is published by Princeton University Press and copyrighted copy 2009 by Princeton University Press All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced in any form by any electronic or mechanical means (including photocopying recording or information storage and retrieval) without permission in writing from the publisher except for reading and browsing via the World Wide Web Users are not permitted to mount this file on any network servers
Follow links for Class Use and other Permissions For more information send email to permissionspressprincetonedu
onproducersandpusherspushersandcontractkillersrequirecustomshyers terroristswant armsdealers and corruptofficials are lostwithoutcorruptersAmongthefeweconomiststopayattentiontocriminalcomshymunicationsThomasSchellingwroteldquoThebankemployeewhowouldliketorobthebankifhecouldonlyfindanoutsidecollaboratorandthebankrobberwhowouldliketorobthebankifonlyhecouldfindaninsideaccomplicemayfinditdifficulttocollaboratebecausetheyareunabletoidentifyeachothertherebeingseverepenaltiesintheeventthateithershoulddeclarehisintentionstosomeonewhoprovednottohaveidenticalinterestsrdquo1Identifyingpartnersandcorrespondinglyadshyvertising as bona fide denizens of the underworld are indispensablemeanstocarryingoutcriminalactivitiesAndtheyaremuchmorecomshyplicatedthantheparalleloperationsareforordinarybusinessEvenbeshyforeworryingabouttheirpartnerrsquostrustworthinessorcompetenceasacriminalpeoplewhowanttocommitacrimeneedfirstofalltoidenshytifywhoispotentiallypreparedtocooperatewiththeminbreakingthelaw
When contemplating straying from the lawful path people whosemainbusinessisnotcriminalareevenmorehinderedthanprofessionalcriminalsbytheproblemsofidentificationAbuildingcontractoroncetoldmethathewouldhavebeendelightedtopassonabrownenvelopetoendhislongwaitforaplanningpermissionifonlyheknewwhomtoapproach Identification mistakes can cost dearly but while the risksdetermanytheydonotdeterallGeorgeFallowsapropertylandlordofLlangernywnearAbergelenorthWaleswasdeterminedtoavoidpayinghiswifealargedivorcesettlementandtriedtohaveherkilledbyahit
4 c h a p t e r 1
manwhowas supposed to crash a lorryheadshyon intoher car as shedrovedownacountrylaneThecontractkillerhesoughttohirehowshyever turnedout tobe anundercoverpolicemanposing as a criminalThepolicemanrecordedthenegotiationsandin2003Fallowswassenshytencedtofiveyearsinprisonluckytohavefoundalenientjudge2
In2000amemberofaSiciliangangwhowasplanningamonumenshytalrobberybysettingupawebsiteimitatingtheonlineservicesoftheBanco di Sicilia contacted the director of a branch of the Banco diRomatoenlisthisassistanceinthefraudHefailedtorealizethatthedirectorwasanundercoverpolicemanandhismistakeledtohisarrestand to that of twentyshytwo others including members of a Palermomafiafamily3
ThehotterthetradethemoredauntingaretheproblemsofidentifishycationHowdoyougoaboutforinstancefindingablackshymarketbuyerforeightbarsof enricheduraniumThisquestion taxed thebrainsofeleven Italian mobsters an unholy coalition of Sicilian mafiosi andRomanandCalabrianorganizedcriminalswhohad thebars in theirhands for some timeThese bars have a troubled historyThey are90shycentimetershylong cylinders wrapped in steel each containing 200gramsofuraniumanddesignedforpeacefulusesTheywereproducedinthelabsofGeneralAtomicsinSanDiegoandsenttotheCongoasagiftinFebruary1971wheretheyweretobeusedasnuclearfuelinthelabsoftheexperimentalreactorMarkIIinKinshasaThegiftprogramwasknown ironicallyasldquoAtoms forPeacerdquoHowever ifblownupbymeansofanordinaryexplosivetheycanserveasldquothepoormanrsquosnushyclearbombrdquospreadingdeadlynuclearradiationInthewordsofCaptainRobertoFerronioftheItaliancustomspoliceinRomeldquoIftheywereblownupinVillaBorghesethecenterofRomewouldbecomeuninshyhabitable for a centuryrdquo4From the labs inKinshasa thebarsmysterishyouslydisappearedIn1997whenMobutursquosregimewasoverturnedandheleftforFrancewherehediedofcancerthebarsapparentlytraveledwithhimTheysurfacedonceinFranceandwerethecauseofagunshyfight betweenFrenchpolice and a groupof criminalmerchantswhoweretryingtosellthem
A year later they reemerged in the hands of the Italian mobsters
5 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
whosetelephonecommunicationswereinterceptedbytheItaliancusshytomspolice in thecourseof investigating them forothercrimesThepolicewereamazedtohearthemobstersspeakofunspecifiedldquonuclearstuffrdquoandwereinitiallyunsurewhatthatmeantInthespringof1998themobstersfinallythoughttheyhadfoundabuyeranemissaryofanArabcountryThebuyerwhointroducedhimselfasldquotheAccountantrdquowasinrealityanundercoveragentforwhomthepolicehadcreatedawholenew identityTheygavehim falsepenal andprison records forfencingandfabricatedanonexistentrelationshipbetweenhimandanArabcountryandtheIslamicJihadwhichtheagentmentionedastheultimatebuyerldquoOursellersrdquosaysCaptainFerroniwholedtheoperashytionldquodidnotlosetheircomposureOnthecontrarythecredibilityoftheArabworldwhichisalwayshuntingfornuclearmaterialconvincedthemthat[ourman]wasnotatraprdquoTheagentbroughtwithhimanasshysociateanengineerwhowasallowedtotestoneofthebarsandfoundthatitdidindeedcontainuraniumThepolicethentransferredavirtualsumof20billion lireonaSwissBankaccountbargainingdown therequestedprice thatwas twiceasmuchThebrilliantoperationhowshyeverwasonlyapartialsuccessAsinthebestcrimestoriesthemafiosicheatedtwiceoverOntheagreeddayforcompletingthetransactiontheyshowedupwithonlyonebaradifferentonefromtheonethathadbeentestedandfailedtodelivertheothersevenAtthatpointhoweverthecoverwasblownandthepolicehadtoarrestthemThebarsrsquocurshyrent location remainsunknownCaptainFerroni saysldquoThemanwhocouldhavetakenustothosebarsDomenicoStilitanorefusestospeakItisnotinhisinterestOnthe11thofOctober[2001]hewassentencedto4yearsand6monthsasthenewantiterrorismlawsarenotyetapplishycableandthetrafficofstrategicmaterialisstillconsideredasitwereaminorcrimerdquo5
TheidentificationproblemisfurtherintensifiedbythefactthatconshytrarytoawidespreadbeliefcriminalgroupsareunstableIntheundershyworld people have a higher rate of mobility (and mortality) than inmostprofessionsldquomostadultcoshyoffendingdoesnotarisefromparticishypationingroupsthetypicalcoshyoffendingrelationshipappearstobetransitory and there is a continual search forcoshyoffendersrdquo6Andldquothe
6 c h a p t e r 1
life of most of the mobsrdquo said a professional thiefldquois comparativelyshortrdquo7Thisispartlybecausecriminalsarechasedbylawenforcersandhavetokeepmovingandhidingandbecausetheyaremoreinclinedtouseviolenceagainsteachother thanregularbusinessmenare ItcouldalsobeforldquoendogenousreasonsThemorelucrativethebusinessthemorepotentialentry itwillattract resulting in(literally)cutthroatcompetishytionandshortexpectedlifeforanincumbentrdquo8
ThedifficultiesofidentifyingpartnerskeepmuchpotentialcrimeatbayMakingidentificationhardisarguablythemostpowerfuldeterrentagainstcrimethattheforceofthelawbringsaboutbydiscouragingthecountlessdormantcriminalswhorefrainfromactingunlawfullyforfearof being caughtwhen searching or advertisingA blessing for societyidentification constraints are a serious hindrance for criminals whodearly wish they could use theYellowPagesHowdo they solve theproblem
MISTAKEN IDENTIF ICATION
WhentryingtoidentifypartnerscriminalscanmaketwotypesofmisshytakesFirsttheycanmissopportunitiesfailingtoseethroughthedisshyguisesthatgenuinepotentialpartnersadoptinordertopassthemselvesoff as lawshyabiding citizens and avoid being caught (the falseshynegativemistake)InthiscasebothpartieshavethesameinterestsbutmisstheopportunityforafruitfulpartnershipNoticethatthefailureofonetoidentifyreflectsthefailureoftheothertoadvertiseMimickingalawshyabidingcitizenwhichsometimessimplymeanskeepingalowprofileissomethingmost criminals have to doThis however can succeed toowellandonecanfailtoadvertisewhenitwouldbeinonersquosinteresttodoso
Second searchersmay approach a lawshyabidingcitizenorworse anundercoveragentmistaking themforpotentialpartners incrime (thefalseshypositive mistake) Lawshyabiding citizens are not a cause of greatconcernforcriminalsTrueifapproachedtheymayinformtheauthorishytiesButordinarypeopledonothaveaninterestinpassingthemselves
7 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
offascriminalsIfanythingtheyarecareful toavoid lookinglikeoneOnlyuttercarelessnessinapproachingothersorsomeinanemisundershystandingscanleadtoconfusinglawshyabidingcitizensforcriminalsmdashsuchas thatof the fortyshysevenshyyearshyoldCanadianwomanwho in 1991diduse theYellowPagesandcontactedafirminPhoenixArizonacalledldquoGuns forHirerdquo seeking to put a contract on her husbandrsquos life ShefailedtonoticethatthefirmspecializedinputtingonldquoWildWesttheatshyricalshowsforconventionsprivatepartiesandthelikerdquoAfterhanding$2000toanundercoverdetectiveposingasahitmanthewomanwasarrestedandlatersentencedtofourandahalfyearsinjailBeforecallingGunsforHirethedetectivelaterexplainedshehadconsideredcallingmotorcycleclubsandanItalianshyAmericanassociation9Ifcontractkillshyersandpeopleseekingthemreallycouldadvertiseopenlyonewondershowmanymoremurderstherewouldbe
Therealworryconcernsundercoveragentsorinformerswhohaveanactiveinterest inpretendingtobeagenuinepartneranddeceivingthesearchingcriminalInthiscasewhichIconsiderherethecriminalrsquosfailure to identify correctly a lawshyandshyorder agent reflects the latterrsquosmimickingsuccessInparticularIconsiderthecaseoftwoindividualswhoareinasymmetricalpositionsAalreadyknowsthatBisacriminal(andBknowsthatAknowsthat)BhoweverdoesnotknowwhetherAisacriminalRegardlessofwhetherAistrulyacriminaloranundershycoveragentposingasoneAwantstopersuadeBthatheisarealcrimishynalBatthesametimeislookingforevidenceofthetypethatAisThequestioniswhatkindofevidencecansatisfyB
Theprobabilityofmaking identificationmistakes isldquofrequencydeshypendentrdquothehighertheproportionofcriminalsinthesearchenvironshymentthelowertheriskofapproachingthewrongpeopleWherecorshyruption isknowntobewidespread for instancecorruptingothersorsignalingonersquoswillingnesstoacceptbribesisnotmuchofaproblemIftheprobabilityofencounteringacorruptagentiscorrectlybelievedtobehighcriminalswill rationally trymoreandbolderapproachesandwill easily uncover corrupt partners In Russia which may have apshyproached this stateof affairs in recent times the values of corruptionldquofeesrdquo fordifferentpositionsofauthoritywereopenlyreported inthe
Soourquestioniswhatdocriminalslookforwhatkindofsignsdotheyattendtoinordertoidentifytheirkindredspiritsorcatchtheunshydercover agentsThe littlewecanfind in the literatureexplicitlydisshycussingtheidentificationproblemsuggeststhatcriminalsclaimtoposshysessaspecialabilitythatenablesthemtoidentifyothercrooksbyldquogutfeelingsrdquo ldquoalookintheeyesrdquo ldquovibrationsrdquo11NowherecouldIfindanytheorythatunpacksthosefeelingsthatpredictswhatcriminalscanbeexpected to look for But carefully scrutinized the evidence we cangather from the many ethnographic accounts of criminalsrsquo activitiesstronglysuggeststhattheydonotgoaboutiterraticallyCriminalssysshytematicallylookforsignsthatidentifyanotheragentasagenuinecrimishynaltypeandatthesametimetheytryjustassystematically(andcareshyfully)toadvertisebysendingsignalsthatonlyanothergenuinecriminaltypewillpickup
ldquoOnthestreetrdquomdashwroteFBIspecialagentJosephPistonewhoinfilshytratedtheColomboandlatertheBonannomafiafamiliesofNewYorkunderthenameofDonnieBrascomdashldquoeverybodyissuspiciousofeveryshybodyelseuntil youproveyourselfrdquo12 If someone saysldquoI amready todealwithyoupalrdquoorsportssomeitemofclothingthatconventionallyindicatesheisacriminalsuchasapairofdarkglassesthesesignalsarehardlysufficienttoprovethatheisacriminalAsaprofessionalthiefputitldquolanguageisnotinitselfasufficientmeansofdeterminingwhetherapersonistrustworthyforsomepeopleintheunderworldarestoolpishygeons and someoutsiders learn some of the languagerdquo13Provingoneselfrequirestougherteststhancheaptalk
ingconditionagivensignalscanconvincearationalreceiverofasigshynalerrsquoscriminalityifgiventheexpectedbenefitsarationalmimicwhocouldgainbyposingasacriminalfinds s toocostlytoproduceortodisplayInotherwordsa convincing signal of a criminal type is that which only a true criminal can afford to produce and to sendThatdoesnotmeanthatsuchsignalingwillnecessarilybeverycostlyforarealcriminalInthecourseofhiscareerhemayhaveacquiredmuchrawmaterialthatcanbedisplayedatlittleextracostItsufficesthatthesignalbetoocostlyforthemimictoafford
SelectiveEnvironments
Agood indeedthebest signofacriminal typeconsistsofcourseofobserving someone committing a crimeThis is not likely to occurthoughforpeopledonotnormallywishtobeseenengaginginvillainshyousactsThis isaconstraint thatordinarybusinessmendonot faceasthey can showwhat they do to third partieswithout fear of the lawBy contrast criminals have to resort as much as possible to indirectmethods
Acommonstrategythatallowscriminalsinsearchofoneanothertoexchangesignalsconsistsoffrequentingplaceswherenoncriminalsarenot likely tobe foundwhich is likepatronizingaldquosinglesbarrdquowhensearchingforamateldquoTosearchforaccomplicesandtodisposeofillegalgoodsadultoffenderspatronisethesameplacesmakethesamekindsof transactionsandoftenreside in the sameareardquo14Theyhangout inbars gambling dens boxing gyms and social clubs full of other menduringnormalworkinghoursorlateatnightattimesthatiswhenacommonpersonisotherwiseoccupiedOrtheyliveinroughneighborshyhoodsforthesamereasonwellshytoshydocitizensmoveoutofthemmdashbothdreadmakingencountersofthewrongsortInhisresearchoncrimeinNewYorkCitySullivan(1989)foundthatmuchrecruitmentoccursinneighborhoodswherepeopleknowaboutoneanotherandcheckeachotheroutinthenaturalcourseoftheirdailyinteractionsEnvironmentsselected for their criminality those which ldquoregular guysrdquo find morecostlyorlessattractivetopatronizethancriminalsdomakeidentificashy
ByitselfthoughthisstrategyworksonlyuptoapointItsavescrimshyinalsfromdealingbymistakewithlawshyabidingcitizensHoweverifthecostofhangingaroundinsuchenvironmentsisnotveryhighforanonshycriminaltheymaybecomeverydangerousplacesforcriminalspreciselytheplaceswhereundercoveragentswillconvergewhenattemptingtoinfiltrate criminal networks Singles bars increase the probability ofmeeting single people but they do not eliminate the probability ofmeetingpatronswhowhilemarriedgotheremerelypretendingtobesingle In the underworld where the stakes of mistaken identity arehigherifsomeonejustshowsupinabarfullofcriminalsheisnotlikelyto go far without further credentialsTo be reassured criminals needsigns thecostofwhicha lawshyenforcement agentor a spywouldfindharder topayRather thanbeing reliable signs in themselves selectiveenvironments merely offer better opportunities to gather further evishydencedirectlyandindirectly
Referrals
