01-09-12 LECTURE NO. 03

GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL

ISSUES - SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

01- 09 - 2012Lecture No. 3

CONCEPT OF DEVELOPMENT

GREAT IDEAS ARE SIMPLE IDEAS!

SO IS THE CONCEPT OF DEVELOPMENT?

CONCEPT OF DEVELOPMENT “THE PROMOTION OF SOCIAL PREOGRESS & BETTER

STANDARDS OF LIVING IN LARGER FREEDOM” – AS DEFINED IN THE CONTEXT OF THE PREAMBLE TO THE CHARTER OF THE UN

DEVELOPMENT IS “IMPROVEMENT IN QUALITY OF LIFE” – CONTEMPORARY UNDERSTANDING

INGERDIENTS ECONOMIC GROWTH EQUITY SOCIAL JUSTICE

CONCEPT OF DEVELOPMENTHISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES

MODERN UNDERSTANDING OF DEVELOPMENT WAS NON EXISTANT PRIOR TO 2ND HALF OF THE 20TH CENTURY

COUNTRIES / NATIONS CONSTITUTING MODERN DEVELOPING WORLD WERE:

Ruled by imperial powers Functioned as source for raw material & cheap labor

(including slave labor) to the ruling powers


HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES Within the richer countries economic growth played a key role in

attainment of progress and modernization

Little concern for issues of equity & social justice

In the aftermath of the 2nd world war perceptions and policy changed drastically

Economic and social growth became central planks of public policy and theoritical discourse


HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES NEOCLASSICAL ECONOMIC THEORY GAVE WAY TO

DEVELOPMENT ECONOMICS EMPHASIS SHIFTED FROM POSITIVE TO NORMATIVE

IDEALS: Seeking what should be rather than what is Social & political issues became a concern Goals, ideals & ends, as well as economic means attained

importance

CONVENTIONAL DEVELOPMENT THOUGHT

LINEAR DEVELOPMENT MODEL PROPOSED BY W. W. ROSTOW IN 1960 THE MODEL SUGGESTS A SERIES OF DEVELOPMENT STAGES

FOR ALL THE DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

TRADITIONAL SOCIETY ECONOMIC TAKE OFF MATURITY HIGH MASS CONSUMPTION

THE MODEL POSITS THAT “LESS DEVELOPED COUNTRIES HAVE A REASONABLE HOPE TO ACHIEVE “MATURE” STATUS OF ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT WITHOUT THE NEED FOR COMMUNIST REVOLUTION”

LINEAR DEVELOPMENT MODEL THE MODEL WAS WIDELY ACCEPTED BY DEVELOPMENT

THEORISTS PAVED THE WAY FOR ADOPTION OF AN AMBITIOUS PROGRAM

OF ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT EMPHASISED MORE PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE &

INDUSTRIALIZATION INFLUENCED THE IDEOLOGY OF INSTITUTIONAL STRUCTURES

SET UP AFTER THE 2ND WORLD WAR INCLUDING: THE IMF THE WORLD BANK


BASIC NEEDS MODEL PROPOSED BY PAUL STREESEN AND OTHERS IN 1970’S FOCUS OF THE MODEL IS ON MEETING THE BASIC NEEDS OF

THE PEOPLE INCLUDING: EDUCATION HEALTH NUTRITION SANITATION EMPLOYMENT, ETC

REFLECTED THE GROWING UNDERSTANDING THAT BENEFITS OF THE DEVELOPMENT DID NOT NECESSARILY “TRICKLE DOWN”

INSPIRED THE CREATION OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT INDEX WHICH FOCUSES ON SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT MEASURES LIKE EDUCATION AND HEALTH IN ADDITION TO GDP


STRUCTURAL ADJUSTMENT MODEL PROPAGATED IN 1980’S FOCUS OF THE MODEL IS ON:

Liberalization of trade Elimination of governmental deficits Dismantling of inefficient parastatal organizations Abolition of government centred development policies, unbalanced

budgets and excessive debt

CRITICS OF THE MODEL STIPULATE THAT: It is at odds with the basic needs approach Its emphasis upon market oriented reforms has led to greater

inequality and hardships for the poor


TAKING STOCK GDP GROWTH GROWTH IN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT MEASURES INEQUITTABLE DEVELOPMENT WEAKENING SOCIAL STRUCTURES FAR FROM SATISFACTORY PHYSICAL INFRASTRUCTURE ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION


WHAT IS SUSTAINEBLE DEVELOPMENT?

