressure
LiCl Lithium Chloride
LiOH Lithium Hydroxide
MD Membrane distillation
MDES Methyldiethoxysilane
MF Microfiltration
MPC 2-methacryloylo:xyethyl phosphorylcholine polymer
MTS Methyltrichlorosilane
Mv Viscosity-Average Molecular weight
Molecular Weight (kg/mol)
Nitrogen Ga5
NaCl Sodium Chloride
NF Nano filtration
xix
--~--------------------------
Oxygen
OD Osmotic Distillation Process
PAC Powdered activated carbon
PAS Positron Annihilation Spectroscopy
PBI Poly (benzimidazole)
PDMS Polydimethylsiloxane
PEG Poly (ethylene glycol)
PEl Polyetherimide
PES Polyethersulfone
pp Polypropylene
PTFE Polytetra:fluoroethylene
PVDF-co-HFP Poly (vinylidene fluoride-co-hexa:fluoropropylene)
PVP Polyvinylpyrrolidone
RF Radio frequency
RO Reverse Osmosis
SEM Scanning Electron Microscope
XX
-- --- -------------- -- ------- ----- ----- - -------~---_-___ --,.~-- --__ -_--, -_----; _-, ... - -------
SGMD Sweep Gas Membrane Distillation
SMMs Surface Modifying Macromolecules
TEOS Tetraethoxysilane
Titanium dioxide/Polystyrene
TMSCl Trimethylchlorosilane
UF Ultrafiltration
VMD Vacuum Membrane Distillation
XPS X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy
XRD X-ray Diffraction
xxi
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