ldquoAnother method [to establish someonersquos criminal credentials] is byfindingoutwhatpeoplethestrangerknowsrdquo15IfCknowsthatAisacriminalCmayintroduceAtoBOrBcansimplyseeCwithAandinferthatAisonetooAgangstercalledJacksoninhisautobiographywroteldquoonthestreetIknowhundredsandhundredsofcharactersbutIdonotknowtheirnamesSayyouareacharacterandIrsquomacharacterandIseeyouwithacharacterthatIknowIhavenowayofcheckingyourcreditratingoranythingelsesoI judge you by whom you associate withIfIknowthatthispersonisagoodpersonandnotapolecatnotastoolpigeonnotthemanrsquosmanthenIhavetogiveyouthecreditforbeingall rightrdquo16 Incertaincriminalcirclesldquoyoursquodbe surprised Itrsquos averycloseshyknitthingamonghustlersYoumeetsomeoneyoursquovenevermetbeforeinaplaceyoursquoveneverseenbeforeyoufindoutsomeonetheyknowTheymayevenhaveheardofyourdquo17Interestinglythisimshypliesthatcriminalshavetobeextravigilantaboutwhomtheyareseen
Onewaytoacquiregoodevidenceofsomeonersquoscriminalitywhichinshytersects with the referral method exploits law enforcement itself Intermsof howeffectively they canmix andmatchkindred spirits thehangouts thatcriminals freelychoosecannotcompetewith theplacesthey are forced to go by the agents who fight against crime there isnothing like prison to mix like with like Prisons promote crime inmanyobviousways18teachingcriminalsnewskillsandbrutalmodesofbehaviorbuttheyalsodosolessobviouslybyshoulderingthecostsofadvertisingandidentifyingwhoisacriminaltobeginwith
JustbeingaprisonerisaclearandsimplesignthatoneiscriminallyinclinedThehardpart is paying the priceof going there in thefirstplaceButitispreciselythatcostthatmakesaprisontermsuchagoodsignofbeingarealcriminalParadoxicallythebetterthecriminaljusticesystemisthesaferitistoassumethatthecompanyputbehindbarswillbe invariably villainousThough there are surely innocent prisonersmanyareguiltythemoresothebetterthesystemOnecanalsobereashysonably sure that phonies peoplewho talkbig about their dangerouscriminaltendenciesbutdonothingwillnotendupinprisonTheinshyterpersonalconflictsthatarerifewithinprisonsasweshallseeinchapshyter4 furtherensure that thephoniesarequickly identifiedAndeventhough undercover policemen have certainly been sent to prison forshortperiodstogaincriminalcredentialsthelongerthetimeprisonersspendinjailthecloserwegettoprisonbeingaperfectdiscriminatingsignmdashnoonechoosestospendtwentyyearsbehindbarsforthesakeofposingasavillainDoingtimeinprisoncanthusbebothastigmaandabadgedependingonwhoislookingatitAnexshyconvictwhowishestoreturntothepathoftherighteouscanfinddoingsoveryhardbeshycausehistimespentinprisonidentifieshimasacriminalldquoOnceyoursquore
12 c h a p t e r 1
markedinprisonyoursquoredoneforrdquosaysadelinquentboyrecountinghisownstory19Butonewhointendstopersistinhisoldwayswillfindhispath smoothed and can display his prison credentials to further hiscriminalcareer
OnemaynotgoasfarasarrangingajailsentenceforoneselfforthepurposeoffosteringnewassociationswithkindredspiritsButonceinprison there is an abundance of opportunity to make villainous acshyquaintanceswhowillbeusefulafteroneleaves
Say that there are fifty quite well established thieves in MalmoumlonlythirtyofthosehaveafenceThosewhodonrsquotaretheyoungeronesaroundeighteenortwentywhohavenrsquotbeenaroundenoughsotheyrsquollhavetoasktheirfriendsorselltothievesForsomeonewhohasbeeninsideasmuchasmeitrsquosnoproblem20
IncarcerationasamarkofreliabilityworksataremoveIftwoformerprisonersdidnotactuallymeetinjailtheycanstilldisplayevidenceofhavingbeenldquointhecanrdquotoadvertisetheircredentialsSoevenifgoingtoprisonwasnotintendedasaperverseformofreacutesumeacutebuildingtherevelationof theexperiencecanbe andoften is an intentional signalTheldquoreferralrdquomethodIdiscussedaboveexploitsprisoncontactstoomdashforifoneisembeddedinanetworkoneisinabetterpositionbothtoreferothersandtobereferredbythemThereisevenevidencethatunshywittinglyunionsandorganizationsthataresupposedtohelpexshyinmatesto reentermainstream society alsohelpunreformedcriminals in theirbusiness21Notleastthesecharitableorganizationsassistthembycertishyfying their status as genuine exshyprisoners thus innocently facilitatingencounterswithactivevillains
whetherandhowfartheenhancingofonersquoscriminalidentityoffsetstheattemptsatrehabilitationthereismuchanecdotalevidencefromcrimishynalsrsquo biographies of the enhancing effectrsquos existence It starts early inyoungshyoffendersrsquoinstitutionsInhisautobiographyJimmyBoyleaScotshytishgangsterreminiscesthatwhenhewassixteen
theApprovedSchoolsurelyplayedavitalpartinmycriminaldeshyvelopmentItgavemeconnectionsthatIwastofindusefulinmyadultdaysItgavemeanintroductiontoguysfromtownsandcitshyiesthroughoutScotlandandfrommanyareasinGlasgowmanyofwhom grew up to be the top thieves or fighters in their areasThere isnodoubtatall thatmostof themgained inacriminalsensefromtheirApprovedSchoolexperience23
HewasdoinghisbesthewritestoavoidbeingcaughtldquobuteverytimeIwentintoprisonIbroadenedmycriminalhorizonsbymakingmoreandmoreconnections indifferent areasrdquo24MalcolmBralywho spentnearly seventeenyears invariousUSprisons forburglarywroteldquoHewasbrokeasIwasandhesuggestedwetrysomethingtogetherItwasreasonableWho is more likely to be trustworthy than someone youhavejustmetinjailrdquo25
CriminalandrebelorganizationsregardaprisonrecordasasignofdistinctionTheRussiancriminalfraternityknownasvorymadehavingbeeninaprisoncampaformalrequirementofmembership26AccordshyingtoMarekKaminskiatleastonememberoftheundergroundSolshyidarity movement in Poland provoked the communist secret servicestoputher inprisonsoshecould improveherreputationldquoUnderthewellshyprogressingperestroika in1987 thePolishcommunistsessentiallystoppedincarceratingtheopposition(sothelsquoincarcerationrsquowasabrief48hours)theystartedtalkswithselectedoppositiongroupsandmanyunderground politicians thought that there would be some role forthem to playwithin the communist regime soonThus the expectedcostofincarcerationwaslowandtheexpectedbenefitswerehighrdquo27
The lengthof time spent in prison further provides anldquoobjectiverdquomeasureoftherespectoneisowedrelativetoothergangmembersThus
14 c h a p t e r 1
Christopher Seymour writes of taking a drive with Japanese yakuza (mobsters)ldquoIntheloosehierarchyoftheHarashygumiKenis themostsenior in the automobile He has already served time in adult prisonwhereastheothershaveonlybeenthroughjuveniledetentionrdquo28LikeshywiseMarekKaminskimdashwhowhenhewasa sociologysophomore inthe1980swasarrestedbythePolishcommunistsecretpolicetogetherwithelevenothermembersofanundergroundSolidarnosc publishinghouseandjailedforfivemonthsmdashreportsldquoSomeofthePolishgrypsmen [inmateswhoaremembersofaprisonfraternityseechapter4]claimthatinthecaseofaprisonerwithasentenceof20+yearshedoesnothavetojointhegrypsmenformallyandsufferthecostsoftheinitiationritualsHeiseligibleforenjoyingallthebenefitsofthecastemembershyshipbyvirtueofthesentencersquoslengthrdquo29FortheRussianmafiaaswellldquothelengthoftimespentinprisonwasasourceofprestigeandasignofdistinction among the criminals who aspired to become voryrdquo30 In atelephoneconversation secretly recordedby Italianpolice thewifeofIvanYakovlev (thenames have been changed) aRussianmobster arshyrestedinItalyin199731usesthelengthofherhusbandrsquosprisonsentencetoinduceoneofhisassociatestoshowduerespectAssignedtothetaskbyherhusband shewarns theRussianwifeof theaccompliceMarioFerrarildquoIvanisbiggerthan[yourhusband]hehasbeeninprisonfor15yearsrdquoFerrarididnotenjoythesameprisoncredentialsthoughhehadclashedwiththelawinthepastfordrugdealingHewasnowmisbeshyhavingbeingoftendrunkanddisheveledandaccordingtoIvanswifedidnotshowenoughrespecttoIvanInasubsequentconversationbeshytweenthetwowomenFerrarirsquoswifeapologizedforherhusbandrsquosbeshyhavior She clearly took the point and repeated word for word whatIvanrsquoswifepreviouslytoldherldquo[Myhusband]understoodthatitisnotIvanwhomustlookforhimbutthathecleanandwelldressedmustgotoIvaninthecarandaskhimwhatneedstobedonebecauseIvanisbiggerthanheishehasbeeninprisonfor15yearsrdquo32
monlyacceptedviewthatldquopunishingacriminalmoreseverelyreducesthatindividualrsquossubsequentprobabilityofrecidivismrdquo33Sinceprisonersareassignedtominimumshylowshyorhighshysecurityprisonsonthebasisoftheirscoreonascalefrom1to10pointsldquointendedtoreflect[their]needforsupervisionrdquo34ChenandShapirowereabletocomparetherearrestratesofexshyinmateswhohadbeenoneithersideofthecutoffboundarshyiesthathadledthemtobeincarceratedinprisonswithdifferentsecushyrity levelsldquoinessenceweargue thatwithin a small interval aroundacutofftheallocationofprisonerstodifferentsecuritylevelsamountstoarandomassignmentrdquo35Althoughtheresultsarebasedonasmallnumberofcases948theystillenabletheauthorstorejectstronglythehypothshyesisthatlowerlevelsofprisonsecurityleadtomorerecidivismafterreshyleaseinsteadtheyindicateinmanywaysthattheoppositeeffectobtainsThe authorsrsquo interpretationof this effect refers to lower laborshymarketopportunities for highershysecurity exshyinmates and to peer effectsmdashldquoinmatesmayacquireskillslearnofnewprospectsordevelopcriminalcontactsrdquo36moreofteninhighershythaninlowershysecurityprisonsTheirresultsarealsoperfectlycompatiblewithanotherinterpretationhavingbeeninprisonswithastricterregimestrengthensthecertifyingeffectoncriminalcredentialsandgivesexshyinmatesfromtheseprisonsrelativeto those fromprisonswith lower security levelsgreatercredibilityonthecriminallabormarket
the two pairs have solved the identification problem in the past Butwhatabouttheelementarycaseinwhichreferralsarenotavailableornotpersuasiveorsafeenoughmdashcantwoagentsthenfindadirectsolushytiontotheproblem
It is hard to observe someone committing a crime in the naturalcourseofeventsbutvillainscancertainlyaskapotentialpartnerorreshycruittogivethemevidenceofhavingcommittedcrimesandcandosowithout resorting to an intermediaryThis can work if the crimes inquestionleaveatracethatcanbeknownorpossessedonlybytherealperpetrator One cannot just say that one has committed a crimemdashaphonymayhavereadaboutitinthepaperandsimplybeclaimingtobetheperpetratorOnehastoshowthebootyasitwereasinthefollowingcasePoliceinfourteencountriesincludingtheUnitedStatesarrestednearlytwohundredsuspectedmembersofanInternetchildpornograshyphyringtheWonderlandClubTojointheringonehadtoshowthatonepossessedtenthousandphotographsandbepreparedtosharethemwith other membersThe photographs were screened by a computerprogramwhichcheckedwhethertheyweredifferentfromoneanotherand fromthosealreadyavailable fromother sources37Thisaction sigshynaledthatprospectivemembershadcommittedacrimeandwereserishyouslycommittedtotheactivityofcommoninterestandcouldnotthusbeundercoveragents(Ireturntothiscaseinchapter3)
UltimatelycriminalscanalsoaskapotentialpartnerorrecruittoenshygageinadisplaycrimemdashanactthatanoncriminalwouldneverdomdashandtocommitthecrimeundertheireyesorinsuchawayastoleaveanunmistakablesignofauthorshipThenatureoftheillegalactrequesteddependsonthetypeofcrimeinwhichtheagentsareinvolvedandthelawsthatgovernitDivinetheLosAngelesprostitutewhoachievedherfifteenminutesoffameforadministeringoralsextoBritishactorHughGrant in 1995 revealedherparticularkindof testBefore agreeing totradesheaskedGranttoexposehimselfThereasonshesaidisthatanundercoverpolicemanwouldnotdothatforhewouldbebreakingthelawDivinebelievedonewondershowaccuratelythatexposingoneselfwasasignalonlyrealcustomerscouldafford
The same reasoning inspires a test appliedbydrugdealers inNew
17 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
YorkSincethemidshy1990sldquoaspolicehave intensifiedtheirassault thedealershavealsoadoptedmoreperilous tacticsFiveor six timeseachmonthundercoverinvestigatorsarenowforcedtousecocaineorheroinatgunpointtoprovetodealersthattheycanbetrustedAtleasttwiceamonth anofficer is shotorotherwisewoundedduring a stagedpurshychasesaypolicecommanderswhospokeonconditionofanonymityrdquo38
These kinds of tests are common in organizationswhere loyalty isparamount Before initiation mafia novicesmdashespecially those not alshyreadymembersoffamilieswithamafiatraditionmdashareaskedtocommitamurder(sometimeswouldshybemembersmovefirstandcommitseriouscrimesbeforeanyoneaskedthemtodoso)39Themafiausuallydoesnotkill anyonepurely for the sakeof a testmdashit optimizes byldquowhackingrdquosomeonewhowasmeanttobewhackedanywayand atthesametimetrying out the determination and bona fides of a noviceTheAryanBrotherhoodinprisonadoptedthesametesttogainmembershipcanshydidatesldquohadtokillwhomevertheBrotherhoodtargetedrdquo40AkindredoutfitknownastheAryanWarriorsalsorequiredwouldshybememberstopassatestldquousuallyabloodyassaultorinsomeinstancesadrugripshyofffrom a person outside of the brotherhoodrdquo41 But there are cases inwhichheinous crimes are committed purely as tests In a hairshyraisingaccountoflifeinyouthgangsinColombiathewriterEfraimMedinaReyes claims that it is not uncommon for new gangmembers to beasked to murder innocent friends or members of their own familywhich pushes the test to the extreme42 Revolutionary and resistancegroups deemed to be illegal by the incumbent government have alsousedthesametestBeingaskedtocommitamurderwasforinstanceacommonpractice in theAlgerianFLNSometimes the leaderswouldpick victims more or less at random to see if prospective memberswouldobeyevenmeaninglessorders43
ThismethodexploitsthelawwhichrestrictsthelawshyabidingundershycoveragentsrsquooptionsandturnsittothecriminalsrsquoadvantageIfhowshyeverlawshyenforcementagenciesgivetheirundercoveroperativesgreaterdiscretion to act against the law for the sakeofpersuading thegrouptheyaretryingtoinfiltrateoftheirbonafidesthepowerofthesesignalsisweakened for theagentcannowaffordat least someof themThe
18 c h a p t e r 1
degreesoffreedomvaryfromtimetotimeandfromagencytoagencyPoliceinNewYorkarenowldquoinstructedtoavoidtakingthedrugsunless their lives are in dangerrdquoIfdealersreadtheNew York Timeswherethisinshyformationwaspublishedtheyknowthatforcingbuyerstoingestdrugsby threatening their lives isnowauseless test for itno longerdistinshyguishesgenuinebuyersfromundercoveragents
BeforediscussingthisproblemfurtherIwillpresentthecaseofFBIspecial agent Joseph Pistone aka Donnie Brasco who infiltrated theNewYorkmafiaandcameclosetobeinginitiatedIknowofnobettercase for illustratingall the typesofcostshydiscriminating signalsusedbycriminalsmdashand by those who try to fool them Donnie Brasco pershysuadedthemobstersofhiscriminalcredentialsbyemployingabreathshytakingrangeofsubtlesignalsandnarratedhisexperienceinabookmdasharguablythemostvividethnographyoftheUSmafiafromldquowithinrdquo44
Entering the mob world is needless to say very hardldquoAssociates ofwiseguysdonrsquotdealwithpeopletheydonrsquotknoworwhosomebodyelsedoesnrsquotvouchforrdquo45PriortoPistonersquosinfiltrationtheFBIlackedexpeshyrienceDuringJEdgarHooverrsquosreignatthebureauundercoverworkwasrarelyusedldquobecauseitcouldbeadirtyjobthatcouldenduptaintshyingtheagentsrdquo46AndalthoughithadbeenusedsinceldquosofarasweknewtheFBIhadneverplantedoneofitsownagentsinthemafiardquo47Yettheoperation itwas about to attemptwasextraordinarily shrewdPistoneneededtobuildawholebarrageofsignalswhichtakentogethercouldpersuadethemobstersthathewasarealbadguyAndthatiswhatheandhishandlerssetouttodomindingthatthelawconstrainedhisfreeshydomldquoTheFBIwouldnrsquotletmeactuallygooutonhijackingsandburshyglariesbecausethecrewwentarmedrdquoPistonewrites48