“WE DO NOT INHERIT THE EARTH FROM OUR PARENTS, WE BORROW IT FROM OUR CHILDREN” – KENYAN PROVERB

“THE EARTH BELONGS IN USUFRUCT TO THE LIVING” – THOMAS JEFFERSON.

USUFRUCT IN LEGAL LANGUAGE MEANS: “RIGHT TO USE SOMETHING THAT BELONGS TO ANOTHER, PROVIDED THAT THE THING ITSELF IS NOT ALTERED OR DAMAGED”

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

CONCEPT, MEANING & SCOPE DEVELOPMENT IS “IMPROVEMENT IN QUALITY OF LIFE” IT HAS ECONOMIC & SOCIAL DIMENSIONS ECONOMIC

EXPANSION OF CONSUMPTION GNP

SOCIAL: HUMAN DEVELOPMENT ENABLING ALL HUMAN BEINGS TO: SATISFY THEIR ESSENTIAL NEEDS ACHIEVE A REASONABLE LEVEL OF COMFORT SHARE FAIRLY IN OPPRTUNITIES FOR HEALTH AND EDUACTION LIVE A MEANINGFUL LIFE


CONCEPT, MEANING & SCOPE WHERE DOES “SUSTAINABLE” FIT IT?

SUSTAIN MEANS TO:

“SUPPORT”, “UPHOLD THE COURSE OF”, “KEEP INTO BEING” “TO PROVIDE WITH FOOD & DRINK”, “ THE NECESSITIES OF LIFE” “TO ENDURE WITHOUT GIVING WAY OR UNYIELDING”

IT INTRODUCES THE ELEMENT OF “TIME”



DEFINITION “SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IS THE

DEVELOPMENT THAT MEETS THE NEEDS OF THE PRESENT WITHOUT COMPROMISING THE ABILITY OF FUTURE GENERATIONS TO MEET THEIR OWN NEEDS” - BRUNDTLAND COMMISSION, 1987.


CONCEPT, MEANING & SCOPE INTRA & INTERGENERATIONAL LEGACY

RESTRICTION OF DEVELOPMENT TO JUST WHAT IS NECESSARY

AVOID PASSING PROBLEMS ON TO THE FUTURE AVOID WASTAGE OF RESOURCES ANTHROPOCENTRIC

CONCEPT, MEANING & SCOPE The term sustainability has ideological & political content as well

as ecological & economic content.

Warns us of the dangers of shortsighted economic growth

Leads us to recognition of healthy environment & ecosystem


ORIGIN & EVOLUTION CRUX OF THE DEBATE: WHETHER EARTH’S LIMITED

RESOUCES WOULD CONTINUE TO PROVIDE LIFE SUPPORT FOR HUMANITIES EVER INCREASING NUMBERS?

ORIGIN: WORKS OF ENGLISH POLITICAL ECONOMIST THOMAS MALTHUS IN THE EARLY 19TH CENTURY

MALTHUS WROTE “AN ESSAY ON THE PRINCIPLE OF POPULATION”


ORIGIN & EVOLUTION According to malthus: “human populations grow in a geometric

progression while subsistence can grow only in an arithmetic progression”

Growth in human population is destined to be checked by natural resource depletion & inevitable human misery

After Malthus, the dilemma of resource depletion seemed to evade the attention of politicians, economists as well as social scientists

Only in recen decades global concern for earth’s life support system has made a re-entry in international & national development agendas.