19 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
PistoneneededanamehedecideditwaseasiertosticktoDonnieBrasco the name he had used in a previous undercover operation inFloridaHeneededaplausiblebiographythatcouldbecheckedorbetshyterhardtocheckheposedasanorphanandabachelorHesaidhehadbeenraisedinanorphanageinPittsburghthatburneddowntherewereno records leftThe story needed to be simpleldquoThe fewer [lies] youhave to tell the feweryouhave torememberrdquohenotes49HesaidhehadspenttimeontheWestCoastandinFloridawhereinfacthehadbeenbeforeasldquoDonaldBrascordquointhepreviousoperationandhadesshytablishedsomecontactsHeneededaldquoprofessionrdquoandsettledonjewelrytheftsomethingonecandoaloneandthatdoesnotrequiretheuseofweaponsmdashsomething moreover that allowed him to use confiscatedstolen jewels to sell so he would not have to break the law to stealthem50
Hecouldcountonadvantagesthatwouldhavebeenhardtofakehadtheynotbeenpartofhis realbiographyHis Italianancestryprovidedhim with theldquorightrdquo ethnic background He had grown up in theldquorightrdquoneighborhoodandasayoungsterhungoutinldquojointsrdquopatronshyizedbywiseguysldquoYouhad tobe streetshysmartevencockysometimesEverygoodundercoveragentIhaveknowngrewuponthestreetlikeIdidandwasagoodstreetagentbeforebecominganundercoveragentOnthestreetyoulearnwhatrsquoswhatandwhorsquoswhoYoulearnhowtoreadsituationsandhandleyourselfYou cannot fake the ability It showsrdquo51
It is also interesting to know what he chose not to say or do Heavoided acting in a way that could raise suspicionldquoNo street guy isgoingtothrowmoneyallovertheplaceunlesshersquostryingtoattractatshytentionrdquoPistonereveals ldquoThenthequestionisWhyishetryingtoatshytractattentionrdquo52BydoingsoheeitherbecomesatargetinthatpeoplethinktheycanrobhimorraisessuspicionsthathemaybeacopDonshyniewasparsimonioustooinrevealingdetailsofhislifewhetherrealorphonyforldquoyouneverknowwhatpartofwhatyoudowillbecomepartofyourhistorywhenpeoplewanttocheckonyourdquo53
Ifthey[themobsters]werenrsquotscheminganddreamingtheyweretellingwarstoriesreminiscencesabouttheirtimeinvariousjailsandprisonsEverybodydidtimeinthecanItwaspartofthepriceofdoingbusinessTheyknewallaboutdifferent jailscellblocksguards I had enough phony background set up to establish mycredentialsasaseriouscriminaltoshowthatIwastoughenoughtodo time if Ihad towithout turningratBut I never claimed to have done any prison timebecause IdidnrsquotknowthoseplacesandthatcouldhavejustrippedmeupIfyoudothreetofiveyearsyouget to know the guardsmdashwhat guardrsquos on what tierYou get toknowtheinmatesguyswhoaredoingfifteentotwentyguyswhoarestillthereTheyknewthelingoandtheslangEverybodyreshymembersthoserelationshipsandthattime54
IndirectlyPistonersquos choice showswhat a robust signalhavingbeen inprison is It isnot something that canbeeasily fakedguyswhohavetrulybeentherewouldquicklyspotanimpostor
Donniewentonforacoupleofmonths
playing this game of being noticedwithout being noticed slideintothebadguyworldandbecomeacceptedwithoutdrawingatshytentionYoupushalittlehereandtherebutverygentlyBriefinshytroductions short conversations appearances one place and anshyotherhintsaboutwhatyoursquoreuptocasualmannerismsdemeanorand lingo that youknowyourway aroundmdashall these become atrail of credibility you leave behind youAbove all you cannothurryYoucannotseemeagertomeetcertainpeoplemakecertaincontactslearnaboutcertainscoresThe quickest way to get tagged as a cop is to try to move too fastYouhavetoshowthatyouhavethetime to play by the rules of the street and that includes lettingpeoplecheckyououtandcometoyou55
Hewouldphonethebar leavingmessages forhimself just toestablishthathehadconnectionsandconveythebeliefpeopleknewhepatronshyizedthebar57ldquoWhenIwentotherplacesIcouldsayrdquoPistonewritesldquolsquoIbeenhangingoutat thatplace for fourorfivemonthsrsquoAnd theycould check it outThe guys had been hanging around in this placewouldsaylsquoYeahDonBrascohasbeencominginhereforquiteawhileandheseemsallrightnevertriedtopullanythingonusrsquordquo58
Wealsoread ldquoYoucanrsquotgoinallthetimebyyourselfbecausetheythinkyoursquoreeitherafagoracopAnditrsquosgoodtovarycompanysotheydonrsquot see you with the same people all the time and wonder whatrsquosuprdquo59SoDonniewouldbringanoccasionalfemaleorChuckanotherundercover agentThanks to Chuck he was introduced toAlbertldquoahalfshyasswiseguyrdquoaconnectedshytobutnotamadememberof theCoshylombofamily
Donnie eventually became the proteacutegeacute of a made guy BenjaminldquoLeftyGunsrdquoRuggieroandspentsixyearswiththemafiosilivingtheirdaily lives and sharing their crooked dealingsmdashconstantly exposed totheriskofbeingdiscoveredandkilledInthecourseoftheoperationhewasofferedtheopportunitynotonlytohandlethebookmakingforthemob boss of Milwaukee Frank Balistrieri but also to get inside theskimmingoperationinLasVegasBalistrierisaidhehadagoodcrewbuttheywereldquoolderkindof set in theirways Icoulduse someyoungerguysthatIcouldtrusttotakeoveracoupleofmyclubsandotherbusishynessesYoungerguyswouldbeabletorelatetothewaysoftodayrsquosbusishynessworldrdquo62Leftyvouched forDonnieldquoI told [Balistrieri]rdquoDonnie
22 c h a p t e r 1
saysldquoyouaremybloodrdquo63ButacceptingwouldhavemadeitimpossibleforDonnietoseehisrealfamilysoheturneddowntheofferWhilethatdecisionangeredLeftyitalsoconferredanadvantageasitfurthersigshynaledDonniersquoscredibilityldquoOnethingIhadinmyfavorseenthroughanymobguyrsquoseyeswas thatno cop would ever turn that job downSo Iwouldbeabovesuspicioninthatregardrdquo64
Donniecameupwithmanyother signalsbelieved tobeof akindthat a cop could not afford He pretended to beat up someone whoowedmoney toLeftyHe roughedup a comedianwhohad annoyedLeftyattheThunderbirdaMiamirestaurant65Furthermoreldquotypicallywhatanundercovercopwilldo inabuyshybust situation is try tobuysomethingfromyouCops always buy never sellI was going to sellrdquoPistonereveals66mdashthankstothefactthattheFBIallowedhimdiscretioninthatregard One very special commodity he bought though Lefty RugshygierorsquosprotectionTheFBIdishedoutatotalof$40000forthispurposewhileDonniewasundercoverldquoTheywerepayinghimforhisservicesasalsquowiseguyrsquotoinsuretheyhadtheprotectionoftheBonannofamilyin the event another family tried to interfere with their businessrdquo67
WhilepaymentwasostensiblyaimedatcompensatingLeftyitwasalsoliterallyacostlysignalandintentionallydesignedtoappeartobesoldquoBygivinghimmoneyContiandRossi[twoundercoveragentswhocolshylaboratedwithDonnie] ledLefty tobelieve that theywerewilling tobecomeinvolvedwithhimandhe trusted them as bad guysrdquo68
Mafiosiwerenot taken inbecause theyweredumbratherPistonewasunbelievablysmartandresilientanditjustwasveryhardformobshysterstothinkthattakentogetherallthethingshedidanddidnotdowerenotnearshyperfectdiscriminatingsignalsTheFBIwaslatercriticizedforoperatingverynearorevenbeyondthe limitsof the lawBut thisrelative freedomfooledthemafiosibecause theyassumedthatanunshydercoveragentwouldnotpaythecostofbreakingthelawDivinecouldnothavebankedonherneatlittletestifagentsofthelawhadbeenalshylowedtoexposethemselvesThemobsterswerecheatednotjustinthesense thatDonnieBrascoby faking forging andpretending successshyfullymimickedarealbadguybutalsointhesensethathedidsomereal badactions
23 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
In a short biography ofBonanno familymembersmdashposted on theInternetforawhilethenremovedmdashLeftywasdescribedasldquothebiggestidiotinthehistoryofLaCosaNostraHisblindgreedandlackofinshystinctwerefelthardintheAmericanmafiardquoAndyetLeftywascarefulevenyearsafterDonniehadbeenacceptedasaconnectedguyDonniewasassistedbyotherundercoveragentsoneofwhomwasldquoRossirdquoTotestwhetherRossiwasanundercoveragentLeftydeliberatelyldquolostrdquoaplaneticketthatRossihadbookedonhisowncreditcardforLefty(thiswasacovertwayofpayingprotectiontoLefty)ldquoBypretendingtolosetheticketLeftywantedtoseehowRossi reactedIfhewasanagentLeftyreasonedhewouldgetnervousbecausehewouldprobablyhavetoaccount for the ticket tohisofficeplushewouldbeworried thatsomebodylsquointheunderworldbusinessrsquomightmeanwhilefindtheticketandcheckouttheAmericanExpressnumbertoseeifitwasagovernshymentnumberrdquo69
WhenitwasfinallyrevealedthatDonniewasanundercoveragentthemobsterswereshockedanddidnotbelieveittillDonnieactuallytestishyfied in court against them His operation managed to send many ofthemmostlymembersoftheBonannofamilytojail71
ThemobsterslearnedtheirlessonandincreasedthepriceofthetestsNow not just one butldquotwo mafiosi have to vouch for the proposedmemberrdquoldquoTheyhavetosaytheyhaveknowntheproposedmemberifnotsincechildhoodthenatleastforfifteentotwentyyearsrdquo72Accordshying to theFBI theyalso resumeda traditionalpractice thathadbeenabandonedldquoaproposedmembermustlsquomakehisbonesrsquoorkillsomeonebeforehecanbecomeamadeguyTheyhavedonesobecause no agent
24 c h a p t e r 1
would commit murder while posing as a bad guyrdquo73Murderisreallyapershyfectlydiscriminatingsignalofbeingabadguyasignalthatnoundershycover agentnot evenonebelonging to a rather lax lawshyenforcementagencycouldafford
Thisentryrequirementmdashwhichshowshowcriminalactscanbepershypetratednotmerelyfortheirimmediateinstrumentalvaluebutalsofortheir signaling valuemdashhad never been explicitly removed but it wasno longerusedwithgreat determination In truthDominickldquoSonnyBlackrdquoNapolitanowhoeventuallybecameDonniersquosmainmentorandplannedtoproposeDonnieformembershiphadaskedDonnietomurshydersomeoneldquoHegavemeacontractsothatIwouldhavethatcredenshytialwhenheputmynameuprdquoButtheopportunitytocarryitoutdidnotariseforAnthonyBrunoIndelicatotheintendedvictimwentsucshycessfullyintohidingDonnieshowedthathewasdoingallhecouldtotrackIndelicatodownanditwasnotthoughttobehisfaultwhenhefailedThusalthoughhedidnotcarryoutthekillinghestillmanagedtoshowhiswillingnesstodoitandafewmonthslaterSonnyputhisnameforwardformembershipAtthatpointtheFBIdecidedtostoptheoperationandDonnieresumedonceagainhisrealidentity
Undercoveragentsmdashwhohavetopersuadethegrouptheyaimtoinfilshytrateof theircriminalcredentialsmdasharea serious threat forunlikesolomimicstheycandrawontheresourcesofstateagenciesandcanaffordcomplexmimicryactswhichinvolveposingforgingcredentialstrainshyingandfundsStill itcanbenear impossibleto infiltrategroupsproshytected by an array of features that cannot be successfully imitatedmdashwhichinotherwordsperfectlydistinguishtherealfromthephonyFor
EvenaMuslimCIAofficerwithnativeshylanguageabilities(andtheAgencyaccordingtoseveralactiveshydutycaseofficershasveryfewoperativesfromMiddleEasternbackgrounds)coulddolittlemorein thisenvironment [PeshawarPakistan] thanablondblueshyeyedallshyAmericanCaseofficerscannotlongescapetheembassiesandconsulates in which they serveA US official overseasphotoshygraphedandregisteredwiththelocalintelligenceandsecuritysershyvicescanrsquottravelmuchparticularlyinapoliceshyrichcountrylikePakistanwithouttheldquohostrdquoservicesknowingaboutitAnofficerwho tries togonativepretending tobe a trueshybelieving radicalMuslim searching for brothers in the causewillmake a fool ofhimselfquickly
UndercoveroperationsareaproblematicformofanticrimeactivityforanotherreasonaswellThelogicofcostshydiscriminatingsignalsinclinesundercoveragentstogobeyondinnocentpretensionsandsupportinishytiativesof thesamekinda truecriminalor terroristwouldundertakeSincelawshyenforcementagenciesareunderpressuretokeeptheiragentssafetheypushfordiscretiontobegrantedtothemAndsometimestheundercoveragentsthemselvesunbeknownsttotheiremployerschoosetobreakthelawbecausetheyworryabouttheircredibilityintheeyesof the host group and the consequences if they are discoveredThememoirsofundercoveragentsandspiesarerepletewiththisdilemma
According to incomplete calculations there were about 6500agents provocateurs and other political investigations specialistsoperatinginvariouspoliticalpartiesandorganizationsintheRusshy
26 c h a p t e r 1
sianEmpireatthestartofthetwentiethcenturythepoliceandgendarmesoftensetprioritiesthemselvesattimesevenattheriskofthelivesofhighshyrankinggovernmentofficialsandmembersoftheimperialfamilyMattersconcerningthesecurityofthesecretagentswereoftoppriorityandmaintainingthestrongpositionsofagentswithintheterroristorganizationsof theSocialistshyRevolushytionarieswasconsideredmore important thanpreventingassassishynationsevenagainstofficialsofthegovernment75
AfamouscasewasthatofEvnoAzefanagentwhooperatedinrevolushytionary circles for aboutfifteen years From 1893on hewas a policeagentAsastudentinaGermanpolytechnicschoolhetooktheinitiashytiveofofferinghisservicestothepolicedepartmentat therateof50rublespermonth afterwhichhe attachedhimself to a foreigngroupcallingitselftheUnionofRussianSocialistshyRevolutionariesHeknewaboutthemajorityofterroristactsbeingplannedbytheSRsbuthedidnotalwaysreporttohisbossesaboutthemNeverthelessthepolicepaidhimwellforhisservices76
EpisodesofthiskindarenotrestrictedtopredemocraticsocietiesAnilluminatingcaseoccurredinCanadaAtitspeakin1993theHeritageFront was the largest and bestshyorganized neoshyNazi group in Canadaboastingacontactlistof1800namesGrantBristowcofounderandaleadingmemberofthiswhiteracistgroupturnedouttobeapaidinshyformantoftheCanadianSecurityIntelligenceServiceldquoBristoworchesshytrated aharassment campaign that terrorizedFront enemies harboredleadinginternationalracistsinhisownhomeinclearviolationofbothCSISrulesandtheImmigrationActandassistedintheFrontrsquosinfiltrashytionoftheReformPartyrdquo77ldquoCSISmoleGrantBristowwasanlsquoagentprovocateurrsquowhowithhisspymastersbrokeCanadianlawsandinternalCSISregulationsagroupofMPshaveconcludedBristowrsquosleadershyshiproleinthewhiteracistHeritageFrontthereportsuggestsmay have led to the very events that caused CSIS to keep him in place for several more yearsrdquo78 An inquiry by the Security Intelligence Review CommitteeintotheaffairplayeddowntheaccusationsbutitisclearfromthereportthattherewereseriousbreachesForinstanceontheissueofharassment
27 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
of antiracistmilitants and Jewish communitymembers thedocumentconcludesthatldquoanyinformantwhoenterstheHeritageFrontorasimishylargrouphastomaintainhiscredibilitywithhisassociatesotherwisehewouldnot remain a trustedmember for longThe questionwewerefacedwithwaswhethertheCSISsource[GrantBristow]hadremainedwithintheboundsofappropriatebehaviourwhiletryingtomaintainhiscredibilityTheanswerwearrivedatwasthatin certain circumstances he had not[emphasisintheoriginal]rdquo79
Eveniftheyareonlysupposedtocollectinformationoncriminalorsubversiveactivitiesspiesmayendupproducingmoreofsuchactivitieson theirown initiativeThey tend tobecomeagentsprovocateursnotnecessarilyfortheconspiratorialreasonswhyJosephConradrsquosprotagoshynistinThe Secret Agentdoes(VerlocwasinthepayofanunnamedforshyeignembassythatwantedtopersuadetheBritishtotakeatougherlineagainsttheanarchistsandusedhisdimshywittednephewtostageanldquoanarshychistrdquobombingattack)buttypicallyonlyoutoffearofnotbeingcredshyibleenoughandofriskingtheirlivesThecoststhatmaketheirsignalscredibleintheeyesoftheirtargetsareafterallldquoonlyrdquothoseofbreakinglegalconstraintsTheymayneverbecaughtgiventheintrinsicopacityofwhattheydoandifcaughttheyarenotsolikelytobepunishedcershytainlynotbydeathAndontheothersideoftheequationtheyhavetoconsider the personal costs of failing to persuadeWhen onersquos life isthreatened thecostsofbreakingthe lawmaysuddenlyappear smallerthanthoseofobeyingitThesetofthosewhoarereadytorisktheirlifesacrificetheirfamilyanddeceivedangerouscriminalsforlongperiodsoftimewhileatthesametimeremainingstrictlyalawshyabidingcitizenmustbeextremelysmall
ThisraisesaninterestingquandaryforthecriminalsorterroristswhoaretryingtotestthebonafidesofothersForbyincreasingtheseverityofthepunishmentmetedoutagainstundercoveragentswhoarediscovshyered they encourage the latter to afford costly signals that once disshyplayedmaymakeitimpossibleforthebadguystosaywhethertheposhytentialrecruitsareundercoveragentsinthefirstplace
undercover agentmayfind it preferable to refrain from swallowing itevenatthecostofrevealinghistruetypeforhedoesnotwanttobreakthelawBycontrasttherealcriminalwhowantstodealwiththedrugdealersmayprefertopaythecostofthephysicalillnesscausedbyswalshylowing forhe isentirelyateasewithbreaking the lawThekeyextracost that discriminates between the real criminal and the undercoveragentisthecostofbreakingthelawwhichthemimicfaceswhilethegenuinearticledoesnotAharsherpunishmenthowevercanreversetheequationandmakeitcheaperfortheundercoveragenttoswallowratherthannot swallowevenat thecostofbreaking the lawandthusmakehimbehaviorallyindistinguishablefromtherealcriminalWhenadminshyisteredunder the threatof theharsherpunishment the testno longerseparatesonetypefromtheotherByfailingtoappreciatethisquandaryandthreateningdeathagainstthosewhorefusetoswallowthedrugthedealers fail to realize that theyaredeactivating thevery sourceof thereliabilityoftheirtestforunderthatthreattheagentsarenowallowed(andwouldinanycasefeelinclined)toswallowthedrug
CONCLUSIONS
OncesomeoneintentoncrimeidentifiesapotentialpartnerasabonafidecriminalhehassolvedoneproblemonlytolandinanotherequallydifficultoneHenowhastoestablishwhetherhispartnerisnotjustacrookbutanhonorableoneAfterHughGrantexposedhimselfDivineknewthathewasnotanundercovercopforshebelievedthatcopsdonotdothatYetshestilldidnotknowwhatkindofacustomerhewasProstitutesareconstantlyonguardagainstrobbersorpervertswhoposeasordinarycustomers80AnyonewhoworksoutsidethelawismoreexshyposedthanordinarybusinessmentobecomingthepreyofothercrimishynalswhomimicbeingacriminalofthehonestsortAstreetshydrugdealerwhosuccessfullyadvertises tocustomersmayalsoattract robberswhopretend to be customers in order to get close to the dealers and robthem81Acriminalhastobeonguardagainstbothkindsofmimicslawshyenforcementagentsandcriminalsofthewrongsort
29 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
Ifhonestywerethoughttobeatraitofcertaincriminalsandnotothshyersinordertoestablishwhetherapotentialpartnerishonestonecouldfollowthesamestrategyoneusesforidentifyingwhethersomeoneisacriminal tobeginwithThe samekindof costly signalswouldbe reshyquiredforcriminalstopersuadeoneanotherthattheywerethehonesttypeIncertaincasesthegametheyplayisindeedoneofsignalingtheirtypeHowever inmost circumstancescriminals tend to thinkofeachotherasbeingof justonetypenamelythedishonestoneandbelievethatgivenhalfachancetheywilltakeadvantageofeachotherTheonlyway inwhich they can comealmost toldquotrustrdquo eachother enough tocooperateisthereforenotbysignalingtheirtypebuteitherbyenforcshyingtheirpartnersrsquohonestywiththethreatofsomekindofretaliationormoregenerallybyputtingthemselvesandtheirpartnersinaconditionwherebyldquohonestyrdquo rather thancheating is theirbest courseof actionwhatevertheirtypeIshallexploresomeofthestrategiestheyadoptinchapters2and3
onproducersandpusherspushersandcontractkillersrequirecustomshyers terroristswant armsdealers and corruptofficials are lostwithoutcorruptersAmongthefeweconomiststopayattentiontocriminalcomshymunicationsThomasSchellingwroteldquoThebankemployeewhowouldliketorobthebankifhecouldonlyfindanoutsidecollaboratorandthebankrobberwhowouldliketorobthebankifonlyhecouldfindaninsideaccomplicemayfinditdifficulttocollaboratebecausetheyareunabletoidentifyeachothertherebeingseverepenaltiesintheeventthateithershoulddeclarehisintentionstosomeonewhoprovednottohaveidenticalinterestsrdquo1Identifyingpartnersandcorrespondinglyadshyvertising as bona fide denizens of the underworld are indispensablemeanstocarryingoutcriminalactivitiesAndtheyaremuchmorecomshyplicatedthantheparalleloperationsareforordinarybusinessEvenbeshyforeworryingabouttheirpartnerrsquostrustworthinessorcompetenceasacriminalpeoplewhowanttocommitacrimeneedfirstofalltoidenshytifywhoispotentiallypreparedtocooperatewiththeminbreakingthelaw
When contemplating straying from the lawful path people whosemainbusinessisnotcriminalareevenmorehinderedthanprofessionalcriminalsbytheproblemsofidentificationAbuildingcontractoroncetoldmethathewouldhavebeendelightedtopassonabrownenvelopetoendhislongwaitforaplanningpermissionifonlyheknewwhomtoapproach Identification mistakes can cost dearly but while the risksdetermanytheydonotdeterallGeorgeFallowsapropertylandlordofLlangernywnearAbergelenorthWaleswasdeterminedtoavoidpayinghiswifealargedivorcesettlementandtriedtohaveherkilledbyahit
4 c h a p t e r 1
manwhowas supposed to crash a lorryheadshyon intoher car as shedrovedownacountrylaneThecontractkillerhesoughttohirehowshyever turnedout tobe anundercoverpolicemanposing as a criminalThepolicemanrecordedthenegotiationsandin2003Fallowswassenshytencedtofiveyearsinprisonluckytohavefoundalenientjudge2
In2000amemberofaSiciliangangwhowasplanningamonumenshytalrobberybysettingupawebsiteimitatingtheonlineservicesoftheBanco di Sicilia contacted the director of a branch of the Banco diRomatoenlisthisassistanceinthefraudHefailedtorealizethatthedirectorwasanundercoverpolicemanandhismistakeledtohisarrestand to that of twentyshytwo others including members of a Palermomafiafamily3
ThehotterthetradethemoredauntingaretheproblemsofidentifishycationHowdoyougoaboutforinstancefindingablackshymarketbuyerforeightbarsof enricheduraniumThisquestion taxed thebrainsofeleven Italian mobsters an unholy coalition of Sicilian mafiosi andRomanandCalabrianorganizedcriminalswhohad thebars in theirhands for some timeThese bars have a troubled historyThey are90shycentimetershylong cylinders wrapped in steel each containing 200gramsofuraniumanddesignedforpeacefulusesTheywereproducedinthelabsofGeneralAtomicsinSanDiegoandsenttotheCongoasagiftinFebruary1971wheretheyweretobeusedasnuclearfuelinthelabsoftheexperimentalreactorMarkIIinKinshasaThegiftprogramwasknown ironicallyasldquoAtoms forPeacerdquoHowever ifblownupbymeansofanordinaryexplosivetheycanserveasldquothepoormanrsquosnushyclearbombrdquospreadingdeadlynuclearradiationInthewordsofCaptainRobertoFerronioftheItaliancustomspoliceinRomeldquoIftheywereblownupinVillaBorghesethecenterofRomewouldbecomeuninshyhabitable for a centuryrdquo4From the labs inKinshasa thebarsmysterishyouslydisappearedIn1997whenMobutursquosregimewasoverturnedandheleftforFrancewherehediedofcancerthebarsapparentlytraveledwithhimTheysurfacedonceinFranceandwerethecauseofagunshyfight betweenFrenchpolice and a groupof criminalmerchantswhoweretryingtosellthem
A year later they reemerged in the hands of the Italian mobsters
5 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
whosetelephonecommunicationswereinterceptedbytheItaliancusshytomspolice in thecourseof investigating them forothercrimesThepolicewereamazedtohearthemobstersspeakofunspecifiedldquonuclearstuffrdquoandwereinitiallyunsurewhatthatmeantInthespringof1998themobstersfinallythoughttheyhadfoundabuyeranemissaryofanArabcountryThebuyerwhointroducedhimselfasldquotheAccountantrdquowasinrealityanundercoveragentforwhomthepolicehadcreatedawholenew identityTheygavehim falsepenal andprison records forfencingandfabricatedanonexistentrelationshipbetweenhimandanArabcountryandtheIslamicJihadwhichtheagentmentionedastheultimatebuyerldquoOursellersrdquosaysCaptainFerroniwholedtheoperashytionldquodidnotlosetheircomposureOnthecontrarythecredibilityoftheArabworldwhichisalwayshuntingfornuclearmaterialconvincedthemthat[ourman]wasnotatraprdquoTheagentbroughtwithhimanasshysociateanengineerwhowasallowedtotestoneofthebarsandfoundthatitdidindeedcontainuraniumThepolicethentransferredavirtualsumof20billion lireonaSwissBankaccountbargainingdown therequestedprice thatwas twiceasmuchThebrilliantoperationhowshyeverwasonlyapartialsuccessAsinthebestcrimestoriesthemafiosicheatedtwiceoverOntheagreeddayforcompletingthetransactiontheyshowedupwithonlyonebaradifferentonefromtheonethathadbeentestedandfailedtodelivertheothersevenAtthatpointhoweverthecoverwasblownandthepolicehadtoarrestthemThebarsrsquocurshyrent location remainsunknownCaptainFerroni saysldquoThemanwhocouldhavetakenustothosebarsDomenicoStilitanorefusestospeakItisnotinhisinterestOnthe11thofOctober[2001]hewassentencedto4yearsand6monthsasthenewantiterrorismlawsarenotyetapplishycableandthetrafficofstrategicmaterialisstillconsideredasitwereaminorcrimerdquo5
TheidentificationproblemisfurtherintensifiedbythefactthatconshytrarytoawidespreadbeliefcriminalgroupsareunstableIntheundershyworld people have a higher rate of mobility (and mortality) than inmostprofessionsldquomostadultcoshyoffendingdoesnotarisefromparticishypationingroupsthetypicalcoshyoffendingrelationshipappearstobetransitory and there is a continual search forcoshyoffendersrdquo6Andldquothe
6 c h a p t e r 1
life of most of the mobsrdquo said a professional thiefldquois comparativelyshortrdquo7Thisispartlybecausecriminalsarechasedbylawenforcersandhavetokeepmovingandhidingandbecausetheyaremoreinclinedtouseviolenceagainsteachother thanregularbusinessmenare ItcouldalsobeforldquoendogenousreasonsThemorelucrativethebusinessthemorepotentialentry itwillattract resulting in(literally)cutthroatcompetishytionandshortexpectedlifeforanincumbentrdquo8
ThedifficultiesofidentifyingpartnerskeepmuchpotentialcrimeatbayMakingidentificationhardisarguablythemostpowerfuldeterrentagainstcrimethattheforceofthelawbringsaboutbydiscouragingthecountlessdormantcriminalswhorefrainfromactingunlawfullyforfearof being caughtwhen searching or advertisingA blessing for societyidentification constraints are a serious hindrance for criminals whodearly wish they could use theYellowPagesHowdo they solve theproblem
MISTAKEN IDENTIF ICATION
WhentryingtoidentifypartnerscriminalscanmaketwotypesofmisshytakesFirsttheycanmissopportunitiesfailingtoseethroughthedisshyguisesthatgenuinepotentialpartnersadoptinordertopassthemselvesoff as lawshyabiding citizens and avoid being caught (the falseshynegativemistake)InthiscasebothpartieshavethesameinterestsbutmisstheopportunityforafruitfulpartnershipNoticethatthefailureofonetoidentifyreflectsthefailureoftheothertoadvertiseMimickingalawshyabidingcitizenwhichsometimessimplymeanskeepingalowprofileissomethingmost criminals have to doThis however can succeed toowellandonecanfailtoadvertisewhenitwouldbeinonersquosinteresttodoso
Second searchersmay approach a lawshyabidingcitizenorworse anundercoveragentmistaking themforpotentialpartners incrime (thefalseshypositive mistake) Lawshyabiding citizens are not a cause of greatconcernforcriminalsTrueifapproachedtheymayinformtheauthorishytiesButordinarypeopledonothaveaninterestinpassingthemselves
7 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
offascriminalsIfanythingtheyarecareful toavoid lookinglikeoneOnlyuttercarelessnessinapproachingothersorsomeinanemisundershystandingscanleadtoconfusinglawshyabidingcitizensforcriminalsmdashsuchas thatof the fortyshysevenshyyearshyoldCanadianwomanwho in 1991diduse theYellowPagesandcontactedafirminPhoenixArizonacalledldquoGuns forHirerdquo seeking to put a contract on her husbandrsquos life ShefailedtonoticethatthefirmspecializedinputtingonldquoWildWesttheatshyricalshowsforconventionsprivatepartiesandthelikerdquoAfterhanding$2000toanundercoverdetectiveposingasahitmanthewomanwasarrestedandlatersentencedtofourandahalfyearsinjailBeforecallingGunsforHirethedetectivelaterexplainedshehadconsideredcallingmotorcycleclubsandanItalianshyAmericanassociation9Ifcontractkillshyersandpeopleseekingthemreallycouldadvertiseopenlyonewondershowmanymoremurderstherewouldbe
Therealworryconcernsundercoveragentsorinformerswhohaveanactiveinterest inpretendingtobeagenuinepartneranddeceivingthesearchingcriminalInthiscasewhichIconsiderherethecriminalrsquosfailure to identify correctly a lawshyandshyorder agent reflects the latterrsquosmimickingsuccessInparticularIconsiderthecaseoftwoindividualswhoareinasymmetricalpositionsAalreadyknowsthatBisacriminal(andBknowsthatAknowsthat)BhoweverdoesnotknowwhetherAisacriminalRegardlessofwhetherAistrulyacriminaloranundershycoveragentposingasoneAwantstopersuadeBthatheisarealcrimishynalBatthesametimeislookingforevidenceofthetypethatAisThequestioniswhatkindofevidencecansatisfyB
Theprobabilityofmaking identificationmistakes isldquofrequencydeshypendentrdquothehighertheproportionofcriminalsinthesearchenvironshymentthelowertheriskofapproachingthewrongpeopleWherecorshyruption isknowntobewidespread for instancecorruptingothersorsignalingonersquoswillingnesstoacceptbribesisnotmuchofaproblemIftheprobabilityofencounteringacorruptagentiscorrectlybelievedtobehighcriminalswill rationally trymoreandbolderapproachesandwill easily uncover corrupt partners In Russia which may have apshyproached this stateof affairs in recent times the values of corruptionldquofeesrdquo fordifferentpositionsofauthoritywereopenlyreported inthe
Soourquestioniswhatdocriminalslookforwhatkindofsignsdotheyattendtoinordertoidentifytheirkindredspiritsorcatchtheunshydercover agentsThe littlewecanfind in the literatureexplicitlydisshycussingtheidentificationproblemsuggeststhatcriminalsclaimtoposshysessaspecialabilitythatenablesthemtoidentifyothercrooksbyldquogutfeelingsrdquo ldquoalookintheeyesrdquo ldquovibrationsrdquo11NowherecouldIfindanytheorythatunpacksthosefeelingsthatpredictswhatcriminalscanbeexpected to look for But carefully scrutinized the evidence we cangather from the many ethnographic accounts of criminalsrsquo activitiesstronglysuggeststhattheydonotgoaboutiterraticallyCriminalssysshytematicallylookforsignsthatidentifyanotheragentasagenuinecrimishynaltypeandatthesametimetheytryjustassystematically(andcareshyfully)toadvertisebysendingsignalsthatonlyanothergenuinecriminaltypewillpickup