COMPONENT PARTS SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT CAN BE BROKEN DOWN INTO:

ENVIRONMENTAL / ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY ECONOMIC SUSTAINABILITY SOCIAL / SOCIO-POLITICAL SUSTAINABILITY

EACH OF THESE THREE AREAS IS COMMONLY REFERRED TO AS A “SYSTEM”: ECONOMIC SYSTEM, ENRONMENTAL SYSTEM & SOCIAL SYSTEM


COMPONENT PARTS ECONOMIC SYSTEM: Includes production, exchange &

consumption THE SOCIAL SYSTEM : Includes biological life processes,

culture, aesthetics & morality THE ENVIRONENTAL / NATURAL SYSTEM IN WHICH BOTH

ECONOMIC & SOCIAL SYSTES ARE INCLUDED


COMPONENT PARTS AN ENVIRONMENTALLY SUSTAINABLE SYSTEM MUST:

Maintain a stable resource base Avoid over exploitation of renewable resource systems Exploit depleting non-renewable resources only to the extent

that investment is made in adequate substitutes Maintain biodiversity, atmospheric stability & other

ecosystem functions not ordinarily classified as economic resources


COMPONENT PARTS An economically sustainable system must be able to:

Produce goods & services on continuing basis Maintain manageable levels of government & external debt Avoid extreme sectoral imbalances A socially sustainable system must: Achieve distributional equity Adequate provision of social services Gender equity Political accountability Participation


COMPONENT PARTS A socially sustainable system must:

Achieve distributional equity Adequate provision of social services Gender equity Political accountability Participation


COMPONENT PARTS Interplay of these three elements introduces many potential

complications to the original simple definition

Economist would tend to give greater weight to economic objectives

Ecologist to the environmental dimension

Social theorist to the social issues


POPULATION, CONSUMPTION & CARRYING CAPACITY

NATURAL SYSTEMS MUST EXIST SUBJECT TO: ECOLOGICAL LIMITS & LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS

BECAUSE ORGANISMS ARE EXUBERANTLY OVER PRODUCTIVE & LIMITS SET BY TIME, SPACE & ENERGY ARE INEVITABLY ENCOUNTERED

IN ECOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE THEN , SUSTAINABILITY MUST INVOLVE LIMITS ON POPULATION & CONSUMPTION LEVELS

THESE LIMITS APPLY TO ALL BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS

ECOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE

POPULATION, CONSUMPTION & CARRYING CAPACITY

Humans may appear to evade them for a time They must ultimately accept the boundaries of a finite planet &

carrying capacity of our eco-system It is estimated that humans are now consuming / eliminating

about 40% of the basic energy supply for all terrestrial animals By 2050: the projected 33% growth in human population & 50%

growth in per capita consumption will leave little room for other species


GENETIC DIVERSITY Genetic diversity is essential for ecosystem resilience

Resilience is a bounce back capacity

It enables a system to respond to disturbances or damage

For example, a forest system may recover from a pest infestation through: An increase in the population of predators An expansion of species unaffected by the pest, & Possible development of pest resistance in affected species


GENETIC DIVERSITY The pattern of response may be different, but

essential integrity of the ecosystem will be preserved

The key to resistance is the existence of a wide variety of species, interacting with each other & providing a reservoir of genetic forms which provide potential to adapt to changing conditions

For the ecologist, then, sustainability must be defined in terms of the maintenance of ecosystem resilience


INTERGENERATIONAL EQUITY & ECONOMIC EFFICIENCY

Sustainability is also defined as inter-genertional equity From the point of view of neoclassical economics sustainability

can be defined in terms of the maximization of human welfare over time

According to standard economic theory, efficient resource allocation should have the effect of maximizing utility from consumption

Is sustainability the same as efficient resource allocation? A concept quite well established in standard economic theory

ECONOMIC PERSPECTIVE


In standard economic theory time discounting is used as a method of comparing economic values in different time periods

Economists tend to use the same method for intergenerational natural resource allocation

For instance At a discount rate of 10%, typically used for CBA the

value of Rs. 1m 100 yrs from now would be equivalent of Rs. 72 today

It would apparently be justifiable to impose costs of upto Rs. 1m on people in the year 2112 to enjoy Rs. 72 worth of consumption today!