ldquoOnthestreetrdquomdashwroteFBIspecialagentJosephPistonewhoinfilshytratedtheColomboandlatertheBonannomafiafamiliesofNewYorkunderthenameofDonnieBrascomdashldquoeverybodyissuspiciousofeveryshybodyelseuntil youproveyourselfrdquo12 If someone saysldquoI amready todealwithyoupalrdquoorsportssomeitemofclothingthatconventionallyindicatesheisacriminalsuchasapairofdarkglassesthesesignalsarehardlysufficienttoprovethatheisacriminalAsaprofessionalthiefputitldquolanguageisnotinitselfasufficientmeansofdeterminingwhetherapersonistrustworthyforsomepeopleintheunderworldarestoolpishygeons and someoutsiders learn some of the languagerdquo13Provingoneselfrequirestougherteststhancheaptalk
ingconditionagivensignalscanconvincearationalreceiverofasigshynalerrsquoscriminalityifgiventheexpectedbenefitsarationalmimicwhocouldgainbyposingasacriminalfinds s toocostlytoproduceortodisplayInotherwordsa convincing signal of a criminal type is that which only a true criminal can afford to produce and to sendThatdoesnotmeanthatsuchsignalingwillnecessarilybeverycostlyforarealcriminalInthecourseofhiscareerhemayhaveacquiredmuchrawmaterialthatcanbedisplayedatlittleextracostItsufficesthatthesignalbetoocostlyforthemimictoafford
SelectiveEnvironments
Agood indeedthebest signofacriminal typeconsistsofcourseofobserving someone committing a crimeThis is not likely to occurthoughforpeopledonotnormallywishtobeseenengaginginvillainshyousactsThis isaconstraint thatordinarybusinessmendonot faceasthey can showwhat they do to third partieswithout fear of the lawBy contrast criminals have to resort as much as possible to indirectmethods
Acommonstrategythatallowscriminalsinsearchofoneanothertoexchangesignalsconsistsoffrequentingplaceswherenoncriminalsarenot likely tobe foundwhich is likepatronizingaldquosinglesbarrdquowhensearchingforamateldquoTosearchforaccomplicesandtodisposeofillegalgoodsadultoffenderspatronisethesameplacesmakethesamekindsof transactionsandoftenreside in the sameareardquo14Theyhangout inbars gambling dens boxing gyms and social clubs full of other menduringnormalworkinghoursorlateatnightattimesthatiswhenacommonpersonisotherwiseoccupiedOrtheyliveinroughneighborshyhoodsforthesamereasonwellshytoshydocitizensmoveoutofthemmdashbothdreadmakingencountersofthewrongsortInhisresearchoncrimeinNewYorkCitySullivan(1989)foundthatmuchrecruitmentoccursinneighborhoodswherepeopleknowaboutoneanotherandcheckeachotheroutinthenaturalcourseoftheirdailyinteractionsEnvironmentsselected for their criminality those which ldquoregular guysrdquo find morecostlyorlessattractivetopatronizethancriminalsdomakeidentificashy
ByitselfthoughthisstrategyworksonlyuptoapointItsavescrimshyinalsfromdealingbymistakewithlawshyabidingcitizensHoweverifthecostofhangingaroundinsuchenvironmentsisnotveryhighforanonshycriminaltheymaybecomeverydangerousplacesforcriminalspreciselytheplaceswhereundercoveragentswillconvergewhenattemptingtoinfiltrate criminal networks Singles bars increase the probability ofmeeting single people but they do not eliminate the probability ofmeetingpatronswhowhilemarriedgotheremerelypretendingtobesingle In the underworld where the stakes of mistaken identity arehigherifsomeonejustshowsupinabarfullofcriminalsheisnotlikelyto go far without further credentialsTo be reassured criminals needsigns thecostofwhicha lawshyenforcement agentor a spywouldfindharder topayRather thanbeing reliable signs in themselves selectiveenvironments merely offer better opportunities to gather further evishydencedirectlyandindirectly
Referrals
ldquoAnother method [to establish someonersquos criminal credentials] is byfindingoutwhatpeoplethestrangerknowsrdquo15IfCknowsthatAisacriminalCmayintroduceAtoBOrBcansimplyseeCwithAandinferthatAisonetooAgangstercalledJacksoninhisautobiographywroteldquoonthestreetIknowhundredsandhundredsofcharactersbutIdonotknowtheirnamesSayyouareacharacterandIrsquomacharacterandIseeyouwithacharacterthatIknowIhavenowayofcheckingyourcreditratingoranythingelsesoI judge you by whom you associate withIfIknowthatthispersonisagoodpersonandnotapolecatnotastoolpigeonnotthemanrsquosmanthenIhavetogiveyouthecreditforbeingall rightrdquo16 Incertaincriminalcirclesldquoyoursquodbe surprised Itrsquos averycloseshyknitthingamonghustlersYoumeetsomeoneyoursquovenevermetbeforeinaplaceyoursquoveneverseenbeforeyoufindoutsomeonetheyknowTheymayevenhaveheardofyourdquo17Interestinglythisimshypliesthatcriminalshavetobeextravigilantaboutwhomtheyareseen
Onewaytoacquiregoodevidenceofsomeonersquoscriminalitywhichinshytersects with the referral method exploits law enforcement itself Intermsof howeffectively they canmix andmatchkindred spirits thehangouts thatcriminals freelychoosecannotcompetewith theplacesthey are forced to go by the agents who fight against crime there isnothing like prison to mix like with like Prisons promote crime inmanyobviousways18teachingcriminalsnewskillsandbrutalmodesofbehaviorbuttheyalsodosolessobviouslybyshoulderingthecostsofadvertisingandidentifyingwhoisacriminaltobeginwith
JustbeingaprisonerisaclearandsimplesignthatoneiscriminallyinclinedThehardpart is paying the priceof going there in thefirstplaceButitispreciselythatcostthatmakesaprisontermsuchagoodsignofbeingarealcriminalParadoxicallythebetterthecriminaljusticesystemisthesaferitistoassumethatthecompanyputbehindbarswillbe invariably villainousThough there are surely innocent prisonersmanyareguiltythemoresothebetterthesystemOnecanalsobereashysonably sure that phonies peoplewho talkbig about their dangerouscriminaltendenciesbutdonothingwillnotendupinprisonTheinshyterpersonalconflictsthatarerifewithinprisonsasweshallseeinchapshyter4 furtherensure that thephoniesarequickly identifiedAndeventhough undercover policemen have certainly been sent to prison forshortperiodstogaincriminalcredentialsthelongerthetimeprisonersspendinjailthecloserwegettoprisonbeingaperfectdiscriminatingsignmdashnoonechoosestospendtwentyyearsbehindbarsforthesakeofposingasavillainDoingtimeinprisoncanthusbebothastigmaandabadgedependingonwhoislookingatitAnexshyconvictwhowishestoreturntothepathoftherighteouscanfinddoingsoveryhardbeshycausehistimespentinprisonidentifieshimasacriminalldquoOnceyoursquore
12 c h a p t e r 1
markedinprisonyoursquoredoneforrdquosaysadelinquentboyrecountinghisownstory19Butonewhointendstopersistinhisoldwayswillfindhispath smoothed and can display his prison credentials to further hiscriminalcareer
OnemaynotgoasfarasarrangingajailsentenceforoneselfforthepurposeoffosteringnewassociationswithkindredspiritsButonceinprison there is an abundance of opportunity to make villainous acshyquaintanceswhowillbeusefulafteroneleaves
Say that there are fifty quite well established thieves in MalmoumlonlythirtyofthosehaveafenceThosewhodonrsquotaretheyoungeronesaroundeighteenortwentywhohavenrsquotbeenaroundenoughsotheyrsquollhavetoasktheirfriendsorselltothievesForsomeonewhohasbeeninsideasmuchasmeitrsquosnoproblem20
IncarcerationasamarkofreliabilityworksataremoveIftwoformerprisonersdidnotactuallymeetinjailtheycanstilldisplayevidenceofhavingbeenldquointhecanrdquotoadvertisetheircredentialsSoevenifgoingtoprisonwasnotintendedasaperverseformofreacutesumeacutebuildingtherevelationof theexperiencecanbe andoften is an intentional signalTheldquoreferralrdquomethodIdiscussedaboveexploitsprisoncontactstoomdashforifoneisembeddedinanetworkoneisinabetterpositionbothtoreferothersandtobereferredbythemThereisevenevidencethatunshywittinglyunionsandorganizationsthataresupposedtohelpexshyinmatesto reentermainstream society alsohelpunreformedcriminals in theirbusiness21Notleastthesecharitableorganizationsassistthembycertishyfying their status as genuine exshyprisoners thus innocently facilitatingencounterswithactivevillains
whetherandhowfartheenhancingofonersquoscriminalidentityoffsetstheattemptsatrehabilitationthereismuchanecdotalevidencefromcrimishynalsrsquo biographies of the enhancing effectrsquos existence It starts early inyoungshyoffendersrsquoinstitutionsInhisautobiographyJimmyBoyleaScotshytishgangsterreminiscesthatwhenhewassixteen
theApprovedSchoolsurelyplayedavitalpartinmycriminaldeshyvelopmentItgavemeconnectionsthatIwastofindusefulinmyadultdaysItgavemeanintroductiontoguysfromtownsandcitshyiesthroughoutScotlandandfrommanyareasinGlasgowmanyofwhom grew up to be the top thieves or fighters in their areasThere isnodoubtatall thatmostof themgained inacriminalsensefromtheirApprovedSchoolexperience23
HewasdoinghisbesthewritestoavoidbeingcaughtldquobuteverytimeIwentintoprisonIbroadenedmycriminalhorizonsbymakingmoreandmoreconnections indifferent areasrdquo24MalcolmBralywho spentnearly seventeenyears invariousUSprisons forburglarywroteldquoHewasbrokeasIwasandhesuggestedwetrysomethingtogetherItwasreasonableWho is more likely to be trustworthy than someone youhavejustmetinjailrdquo25
CriminalandrebelorganizationsregardaprisonrecordasasignofdistinctionTheRussiancriminalfraternityknownasvorymadehavingbeeninaprisoncampaformalrequirementofmembership26AccordshyingtoMarekKaminskiatleastonememberoftheundergroundSolshyidarity movement in Poland provoked the communist secret servicestoputher inprisonsoshecould improveherreputationldquoUnderthewellshyprogressingperestroika in1987 thePolishcommunistsessentiallystoppedincarceratingtheopposition(sothelsquoincarcerationrsquowasabrief48hours)theystartedtalkswithselectedoppositiongroupsandmanyunderground politicians thought that there would be some role forthem to playwithin the communist regime soonThus the expectedcostofincarcerationwaslowandtheexpectedbenefitswerehighrdquo27
The lengthof time spent in prison further provides anldquoobjectiverdquomeasureoftherespectoneisowedrelativetoothergangmembersThus
14 c h a p t e r 1
Christopher Seymour writes of taking a drive with Japanese yakuza (mobsters)ldquoIntheloosehierarchyoftheHarashygumiKenis themostsenior in the automobile He has already served time in adult prisonwhereastheothershaveonlybeenthroughjuveniledetentionrdquo28LikeshywiseMarekKaminskimdashwhowhenhewasa sociologysophomore inthe1980swasarrestedbythePolishcommunistsecretpolicetogetherwithelevenothermembersofanundergroundSolidarnosc publishinghouseandjailedforfivemonthsmdashreportsldquoSomeofthePolishgrypsmen [inmateswhoaremembersofaprisonfraternityseechapter4]claimthatinthecaseofaprisonerwithasentenceof20+yearshedoesnothavetojointhegrypsmenformallyandsufferthecostsoftheinitiationritualsHeiseligibleforenjoyingallthebenefitsofthecastemembershyshipbyvirtueofthesentencersquoslengthrdquo29FortheRussianmafiaaswellldquothelengthoftimespentinprisonwasasourceofprestigeandasignofdistinction among the criminals who aspired to become voryrdquo30 In atelephoneconversation secretly recordedby Italianpolice thewifeofIvanYakovlev (thenames have been changed) aRussianmobster arshyrestedinItalyin199731usesthelengthofherhusbandrsquosprisonsentencetoinduceoneofhisassociatestoshowduerespectAssignedtothetaskbyherhusband shewarns theRussianwifeof theaccompliceMarioFerrarildquoIvanisbiggerthan[yourhusband]hehasbeeninprisonfor15yearsrdquoFerrarididnotenjoythesameprisoncredentialsthoughhehadclashedwiththelawinthepastfordrugdealingHewasnowmisbeshyhavingbeingoftendrunkanddisheveledandaccordingtoIvanswifedidnotshowenoughrespecttoIvanInasubsequentconversationbeshytweenthetwowomenFerrarirsquoswifeapologizedforherhusbandrsquosbeshyhavior She clearly took the point and repeated word for word whatIvanrsquoswifepreviouslytoldherldquo[Myhusband]understoodthatitisnotIvanwhomustlookforhimbutthathecleanandwelldressedmustgotoIvaninthecarandaskhimwhatneedstobedonebecauseIvanisbiggerthanheishehasbeeninprisonfor15yearsrdquo32
monlyacceptedviewthatldquopunishingacriminalmoreseverelyreducesthatindividualrsquossubsequentprobabilityofrecidivismrdquo33Sinceprisonersareassignedtominimumshylowshyorhighshysecurityprisonsonthebasisoftheirscoreonascalefrom1to10pointsldquointendedtoreflect[their]needforsupervisionrdquo34ChenandShapirowereabletocomparetherearrestratesofexshyinmateswhohadbeenoneithersideofthecutoffboundarshyiesthathadledthemtobeincarceratedinprisonswithdifferentsecushyrity levelsldquoinessenceweargue thatwithin a small interval aroundacutofftheallocationofprisonerstodifferentsecuritylevelsamountstoarandomassignmentrdquo35Althoughtheresultsarebasedonasmallnumberofcases948theystillenabletheauthorstorejectstronglythehypothshyesisthatlowerlevelsofprisonsecurityleadtomorerecidivismafterreshyleaseinsteadtheyindicateinmanywaysthattheoppositeeffectobtainsThe authorsrsquo interpretationof this effect refers to lower laborshymarketopportunities for highershysecurity exshyinmates and to peer effectsmdashldquoinmatesmayacquireskillslearnofnewprospectsordevelopcriminalcontactsrdquo36moreofteninhighershythaninlowershysecurityprisonsTheirresultsarealsoperfectlycompatiblewithanotherinterpretationhavingbeeninprisonswithastricterregimestrengthensthecertifyingeffectoncriminalcredentialsandgivesexshyinmatesfromtheseprisonsrelativeto those fromprisonswith lower security levelsgreatercredibilityonthecriminallabormarket
the two pairs have solved the identification problem in the past Butwhatabouttheelementarycaseinwhichreferralsarenotavailableornotpersuasiveorsafeenoughmdashcantwoagentsthenfindadirectsolushytiontotheproblem
It is hard to observe someone committing a crime in the naturalcourseofeventsbutvillainscancertainlyaskapotentialpartnerorreshycruittogivethemevidenceofhavingcommittedcrimesandcandosowithout resorting to an intermediaryThis can work if the crimes inquestionleaveatracethatcanbeknownorpossessedonlybytherealperpetrator One cannot just say that one has committed a crimemdashaphonymayhavereadaboutitinthepaperandsimplybeclaimingtobetheperpetratorOnehastoshowthebootyasitwereasinthefollowingcasePoliceinfourteencountriesincludingtheUnitedStatesarrestednearlytwohundredsuspectedmembersofanInternetchildpornograshyphyringtheWonderlandClubTojointheringonehadtoshowthatonepossessedtenthousandphotographsandbepreparedtosharethemwith other membersThe photographs were screened by a computerprogramwhichcheckedwhethertheyweredifferentfromoneanotherand fromthosealreadyavailable fromother sources37Thisaction sigshynaledthatprospectivemembershadcommittedacrimeandwereserishyouslycommittedtotheactivityofcommoninterestandcouldnotthusbeundercoveragents(Ireturntothiscaseinchapter3)
UltimatelycriminalscanalsoaskapotentialpartnerorrecruittoenshygageinadisplaycrimemdashanactthatanoncriminalwouldneverdomdashandtocommitthecrimeundertheireyesorinsuchawayastoleaveanunmistakablesignofauthorshipThenatureoftheillegalactrequesteddependsonthetypeofcrimeinwhichtheagentsareinvolvedandthelawsthatgovernitDivinetheLosAngelesprostitutewhoachievedherfifteenminutesoffameforadministeringoralsextoBritishactorHughGrant in 1995 revealedherparticularkindof testBefore agreeing totradesheaskedGranttoexposehimselfThereasonshesaidisthatanundercoverpolicemanwouldnotdothatforhewouldbebreakingthelawDivinebelievedonewondershowaccuratelythatexposingoneselfwasasignalonlyrealcustomerscouldafford