By this logic much of resource depletion & environmental degradation becomes acceptable & even optimal

Is the use of a discount rate justifiable in this scenario? Use of a discount rate gives undue importance to the

preferences of current users, thereby creating a “dictatorship of the present”

In issues such as soil erosion or atmospheric build up of greenhouse gases, the most damaging impacts are felt over decades / generations

The use of a discount rate creates a strong bias against sustainability


NATURAL & MANUFACTURED CAPITAL Sustainability can also be operationalized in terms of

conservation of natural capital For renewables the rule is to limit resource consumption to

sustainable yield levels For non-renewables the rule is to reinvest proceeds from non-

renewable resource exploitation into investment in renewable natural capital

This will maintain a constant stock of natural capital given a constant level of human population

This is known as daly’s principle of strong sustainability


NATURAL & MANUFACTURED CAPITAL The standard economic theory however suggest that there is no

special reason to conserve natural capital This is known as Hartwick’s principle of weak sustainability It posits: “consumption may remain constant or increase with

declining non-renewable resources provided that the rents from these resources are reinvested in reproducible capital”

Unlike strong sustainability principle this does not require maintenance of any particular stock of natural capital


NATURAL & MANUFACTURED CAPITAL The special assumption involved in weak sustainability principle

is that of substitutability of natural & manufactured capital If we cut down forests & build factories we are better off provided

the economic value of the new industrial plant compares favorably with the economic value of the lost forest

Daly’s view is based on the opposite assumption Manufactured & natural capitals are not substitutes but

complements A fleet of fishing boats is of no use without a stock of fish


PRECAUTIONARY PRINCIPLE It is suggested that some issues can be appropriately dealt with through

neoclassical market efficiency

It may be possible to compensate for some water pollution with purification system

In the case of critical natural capital, such as, essential water supplies – substitutability is zero

As life & economic system will be impossible without access to water

Such issues require application of a “safe minimum standard” approach to protect essential resources & environmental functions

ECONOMIC PERPECTIVE

PRECAUTIONARY PRINCIPLE Following a safe minimum standard, society would rule out

actions that could result in natural impacts beyond a certain threshold of costs & irreversibility

This will involve strong public decision making & the formation of societal values

Such an approach would recognize sustainability as a concept that is Independent of standard economic analysis, and

Requires an explicitly normative & socially determined process of decision making


POVERTY & OVERCONSUMPTION From social perspective sustainability can be defined as “intra-

generational equity” “Poverty is a major cause & effect of global environmental

problems” (wced, 1987) “Those who are poor & hungry will often destroy their immediate

environment in order to survive. They will cut down forests, their livestock will overgraze the grasslands; they will overuse marginal lands & in growing nos. They will overcrowd into congested cities” (wced, 1987)

This is a generalized image of the poor as short term maximizers

SOCIAL PERSPECTIVE

POVERTY & OVERCONSUMPTION In policy circles this perspective is compatible with the argument

that economic growth & a rise in per capita incomes is the only solution to global environmental destruction

This view is criticized on following accounts: The poor often depend heavily on common property resources

They suffer the most serious consequences of pollution & environmental damage

They are in most circumstances ardent praticioners of sustainable resource use

It is important to distiguish between “merely poor” & desparately poor”

SOCIAL PERSPECTIVE

POVERTY & OVERCONSUMPTION “Overconsumption in global north is a major cause of global

environmental degradation” (Bob Sutcliffe, 1995)

Overemphasis on west like economic growth has overlooked the ways in which that growth has occurred

Instead of economic development aimed at wealth & consumption maximization, we need to invest in “human development”

SOCIAL PERSPECTIVE

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT Mehboob ul Haq & Paul Streeten promoted a “Basic Needs

Approach” in late 1970’s They argued that traditional focus on economic growth be

augmented by one that emphasized meeting the basic needs of all members of the society

These include: education, health care & nutrition The other proponent of this school of thought is Amartya sen Sen argued for a shift from per capita income growth to improved

quality of life outcomes

SOCIAL PERSPECTIVE

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT The human development approach was a precursor for

establishment of undp It also inspired the creation of Human Development Index – HDI

HDI focuses on social development measures like education and health in addition to GDP

For instance: Costa Rica’s HDI is nearly equal to that of South Korea, despite its per capita income being barely half of Korea’s

This suggests that “country is more effectively translating growth into human development”

SOCIAL PERSPECTIVE

A SYNTHESIS OF PERSPECTIVES The original idea of development was based on a straight line

progression from traditional to modern mass consumption society

Within this framework a tension developed between the promotion of economic growth & the equitable provision of basic needs

Development as it has proceeded over the last half century has remained inequitable & has had grwoing environmental impacts

A concept of sustainable development must remedy social inequities & environmental damage, while maintaining a sound economic base


A SYNTHESIS OF PERSPECTIVES ECOLOGICAL PROTECTION: Population & total resource demand must be limited in scale, and The integrity of ecosystems & diversity of species must be maintained ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT: The conservation of natural capital is essential for sustainable economic

production & intergenerational equity. Market mechanisms do not operate effectively to conserve natural

capital, but tend to deplete & degrade it SOCIAL EQUITY, THE FULFILLMENT OF BASIC HEALTH &

EDUCATIONAL NEEDS & PARTICIPATORY DEMOCRACY ARE CRUCIAL ELEMENTS OF DEVELOPMENT, AND ARE INTERRELATED WITH ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY


A SYNTHESIS OF PERSPECTIVES These principles suggest new guidelines for the development

process They also require modification of the original goal of economic

growth Economic growth, especially for those who lack essentials, is

needed, but must be subject to global limits Economic growth should not be the prime objective for countries

at already high levels of consumption A moderate level of consumption, together with strong social

institutions & a healthy environment, represent a better ideal than ever increasing consumption


A SYNTHESIS OF PERSPECTIVES It is essential to recognize the limts of the market mechanism

Markets may be excellent under some conditions to achieve economic efficiency

They are often counterproductive in terms of sustainability

S.D. Policy must be guided by the social & institutional processes as well as environmental & social goals & norms

It is also advisable to avoid two extremes


A SYNTHESIS OF PERSPECTIVES Mere sustainability: simply ensuring that economic production

can remain steady or increase This approach draws support from neo-classical economic

theory Gives short shrift to the social & ecological aspects of

sustainability If the only goal is to keep the production levels high, the problem

of sustainability becomes deceptively easy to solve But the proposed solutions may only create worse problems


A SYNTHESIS OF PERSPECTIVES Advocates of this approach tend to be oriented towards

technological fixes Nuclear power as an alternative to fossil fuels Genetic engineering to increase crop yields These all have the potential for unintended, dangerous &

irreversible consequences Unsolved problems of nuclear waste management The possibility of accidentally creating super-weeds & super-

pests through genetic transfer These should cause us to be cautious about optimistic plans for

sustainable development


A SYNTHESIS OF PERSPECTIVES MORE SUSTAINABILITY: ADDING TO DEFINITION OF

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT EVERY DESIRABLE GOAL IMPLIED BY A DISCUSSION OF SOCIAL & ECOLOGICAL ISSUES

WE WANT: ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION, IMPROVED HEALTH & EDUCATION, GENDER EQUITY, PARTICIPATORY DEMOCRACY, PEACE & INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION

AND ALL OTHER GOOD THINGS AT THE SAME TIME!


A SYNTHESIS OF PERSPECTIVES What if provision of adequate food & water supplies appears to

require changes in land use which will decrease biodiversity?

What if non-polluting energy sources are more expensive, thus increasing the burden on the poor?

We can maximise only one objective at a time!

Which goal to take precedence?

We must seek reasonable balance b/w the desired goals & the available means & resources


THANK YOU

?

Date post:	20-Jul-2016
Category:	Documents
Upload:	blah-blah-56743
View:	9 times
Download:	5 times

01-09-12 LECTURE NO. 03

Documents