The same reasoning inspires a test appliedbydrugdealers inNew
17 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
YorkSincethemidshy1990sldquoaspolicehave intensifiedtheirassault thedealershavealsoadoptedmoreperilous tacticsFiveor six timeseachmonthundercoverinvestigatorsarenowforcedtousecocaineorheroinatgunpointtoprovetodealersthattheycanbetrustedAtleasttwiceamonth anofficer is shotorotherwisewoundedduring a stagedpurshychasesaypolicecommanderswhospokeonconditionofanonymityrdquo38
These kinds of tests are common in organizationswhere loyalty isparamount Before initiation mafia novicesmdashespecially those not alshyreadymembersoffamilieswithamafiatraditionmdashareaskedtocommitamurder(sometimeswouldshybemembersmovefirstandcommitseriouscrimesbeforeanyoneaskedthemtodoso)39Themafiausuallydoesnotkill anyonepurely for the sakeof a testmdashit optimizes byldquowhackingrdquosomeonewhowasmeanttobewhackedanywayand atthesametimetrying out the determination and bona fides of a noviceTheAryanBrotherhoodinprisonadoptedthesametesttogainmembershipcanshydidatesldquohadtokillwhomevertheBrotherhoodtargetedrdquo40AkindredoutfitknownastheAryanWarriorsalsorequiredwouldshybememberstopassatestldquousuallyabloodyassaultorinsomeinstancesadrugripshyofffrom a person outside of the brotherhoodrdquo41 But there are cases inwhichheinous crimes are committed purely as tests In a hairshyraisingaccountoflifeinyouthgangsinColombiathewriterEfraimMedinaReyes claims that it is not uncommon for new gangmembers to beasked to murder innocent friends or members of their own familywhich pushes the test to the extreme42 Revolutionary and resistancegroups deemed to be illegal by the incumbent government have alsousedthesametestBeingaskedtocommitamurderwasforinstanceacommonpractice in theAlgerianFLNSometimes the leaderswouldpick victims more or less at random to see if prospective memberswouldobeyevenmeaninglessorders43
ThismethodexploitsthelawwhichrestrictsthelawshyabidingundershycoveragentsrsquooptionsandturnsittothecriminalsrsquoadvantageIfhowshyeverlawshyenforcementagenciesgivetheirundercoveroperativesgreaterdiscretion to act against the law for the sakeofpersuading thegrouptheyaretryingtoinfiltrateoftheirbonafidesthepowerofthesesignalsisweakened for theagentcannowaffordat least someof themThe
18 c h a p t e r 1
degreesoffreedomvaryfromtimetotimeandfromagencytoagencyPoliceinNewYorkarenowldquoinstructedtoavoidtakingthedrugsunless their lives are in dangerrdquoIfdealersreadtheNew York Timeswherethisinshyformationwaspublishedtheyknowthatforcingbuyerstoingestdrugsby threatening their lives isnowauseless test for itno longerdistinshyguishesgenuinebuyersfromundercoveragents
BeforediscussingthisproblemfurtherIwillpresentthecaseofFBIspecial agent Joseph Pistone aka Donnie Brasco who infiltrated theNewYorkmafiaandcameclosetobeinginitiatedIknowofnobettercase for illustratingall the typesofcostshydiscriminating signalsusedbycriminalsmdashand by those who try to fool them Donnie Brasco pershysuadedthemobstersofhiscriminalcredentialsbyemployingabreathshytakingrangeofsubtlesignalsandnarratedhisexperienceinabookmdasharguablythemostvividethnographyoftheUSmafiafromldquowithinrdquo44
Entering the mob world is needless to say very hardldquoAssociates ofwiseguysdonrsquotdealwithpeopletheydonrsquotknoworwhosomebodyelsedoesnrsquotvouchforrdquo45PriortoPistonersquosinfiltrationtheFBIlackedexpeshyrienceDuringJEdgarHooverrsquosreignatthebureauundercoverworkwasrarelyusedldquobecauseitcouldbeadirtyjobthatcouldenduptaintshyingtheagentsrdquo46AndalthoughithadbeenusedsinceldquosofarasweknewtheFBIhadneverplantedoneofitsownagentsinthemafiardquo47Yettheoperation itwas about to attemptwasextraordinarily shrewdPistoneneededtobuildawholebarrageofsignalswhichtakentogethercouldpersuadethemobstersthathewasarealbadguyAndthatiswhatheandhishandlerssetouttodomindingthatthelawconstrainedhisfreeshydomldquoTheFBIwouldnrsquotletmeactuallygooutonhijackingsandburshyglariesbecausethecrewwentarmedrdquoPistonewrites48
19 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
PistoneneededanamehedecideditwaseasiertosticktoDonnieBrasco the name he had used in a previous undercover operation inFloridaHeneededaplausiblebiographythatcouldbecheckedorbetshyterhardtocheckheposedasanorphanandabachelorHesaidhehadbeenraisedinanorphanageinPittsburghthatburneddowntherewereno records leftThe story needed to be simpleldquoThe fewer [lies] youhave to tell the feweryouhave torememberrdquohenotes49HesaidhehadspenttimeontheWestCoastandinFloridawhereinfacthehadbeenbeforeasldquoDonaldBrascordquointhepreviousoperationandhadesshytablishedsomecontactsHeneededaldquoprofessionrdquoandsettledonjewelrytheftsomethingonecandoaloneandthatdoesnotrequiretheuseofweaponsmdashsomething moreover that allowed him to use confiscatedstolen jewels to sell so he would not have to break the law to stealthem50
Hecouldcountonadvantagesthatwouldhavebeenhardtofakehadtheynotbeenpartofhis realbiographyHis Italianancestryprovidedhim with theldquorightrdquo ethnic background He had grown up in theldquorightrdquoneighborhoodandasayoungsterhungoutinldquojointsrdquopatronshyizedbywiseguysldquoYouhad tobe streetshysmartevencockysometimesEverygoodundercoveragentIhaveknowngrewuponthestreetlikeIdidandwasagoodstreetagentbeforebecominganundercoveragentOnthestreetyoulearnwhatrsquoswhatandwhorsquoswhoYoulearnhowtoreadsituationsandhandleyourselfYou cannot fake the ability It showsrdquo51
It is also interesting to know what he chose not to say or do Heavoided acting in a way that could raise suspicionldquoNo street guy isgoingtothrowmoneyallovertheplaceunlesshersquostryingtoattractatshytentionrdquoPistonereveals ldquoThenthequestionisWhyishetryingtoatshytractattentionrdquo52BydoingsoheeitherbecomesatargetinthatpeoplethinktheycanrobhimorraisessuspicionsthathemaybeacopDonshyniewasparsimonioustooinrevealingdetailsofhislifewhetherrealorphonyforldquoyouneverknowwhatpartofwhatyoudowillbecomepartofyourhistorywhenpeoplewanttocheckonyourdquo53
Ifthey[themobsters]werenrsquotscheminganddreamingtheyweretellingwarstoriesreminiscencesabouttheirtimeinvariousjailsandprisonsEverybodydidtimeinthecanItwaspartofthepriceofdoingbusinessTheyknewallaboutdifferent jailscellblocksguards I had enough phony background set up to establish mycredentialsasaseriouscriminaltoshowthatIwastoughenoughtodo time if Ihad towithout turningratBut I never claimed to have done any prison timebecause IdidnrsquotknowthoseplacesandthatcouldhavejustrippedmeupIfyoudothreetofiveyearsyouget to know the guardsmdashwhat guardrsquos on what tierYou get toknowtheinmatesguyswhoaredoingfifteentotwentyguyswhoarestillthereTheyknewthelingoandtheslangEverybodyreshymembersthoserelationshipsandthattime54
IndirectlyPistonersquos choice showswhat a robust signalhavingbeen inprison is It isnot something that canbeeasily fakedguyswhohavetrulybeentherewouldquicklyspotanimpostor
Donniewentonforacoupleofmonths
playing this game of being noticedwithout being noticed slideintothebadguyworldandbecomeacceptedwithoutdrawingatshytentionYoupushalittlehereandtherebutverygentlyBriefinshytroductions short conversations appearances one place and anshyotherhintsaboutwhatyoursquoreuptocasualmannerismsdemeanorand lingo that youknowyourway aroundmdashall these become atrail of credibility you leave behind youAbove all you cannothurryYoucannotseemeagertomeetcertainpeoplemakecertaincontactslearnaboutcertainscoresThe quickest way to get tagged as a cop is to try to move too fastYouhavetoshowthatyouhavethetime to play by the rules of the street and that includes lettingpeoplecheckyououtandcometoyou55
Hewouldphonethebar leavingmessages forhimself just toestablishthathehadconnectionsandconveythebeliefpeopleknewhepatronshyizedthebar57ldquoWhenIwentotherplacesIcouldsayrdquoPistonewritesldquolsquoIbeenhangingoutat thatplace for fourorfivemonthsrsquoAnd theycould check it outThe guys had been hanging around in this placewouldsaylsquoYeahDonBrascohasbeencominginhereforquiteawhileandheseemsallrightnevertriedtopullanythingonusrsquordquo58
Wealsoread ldquoYoucanrsquotgoinallthetimebyyourselfbecausetheythinkyoursquoreeitherafagoracopAnditrsquosgoodtovarycompanysotheydonrsquot see you with the same people all the time and wonder whatrsquosuprdquo59SoDonniewouldbringanoccasionalfemaleorChuckanotherundercover agentThanks to Chuck he was introduced toAlbertldquoahalfshyasswiseguyrdquoaconnectedshytobutnotamadememberof theCoshylombofamily
Donnie eventually became the proteacutegeacute of a made guy BenjaminldquoLeftyGunsrdquoRuggieroandspentsixyearswiththemafiosilivingtheirdaily lives and sharing their crooked dealingsmdashconstantly exposed totheriskofbeingdiscoveredandkilledInthecourseoftheoperationhewasofferedtheopportunitynotonlytohandlethebookmakingforthemob boss of Milwaukee Frank Balistrieri but also to get inside theskimmingoperationinLasVegasBalistrierisaidhehadagoodcrewbuttheywereldquoolderkindof set in theirways Icoulduse someyoungerguysthatIcouldtrusttotakeoveracoupleofmyclubsandotherbusishynessesYoungerguyswouldbeabletorelatetothewaysoftodayrsquosbusishynessworldrdquo62Leftyvouched forDonnieldquoI told [Balistrieri]rdquoDonnie
22 c h a p t e r 1
saysldquoyouaremybloodrdquo63ButacceptingwouldhavemadeitimpossibleforDonnietoseehisrealfamilysoheturneddowntheofferWhilethatdecisionangeredLeftyitalsoconferredanadvantageasitfurthersigshynaledDonniersquoscredibilityldquoOnethingIhadinmyfavorseenthroughanymobguyrsquoseyeswas thatno cop would ever turn that job downSo Iwouldbeabovesuspicioninthatregardrdquo64
Donniecameupwithmanyother signalsbelieved tobeof akindthat a cop could not afford He pretended to beat up someone whoowedmoney toLeftyHe roughedup a comedianwhohad annoyedLeftyattheThunderbirdaMiamirestaurant65Furthermoreldquotypicallywhatanundercovercopwilldo inabuyshybust situation is try tobuysomethingfromyouCops always buy never sellI was going to sellrdquoPistonereveals66mdashthankstothefactthattheFBIallowedhimdiscretioninthatregard One very special commodity he bought though Lefty RugshygierorsquosprotectionTheFBIdishedoutatotalof$40000forthispurposewhileDonniewasundercoverldquoTheywerepayinghimforhisservicesasalsquowiseguyrsquotoinsuretheyhadtheprotectionoftheBonannofamilyin the event another family tried to interfere with their businessrdquo67
WhilepaymentwasostensiblyaimedatcompensatingLeftyitwasalsoliterallyacostlysignalandintentionallydesignedtoappeartobesoldquoBygivinghimmoneyContiandRossi[twoundercoveragentswhocolshylaboratedwithDonnie] ledLefty tobelieve that theywerewilling tobecomeinvolvedwithhimandhe trusted them as bad guysrdquo68
Mafiosiwerenot taken inbecause theyweredumbratherPistonewasunbelievablysmartandresilientanditjustwasveryhardformobshysterstothinkthattakentogetherallthethingshedidanddidnotdowerenotnearshyperfectdiscriminatingsignalsTheFBIwaslatercriticizedforoperatingverynearorevenbeyondthe limitsof the lawBut thisrelative freedomfooledthemafiosibecause theyassumedthatanunshydercoveragentwouldnotpaythecostofbreakingthelawDivinecouldnothavebankedonherneatlittletestifagentsofthelawhadbeenalshylowedtoexposethemselvesThemobsterswerecheatednotjustinthesense thatDonnieBrascoby faking forging andpretending successshyfullymimickedarealbadguybutalsointhesensethathedidsomereal badactions
23 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
In a short biography ofBonanno familymembersmdashposted on theInternetforawhilethenremovedmdashLeftywasdescribedasldquothebiggestidiotinthehistoryofLaCosaNostraHisblindgreedandlackofinshystinctwerefelthardintheAmericanmafiardquoAndyetLeftywascarefulevenyearsafterDonniehadbeenacceptedasaconnectedguyDonniewasassistedbyotherundercoveragentsoneofwhomwasldquoRossirdquoTotestwhetherRossiwasanundercoveragentLeftydeliberatelyldquolostrdquoaplaneticketthatRossihadbookedonhisowncreditcardforLefty(thiswasacovertwayofpayingprotectiontoLefty)ldquoBypretendingtolosetheticketLeftywantedtoseehowRossi reactedIfhewasanagentLeftyreasonedhewouldgetnervousbecausehewouldprobablyhavetoaccount for the ticket tohisofficeplushewouldbeworried thatsomebodylsquointheunderworldbusinessrsquomightmeanwhilefindtheticketandcheckouttheAmericanExpressnumbertoseeifitwasagovernshymentnumberrdquo69
WhenitwasfinallyrevealedthatDonniewasanundercoveragentthemobsterswereshockedanddidnotbelieveittillDonnieactuallytestishyfied in court against them His operation managed to send many ofthemmostlymembersoftheBonannofamilytojail71
ThemobsterslearnedtheirlessonandincreasedthepriceofthetestsNow not just one butldquotwo mafiosi have to vouch for the proposedmemberrdquoldquoTheyhavetosaytheyhaveknowntheproposedmemberifnotsincechildhoodthenatleastforfifteentotwentyyearsrdquo72Accordshying to theFBI theyalso resumeda traditionalpractice thathadbeenabandonedldquoaproposedmembermustlsquomakehisbonesrsquoorkillsomeonebeforehecanbecomeamadeguyTheyhavedonesobecause no agent
24 c h a p t e r 1
would commit murder while posing as a bad guyrdquo73Murderisreallyapershyfectlydiscriminatingsignalofbeingabadguyasignalthatnoundershycover agentnot evenonebelonging to a rather lax lawshyenforcementagencycouldafford
Thisentryrequirementmdashwhichshowshowcriminalactscanbepershypetratednotmerelyfortheirimmediateinstrumentalvaluebutalsofortheir signaling valuemdashhad never been explicitly removed but it wasno longerusedwithgreat determination In truthDominickldquoSonnyBlackrdquoNapolitanowhoeventuallybecameDonniersquosmainmentorandplannedtoproposeDonnieformembershiphadaskedDonnietomurshydersomeoneldquoHegavemeacontractsothatIwouldhavethatcredenshytialwhenheputmynameuprdquoButtheopportunitytocarryitoutdidnotariseforAnthonyBrunoIndelicatotheintendedvictimwentsucshycessfullyintohidingDonnieshowedthathewasdoingallhecouldtotrackIndelicatodownanditwasnotthoughttobehisfaultwhenhefailedThusalthoughhedidnotcarryoutthekillinghestillmanagedtoshowhiswillingnesstodoitandafewmonthslaterSonnyputhisnameforwardformembershipAtthatpointtheFBIdecidedtostoptheoperationandDonnieresumedonceagainhisrealidentity
Undercoveragentsmdashwhohavetopersuadethegrouptheyaimtoinfilshytrateof theircriminalcredentialsmdasharea serious threat forunlikesolomimicstheycandrawontheresourcesofstateagenciesandcanaffordcomplexmimicryactswhichinvolveposingforgingcredentialstrainshyingandfundsStill itcanbenear impossibleto infiltrategroupsproshytected by an array of features that cannot be successfully imitatedmdashwhichinotherwordsperfectlydistinguishtherealfromthephonyFor
EvenaMuslimCIAofficerwithnativeshylanguageabilities(andtheAgencyaccordingtoseveralactiveshydutycaseofficershasveryfewoperativesfromMiddleEasternbackgrounds)coulddolittlemorein thisenvironment [PeshawarPakistan] thanablondblueshyeyedallshyAmericanCaseofficerscannotlongescapetheembassiesandconsulates in which they serveA US official overseasphotoshygraphedandregisteredwiththelocalintelligenceandsecuritysershyvicescanrsquottravelmuchparticularlyinapoliceshyrichcountrylikePakistanwithouttheldquohostrdquoservicesknowingaboutitAnofficerwho tries togonativepretending tobe a trueshybelieving radicalMuslim searching for brothers in the causewillmake a fool ofhimselfquickly
UndercoveroperationsareaproblematicformofanticrimeactivityforanotherreasonaswellThelogicofcostshydiscriminatingsignalsinclinesundercoveragentstogobeyondinnocentpretensionsandsupportinishytiativesof thesamekinda truecriminalor terroristwouldundertakeSincelawshyenforcementagenciesareunderpressuretokeeptheiragentssafetheypushfordiscretiontobegrantedtothemAndsometimestheundercoveragentsthemselvesunbeknownsttotheiremployerschoosetobreakthelawbecausetheyworryabouttheircredibilityintheeyesof the host group and the consequences if they are discoveredThememoirsofundercoveragentsandspiesarerepletewiththisdilemma
According to incomplete calculations there were about 6500agents provocateurs and other political investigations specialistsoperatinginvariouspoliticalpartiesandorganizationsintheRusshy
26 c h a p t e r 1
sianEmpireatthestartofthetwentiethcenturythepoliceandgendarmesoftensetprioritiesthemselvesattimesevenattheriskofthelivesofhighshyrankinggovernmentofficialsandmembersoftheimperialfamilyMattersconcerningthesecurityofthesecretagentswereoftoppriorityandmaintainingthestrongpositionsofagentswithintheterroristorganizationsof theSocialistshyRevolushytionarieswasconsideredmore important thanpreventingassassishynationsevenagainstofficialsofthegovernment75
AfamouscasewasthatofEvnoAzefanagentwhooperatedinrevolushytionary circles for aboutfifteen years From 1893on hewas a policeagentAsastudentinaGermanpolytechnicschoolhetooktheinitiashytiveofofferinghisservicestothepolicedepartmentat therateof50rublespermonth afterwhichhe attachedhimself to a foreigngroupcallingitselftheUnionofRussianSocialistshyRevolutionariesHeknewaboutthemajorityofterroristactsbeingplannedbytheSRsbuthedidnotalwaysreporttohisbossesaboutthemNeverthelessthepolicepaidhimwellforhisservices76
EpisodesofthiskindarenotrestrictedtopredemocraticsocietiesAnilluminatingcaseoccurredinCanadaAtitspeakin1993theHeritageFront was the largest and bestshyorganized neoshyNazi group in Canadaboastingacontactlistof1800namesGrantBristowcofounderandaleadingmemberofthiswhiteracistgroupturnedouttobeapaidinshyformantoftheCanadianSecurityIntelligenceServiceldquoBristoworchesshytrated aharassment campaign that terrorizedFront enemies harboredleadinginternationalracistsinhisownhomeinclearviolationofbothCSISrulesandtheImmigrationActandassistedintheFrontrsquosinfiltrashytionoftheReformPartyrdquo77ldquoCSISmoleGrantBristowwasanlsquoagentprovocateurrsquowhowithhisspymastersbrokeCanadianlawsandinternalCSISregulationsagroupofMPshaveconcludedBristowrsquosleadershyshiproleinthewhiteracistHeritageFrontthereportsuggestsmay have led to the very events that caused CSIS to keep him in place for several more yearsrdquo78 An inquiry by the Security Intelligence Review CommitteeintotheaffairplayeddowntheaccusationsbutitisclearfromthereportthattherewereseriousbreachesForinstanceontheissueofharassment
27 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
of antiracistmilitants and Jewish communitymembers thedocumentconcludesthatldquoanyinformantwhoenterstheHeritageFrontorasimishylargrouphastomaintainhiscredibilitywithhisassociatesotherwisehewouldnot remain a trustedmember for longThe questionwewerefacedwithwaswhethertheCSISsource[GrantBristow]hadremainedwithintheboundsofappropriatebehaviourwhiletryingtomaintainhiscredibilityTheanswerwearrivedatwasthatin certain circumstances he had not[emphasisintheoriginal]rdquo79
Eveniftheyareonlysupposedtocollectinformationoncriminalorsubversiveactivitiesspiesmayendupproducingmoreofsuchactivitieson theirown initiativeThey tend tobecomeagentsprovocateursnotnecessarilyfortheconspiratorialreasonswhyJosephConradrsquosprotagoshynistinThe Secret Agentdoes(VerlocwasinthepayofanunnamedforshyeignembassythatwantedtopersuadetheBritishtotakeatougherlineagainsttheanarchistsandusedhisdimshywittednephewtostageanldquoanarshychistrdquobombingattack)buttypicallyonlyoutoffearofnotbeingcredshyibleenoughandofriskingtheirlivesThecoststhatmaketheirsignalscredibleintheeyesoftheirtargetsareafterallldquoonlyrdquothoseofbreakinglegalconstraintsTheymayneverbecaughtgiventheintrinsicopacityofwhattheydoandifcaughttheyarenotsolikelytobepunishedcershytainlynotbydeathAndontheothersideoftheequationtheyhavetoconsider the personal costs of failing to persuadeWhen onersquos life isthreatened thecostsofbreakingthe lawmaysuddenlyappear smallerthanthoseofobeyingitThesetofthosewhoarereadytorisktheirlifesacrificetheirfamilyanddeceivedangerouscriminalsforlongperiodsoftimewhileatthesametimeremainingstrictlyalawshyabidingcitizenmustbeextremelysmall
ThisraisesaninterestingquandaryforthecriminalsorterroristswhoaretryingtotestthebonafidesofothersForbyincreasingtheseverityofthepunishmentmetedoutagainstundercoveragentswhoarediscovshyered they encourage the latter to afford costly signals that once disshyplayedmaymakeitimpossibleforthebadguystosaywhethertheposhytentialrecruitsareundercoveragentsinthefirstplace
undercover agentmayfind it preferable to refrain from swallowing itevenatthecostofrevealinghistruetypeforhedoesnotwanttobreakthelawBycontrasttherealcriminalwhowantstodealwiththedrugdealersmayprefertopaythecostofthephysicalillnesscausedbyswalshylowing forhe isentirelyateasewithbreaking the lawThekeyextracost that discriminates between the real criminal and the undercoveragentisthecostofbreakingthelawwhichthemimicfaceswhilethegenuinearticledoesnotAharsherpunishmenthowevercanreversetheequationandmakeitcheaperfortheundercoveragenttoswallowratherthannot swallowevenat thecostofbreaking the lawandthusmakehimbehaviorallyindistinguishablefromtherealcriminalWhenadminshyisteredunder the threatof theharsherpunishment the testno longerseparatesonetypefromtheotherByfailingtoappreciatethisquandaryandthreateningdeathagainstthosewhorefusetoswallowthedrugthedealers fail to realize that theyaredeactivating thevery sourceof thereliabilityoftheirtestforunderthatthreattheagentsarenowallowed(andwouldinanycasefeelinclined)toswallowthedrug
CONCLUSIONS
OncesomeoneintentoncrimeidentifiesapotentialpartnerasabonafidecriminalhehassolvedoneproblemonlytolandinanotherequallydifficultoneHenowhastoestablishwhetherhispartnerisnotjustacrookbutanhonorableoneAfterHughGrantexposedhimselfDivineknewthathewasnotanundercovercopforshebelievedthatcopsdonotdothatYetshestilldidnotknowwhatkindofacustomerhewasProstitutesareconstantlyonguardagainstrobbersorpervertswhoposeasordinarycustomers80AnyonewhoworksoutsidethelawismoreexshyposedthanordinarybusinessmentobecomingthepreyofothercrimishynalswhomimicbeingacriminalofthehonestsortAstreetshydrugdealerwhosuccessfullyadvertises tocustomersmayalsoattract robberswhopretend to be customers in order to get close to the dealers and robthem81Acriminalhastobeonguardagainstbothkindsofmimicslawshyenforcementagentsandcriminalsofthewrongsort
29 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
Ifhonestywerethoughttobeatraitofcertaincriminalsandnotothshyersinordertoestablishwhetherapotentialpartnerishonestonecouldfollowthesamestrategyoneusesforidentifyingwhethersomeoneisacriminal tobeginwithThe samekindof costly signalswouldbe reshyquiredforcriminalstopersuadeoneanotherthattheywerethehonesttypeIncertaincasesthegametheyplayisindeedoneofsignalingtheirtypeHowever inmost circumstancescriminals tend to thinkofeachotherasbeingof justonetypenamelythedishonestoneandbelievethatgivenhalfachancetheywilltakeadvantageofeachotherTheonlyway inwhich they can comealmost toldquotrustrdquo eachother enough tocooperateisthereforenotbysignalingtheirtypebuteitherbyenforcshyingtheirpartnersrsquohonestywiththethreatofsomekindofretaliationormoregenerallybyputtingthemselvesandtheirpartnersinaconditionwherebyldquohonestyrdquo rather thancheating is theirbest courseof actionwhatevertheirtypeIshallexploresomeofthestrategiestheyadoptinchapters2and3
4 c h a p t e r 1
manwhowas supposed to crash a lorryheadshyon intoher car as shedrovedownacountrylaneThecontractkillerhesoughttohirehowshyever turnedout tobe anundercoverpolicemanposing as a criminalThepolicemanrecordedthenegotiationsandin2003Fallowswassenshytencedtofiveyearsinprisonluckytohavefoundalenientjudge2
In2000amemberofaSiciliangangwhowasplanningamonumenshytalrobberybysettingupawebsiteimitatingtheonlineservicesoftheBanco di Sicilia contacted the director of a branch of the Banco diRomatoenlisthisassistanceinthefraudHefailedtorealizethatthedirectorwasanundercoverpolicemanandhismistakeledtohisarrestand to that of twentyshytwo others including members of a Palermomafiafamily3
ThehotterthetradethemoredauntingaretheproblemsofidentifishycationHowdoyougoaboutforinstancefindingablackshymarketbuyerforeightbarsof enricheduraniumThisquestion taxed thebrainsofeleven Italian mobsters an unholy coalition of Sicilian mafiosi andRomanandCalabrianorganizedcriminalswhohad thebars in theirhands for some timeThese bars have a troubled historyThey are90shycentimetershylong cylinders wrapped in steel each containing 200gramsofuraniumanddesignedforpeacefulusesTheywereproducedinthelabsofGeneralAtomicsinSanDiegoandsenttotheCongoasagiftinFebruary1971wheretheyweretobeusedasnuclearfuelinthelabsoftheexperimentalreactorMarkIIinKinshasaThegiftprogramwasknown ironicallyasldquoAtoms forPeacerdquoHowever ifblownupbymeansofanordinaryexplosivetheycanserveasldquothepoormanrsquosnushyclearbombrdquospreadingdeadlynuclearradiationInthewordsofCaptainRobertoFerronioftheItaliancustomspoliceinRomeldquoIftheywereblownupinVillaBorghesethecenterofRomewouldbecomeuninshyhabitable for a centuryrdquo4From the labs inKinshasa thebarsmysterishyouslydisappearedIn1997whenMobutursquosregimewasoverturnedandheleftforFrancewherehediedofcancerthebarsapparentlytraveledwithhimTheysurfacedonceinFranceandwerethecauseofagunshyfight betweenFrenchpolice and a groupof criminalmerchantswhoweretryingtosellthem
A year later they reemerged in the hands of the Italian mobsters
5 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
whosetelephonecommunicationswereinterceptedbytheItaliancusshytomspolice in thecourseof investigating them forothercrimesThepolicewereamazedtohearthemobstersspeakofunspecifiedldquonuclearstuffrdquoandwereinitiallyunsurewhatthatmeantInthespringof1998themobstersfinallythoughttheyhadfoundabuyeranemissaryofanArabcountryThebuyerwhointroducedhimselfasldquotheAccountantrdquowasinrealityanundercoveragentforwhomthepolicehadcreatedawholenew identityTheygavehim falsepenal andprison records forfencingandfabricatedanonexistentrelationshipbetweenhimandanArabcountryandtheIslamicJihadwhichtheagentmentionedastheultimatebuyerldquoOursellersrdquosaysCaptainFerroniwholedtheoperashytionldquodidnotlosetheircomposureOnthecontrarythecredibilityoftheArabworldwhichisalwayshuntingfornuclearmaterialconvincedthemthat[ourman]wasnotatraprdquoTheagentbroughtwithhimanasshysociateanengineerwhowasallowedtotestoneofthebarsandfoundthatitdidindeedcontainuraniumThepolicethentransferredavirtualsumof20billion lireonaSwissBankaccountbargainingdown therequestedprice thatwas twiceasmuchThebrilliantoperationhowshyeverwasonlyapartialsuccessAsinthebestcrimestoriesthemafiosicheatedtwiceoverOntheagreeddayforcompletingthetransactiontheyshowedupwithonlyonebaradifferentonefromtheonethathadbeentestedandfailedtodelivertheothersevenAtthatpointhoweverthecoverwasblownandthepolicehadtoarrestthemThebarsrsquocurshyrent location remainsunknownCaptainFerroni saysldquoThemanwhocouldhavetakenustothosebarsDomenicoStilitanorefusestospeakItisnotinhisinterestOnthe11thofOctober[2001]hewassentencedto4yearsand6monthsasthenewantiterrorismlawsarenotyetapplishycableandthetrafficofstrategicmaterialisstillconsideredasitwereaminorcrimerdquo5
TheidentificationproblemisfurtherintensifiedbythefactthatconshytrarytoawidespreadbeliefcriminalgroupsareunstableIntheundershyworld people have a higher rate of mobility (and mortality) than inmostprofessionsldquomostadultcoshyoffendingdoesnotarisefromparticishypationingroupsthetypicalcoshyoffendingrelationshipappearstobetransitory and there is a continual search forcoshyoffendersrdquo6Andldquothe
6 c h a p t e r 1
life of most of the mobsrdquo said a professional thiefldquois comparativelyshortrdquo7Thisispartlybecausecriminalsarechasedbylawenforcersandhavetokeepmovingandhidingandbecausetheyaremoreinclinedtouseviolenceagainsteachother thanregularbusinessmenare ItcouldalsobeforldquoendogenousreasonsThemorelucrativethebusinessthemorepotentialentry itwillattract resulting in(literally)cutthroatcompetishytionandshortexpectedlifeforanincumbentrdquo8
ThedifficultiesofidentifyingpartnerskeepmuchpotentialcrimeatbayMakingidentificationhardisarguablythemostpowerfuldeterrentagainstcrimethattheforceofthelawbringsaboutbydiscouragingthecountlessdormantcriminalswhorefrainfromactingunlawfullyforfearof being caughtwhen searching or advertisingA blessing for societyidentification constraints are a serious hindrance for criminals whodearly wish they could use theYellowPagesHowdo they solve theproblem
MISTAKEN IDENTIF ICATION
WhentryingtoidentifypartnerscriminalscanmaketwotypesofmisshytakesFirsttheycanmissopportunitiesfailingtoseethroughthedisshyguisesthatgenuinepotentialpartnersadoptinordertopassthemselvesoff as lawshyabiding citizens and avoid being caught (the falseshynegativemistake)InthiscasebothpartieshavethesameinterestsbutmisstheopportunityforafruitfulpartnershipNoticethatthefailureofonetoidentifyreflectsthefailureoftheothertoadvertiseMimickingalawshyabidingcitizenwhichsometimessimplymeanskeepingalowprofileissomethingmost criminals have to doThis however can succeed toowellandonecanfailtoadvertisewhenitwouldbeinonersquosinteresttodoso
Second searchersmay approach a lawshyabidingcitizenorworse anundercoveragentmistaking themforpotentialpartners incrime (thefalseshypositive mistake) Lawshyabiding citizens are not a cause of greatconcernforcriminalsTrueifapproachedtheymayinformtheauthorishytiesButordinarypeopledonothaveaninterestinpassingthemselves
7 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
offascriminalsIfanythingtheyarecareful toavoid lookinglikeoneOnlyuttercarelessnessinapproachingothersorsomeinanemisundershystandingscanleadtoconfusinglawshyabidingcitizensforcriminalsmdashsuchas thatof the fortyshysevenshyyearshyoldCanadianwomanwho in 1991diduse theYellowPagesandcontactedafirminPhoenixArizonacalledldquoGuns forHirerdquo seeking to put a contract on her husbandrsquos life ShefailedtonoticethatthefirmspecializedinputtingonldquoWildWesttheatshyricalshowsforconventionsprivatepartiesandthelikerdquoAfterhanding$2000toanundercoverdetectiveposingasahitmanthewomanwasarrestedandlatersentencedtofourandahalfyearsinjailBeforecallingGunsforHirethedetectivelaterexplainedshehadconsideredcallingmotorcycleclubsandanItalianshyAmericanassociation9Ifcontractkillshyersandpeopleseekingthemreallycouldadvertiseopenlyonewondershowmanymoremurderstherewouldbe
Therealworryconcernsundercoveragentsorinformerswhohaveanactiveinterest inpretendingtobeagenuinepartneranddeceivingthesearchingcriminalInthiscasewhichIconsiderherethecriminalrsquosfailure to identify correctly a lawshyandshyorder agent reflects the latterrsquosmimickingsuccessInparticularIconsiderthecaseoftwoindividualswhoareinasymmetricalpositionsAalreadyknowsthatBisacriminal(andBknowsthatAknowsthat)BhoweverdoesnotknowwhetherAisacriminalRegardlessofwhetherAistrulyacriminaloranundershycoveragentposingasoneAwantstopersuadeBthatheisarealcrimishynalBatthesametimeislookingforevidenceofthetypethatAisThequestioniswhatkindofevidencecansatisfyB
Theprobabilityofmaking identificationmistakes isldquofrequencydeshypendentrdquothehighertheproportionofcriminalsinthesearchenvironshymentthelowertheriskofapproachingthewrongpeopleWherecorshyruption isknowntobewidespread for instancecorruptingothersorsignalingonersquoswillingnesstoacceptbribesisnotmuchofaproblemIftheprobabilityofencounteringacorruptagentiscorrectlybelievedtobehighcriminalswill rationally trymoreandbolderapproachesandwill easily uncover corrupt partners In Russia which may have apshyproached this stateof affairs in recent times the values of corruptionldquofeesrdquo fordifferentpositionsofauthoritywereopenlyreported inthe
Soourquestioniswhatdocriminalslookforwhatkindofsignsdotheyattendtoinordertoidentifytheirkindredspiritsorcatchtheunshydercover agentsThe littlewecanfind in the literatureexplicitlydisshycussingtheidentificationproblemsuggeststhatcriminalsclaimtoposshysessaspecialabilitythatenablesthemtoidentifyothercrooksbyldquogutfeelingsrdquo ldquoalookintheeyesrdquo ldquovibrationsrdquo11NowherecouldIfindanytheorythatunpacksthosefeelingsthatpredictswhatcriminalscanbeexpected to look for But carefully scrutinized the evidence we cangather from the many ethnographic accounts of criminalsrsquo activitiesstronglysuggeststhattheydonotgoaboutiterraticallyCriminalssysshytematicallylookforsignsthatidentifyanotheragentasagenuinecrimishynaltypeandatthesametimetheytryjustassystematically(andcareshyfully)toadvertisebysendingsignalsthatonlyanothergenuinecriminaltypewillpickup
ldquoOnthestreetrdquomdashwroteFBIspecialagentJosephPistonewhoinfilshytratedtheColomboandlatertheBonannomafiafamiliesofNewYorkunderthenameofDonnieBrascomdashldquoeverybodyissuspiciousofeveryshybodyelseuntil youproveyourselfrdquo12 If someone saysldquoI amready todealwithyoupalrdquoorsportssomeitemofclothingthatconventionallyindicatesheisacriminalsuchasapairofdarkglassesthesesignalsarehardlysufficienttoprovethatheisacriminalAsaprofessionalthiefputitldquolanguageisnotinitselfasufficientmeansofdeterminingwhetherapersonistrustworthyforsomepeopleintheunderworldarestoolpishygeons and someoutsiders learn some of the languagerdquo13Provingoneselfrequirestougherteststhancheaptalk
ingconditionagivensignalscanconvincearationalreceiverofasigshynalerrsquoscriminalityifgiventheexpectedbenefitsarationalmimicwhocouldgainbyposingasacriminalfinds s toocostlytoproduceortodisplayInotherwordsa convincing signal of a criminal type is that which only a true criminal can afford to produce and to sendThatdoesnotmeanthatsuchsignalingwillnecessarilybeverycostlyforarealcriminalInthecourseofhiscareerhemayhaveacquiredmuchrawmaterialthatcanbedisplayedatlittleextracostItsufficesthatthesignalbetoocostlyforthemimictoafford
SelectiveEnvironments
Agood indeedthebest signofacriminal typeconsistsofcourseofobserving someone committing a crimeThis is not likely to occurthoughforpeopledonotnormallywishtobeseenengaginginvillainshyousactsThis isaconstraint thatordinarybusinessmendonot faceasthey can showwhat they do to third partieswithout fear of the lawBy contrast criminals have to resort as much as possible to indirectmethods
Acommonstrategythatallowscriminalsinsearchofoneanothertoexchangesignalsconsistsoffrequentingplaceswherenoncriminalsarenot likely tobe foundwhich is likepatronizingaldquosinglesbarrdquowhensearchingforamateldquoTosearchforaccomplicesandtodisposeofillegalgoodsadultoffenderspatronisethesameplacesmakethesamekindsof transactionsandoftenreside in the sameareardquo14Theyhangout inbars gambling dens boxing gyms and social clubs full of other menduringnormalworkinghoursorlateatnightattimesthatiswhenacommonpersonisotherwiseoccupiedOrtheyliveinroughneighborshyhoodsforthesamereasonwellshytoshydocitizensmoveoutofthemmdashbothdreadmakingencountersofthewrongsortInhisresearchoncrimeinNewYorkCitySullivan(1989)foundthatmuchrecruitmentoccursinneighborhoodswherepeopleknowaboutoneanotherandcheckeachotheroutinthenaturalcourseoftheirdailyinteractionsEnvironmentsselected for their criminality those which ldquoregular guysrdquo find morecostlyorlessattractivetopatronizethancriminalsdomakeidentificashy
ByitselfthoughthisstrategyworksonlyuptoapointItsavescrimshyinalsfromdealingbymistakewithlawshyabidingcitizensHoweverifthecostofhangingaroundinsuchenvironmentsisnotveryhighforanonshycriminaltheymaybecomeverydangerousplacesforcriminalspreciselytheplaceswhereundercoveragentswillconvergewhenattemptingtoinfiltrate criminal networks Singles bars increase the probability ofmeeting single people but they do not eliminate the probability ofmeetingpatronswhowhilemarriedgotheremerelypretendingtobesingle In the underworld where the stakes of mistaken identity arehigherifsomeonejustshowsupinabarfullofcriminalsheisnotlikelyto go far without further credentialsTo be reassured criminals needsigns thecostofwhicha lawshyenforcement agentor a spywouldfindharder topayRather thanbeing reliable signs in themselves selectiveenvironments merely offer better opportunities to gather further evishydencedirectlyandindirectly
Referrals
ldquoAnother method [to establish someonersquos criminal credentials] is byfindingoutwhatpeoplethestrangerknowsrdquo15IfCknowsthatAisacriminalCmayintroduceAtoBOrBcansimplyseeCwithAandinferthatAisonetooAgangstercalledJacksoninhisautobiographywroteldquoonthestreetIknowhundredsandhundredsofcharactersbutIdonotknowtheirnamesSayyouareacharacterandIrsquomacharacterandIseeyouwithacharacterthatIknowIhavenowayofcheckingyourcreditratingoranythingelsesoI judge you by whom you associate withIfIknowthatthispersonisagoodpersonandnotapolecatnotastoolpigeonnotthemanrsquosmanthenIhavetogiveyouthecreditforbeingall rightrdquo16 Incertaincriminalcirclesldquoyoursquodbe surprised Itrsquos averycloseshyknitthingamonghustlersYoumeetsomeoneyoursquovenevermetbeforeinaplaceyoursquoveneverseenbeforeyoufindoutsomeonetheyknowTheymayevenhaveheardofyourdquo17Interestinglythisimshypliesthatcriminalshavetobeextravigilantaboutwhomtheyareseen
Onewaytoacquiregoodevidenceofsomeonersquoscriminalitywhichinshytersects with the referral method exploits law enforcement itself Intermsof howeffectively they canmix andmatchkindred spirits thehangouts thatcriminals freelychoosecannotcompetewith theplacesthey are forced to go by the agents who fight against crime there isnothing like prison to mix like with like Prisons promote crime inmanyobviousways18teachingcriminalsnewskillsandbrutalmodesofbehaviorbuttheyalsodosolessobviouslybyshoulderingthecostsofadvertisingandidentifyingwhoisacriminaltobeginwith
JustbeingaprisonerisaclearandsimplesignthatoneiscriminallyinclinedThehardpart is paying the priceof going there in thefirstplaceButitispreciselythatcostthatmakesaprisontermsuchagoodsignofbeingarealcriminalParadoxicallythebetterthecriminaljusticesystemisthesaferitistoassumethatthecompanyputbehindbarswillbe invariably villainousThough there are surely innocent prisonersmanyareguiltythemoresothebetterthesystemOnecanalsobereashysonably sure that phonies peoplewho talkbig about their dangerouscriminaltendenciesbutdonothingwillnotendupinprisonTheinshyterpersonalconflictsthatarerifewithinprisonsasweshallseeinchapshyter4 furtherensure that thephoniesarequickly identifiedAndeventhough undercover policemen have certainly been sent to prison forshortperiodstogaincriminalcredentialsthelongerthetimeprisonersspendinjailthecloserwegettoprisonbeingaperfectdiscriminatingsignmdashnoonechoosestospendtwentyyearsbehindbarsforthesakeofposingasavillainDoingtimeinprisoncanthusbebothastigmaandabadgedependingonwhoislookingatitAnexshyconvictwhowishestoreturntothepathoftherighteouscanfinddoingsoveryhardbeshycausehistimespentinprisonidentifieshimasacriminalldquoOnceyoursquore
12 c h a p t e r 1
markedinprisonyoursquoredoneforrdquosaysadelinquentboyrecountinghisownstory19Butonewhointendstopersistinhisoldwayswillfindhispath smoothed and can display his prison credentials to further hiscriminalcareer
OnemaynotgoasfarasarrangingajailsentenceforoneselfforthepurposeoffosteringnewassociationswithkindredspiritsButonceinprison there is an abundance of opportunity to make villainous acshyquaintanceswhowillbeusefulafteroneleaves
Say that there are fifty quite well established thieves in MalmoumlonlythirtyofthosehaveafenceThosewhodonrsquotaretheyoungeronesaroundeighteenortwentywhohavenrsquotbeenaroundenoughsotheyrsquollhavetoasktheirfriendsorselltothievesForsomeonewhohasbeeninsideasmuchasmeitrsquosnoproblem20
IncarcerationasamarkofreliabilityworksataremoveIftwoformerprisonersdidnotactuallymeetinjailtheycanstilldisplayevidenceofhavingbeenldquointhecanrdquotoadvertisetheircredentialsSoevenifgoingtoprisonwasnotintendedasaperverseformofreacutesumeacutebuildingtherevelationof theexperiencecanbe andoften is an intentional signalTheldquoreferralrdquomethodIdiscussedaboveexploitsprisoncontactstoomdashforifoneisembeddedinanetworkoneisinabetterpositionbothtoreferothersandtobereferredbythemThereisevenevidencethatunshywittinglyunionsandorganizationsthataresupposedtohelpexshyinmatesto reentermainstream society alsohelpunreformedcriminals in theirbusiness21Notleastthesecharitableorganizationsassistthembycertishyfying their status as genuine exshyprisoners thus innocently facilitatingencounterswithactivevillains
whetherandhowfartheenhancingofonersquoscriminalidentityoffsetstheattemptsatrehabilitationthereismuchanecdotalevidencefromcrimishynalsrsquo biographies of the enhancing effectrsquos existence It starts early inyoungshyoffendersrsquoinstitutionsInhisautobiographyJimmyBoyleaScotshytishgangsterreminiscesthatwhenhewassixteen
theApprovedSchoolsurelyplayedavitalpartinmycriminaldeshyvelopmentItgavemeconnectionsthatIwastofindusefulinmyadultdaysItgavemeanintroductiontoguysfromtownsandcitshyiesthroughoutScotlandandfrommanyareasinGlasgowmanyofwhom grew up to be the top thieves or fighters in their areasThere isnodoubtatall thatmostof themgained inacriminalsensefromtheirApprovedSchoolexperience23
HewasdoinghisbesthewritestoavoidbeingcaughtldquobuteverytimeIwentintoprisonIbroadenedmycriminalhorizonsbymakingmoreandmoreconnections indifferent areasrdquo24MalcolmBralywho spentnearly seventeenyears invariousUSprisons forburglarywroteldquoHewasbrokeasIwasandhesuggestedwetrysomethingtogetherItwasreasonableWho is more likely to be trustworthy than someone youhavejustmetinjailrdquo25
CriminalandrebelorganizationsregardaprisonrecordasasignofdistinctionTheRussiancriminalfraternityknownasvorymadehavingbeeninaprisoncampaformalrequirementofmembership26AccordshyingtoMarekKaminskiatleastonememberoftheundergroundSolshyidarity movement in Poland provoked the communist secret servicestoputher inprisonsoshecould improveherreputationldquoUnderthewellshyprogressingperestroika in1987 thePolishcommunistsessentiallystoppedincarceratingtheopposition(sothelsquoincarcerationrsquowasabrief48hours)theystartedtalkswithselectedoppositiongroupsandmanyunderground politicians thought that there would be some role forthem to playwithin the communist regime soonThus the expectedcostofincarcerationwaslowandtheexpectedbenefitswerehighrdquo27
The lengthof time spent in prison further provides anldquoobjectiverdquomeasureoftherespectoneisowedrelativetoothergangmembersThus
14 c h a p t e r 1
Christopher Seymour writes of taking a drive with Japanese yakuza (mobsters)ldquoIntheloosehierarchyoftheHarashygumiKenis themostsenior in the automobile He has already served time in adult prisonwhereastheothershaveonlybeenthroughjuveniledetentionrdquo28LikeshywiseMarekKaminskimdashwhowhenhewasa sociologysophomore inthe1980swasarrestedbythePolishcommunistsecretpolicetogetherwithelevenothermembersofanundergroundSolidarnosc publishinghouseandjailedforfivemonthsmdashreportsldquoSomeofthePolishgrypsmen [inmateswhoaremembersofaprisonfraternityseechapter4]claimthatinthecaseofaprisonerwithasentenceof20+yearshedoesnothavetojointhegrypsmenformallyandsufferthecostsoftheinitiationritualsHeiseligibleforenjoyingallthebenefitsofthecastemembershyshipbyvirtueofthesentencersquoslengthrdquo29FortheRussianmafiaaswellldquothelengthoftimespentinprisonwasasourceofprestigeandasignofdistinction among the criminals who aspired to become voryrdquo30 In atelephoneconversation secretly recordedby Italianpolice thewifeofIvanYakovlev (thenames have been changed) aRussianmobster arshyrestedinItalyin199731usesthelengthofherhusbandrsquosprisonsentencetoinduceoneofhisassociatestoshowduerespectAssignedtothetaskbyherhusband shewarns theRussianwifeof theaccompliceMarioFerrarildquoIvanisbiggerthan[yourhusband]hehasbeeninprisonfor15yearsrdquoFerrarididnotenjoythesameprisoncredentialsthoughhehadclashedwiththelawinthepastfordrugdealingHewasnowmisbeshyhavingbeingoftendrunkanddisheveledandaccordingtoIvanswifedidnotshowenoughrespecttoIvanInasubsequentconversationbeshytweenthetwowomenFerrarirsquoswifeapologizedforherhusbandrsquosbeshyhavior She clearly took the point and repeated word for word whatIvanrsquoswifepreviouslytoldherldquo[Myhusband]understoodthatitisnotIvanwhomustlookforhimbutthathecleanandwelldressedmustgotoIvaninthecarandaskhimwhatneedstobedonebecauseIvanisbiggerthanheishehasbeeninprisonfor15yearsrdquo32
monlyacceptedviewthatldquopunishingacriminalmoreseverelyreducesthatindividualrsquossubsequentprobabilityofrecidivismrdquo33Sinceprisonersareassignedtominimumshylowshyorhighshysecurityprisonsonthebasisoftheirscoreonascalefrom1to10pointsldquointendedtoreflect[their]needforsupervisionrdquo34ChenandShapirowereabletocomparetherearrestratesofexshyinmateswhohadbeenoneithersideofthecutoffboundarshyiesthathadledthemtobeincarceratedinprisonswithdifferentsecushyrity levelsldquoinessenceweargue thatwithin a small interval aroundacutofftheallocationofprisonerstodifferentsecuritylevelsamountstoarandomassignmentrdquo35Althoughtheresultsarebasedonasmallnumberofcases948theystillenabletheauthorstorejectstronglythehypothshyesisthatlowerlevelsofprisonsecurityleadtomorerecidivismafterreshyleaseinsteadtheyindicateinmanywaysthattheoppositeeffectobtainsThe authorsrsquo interpretationof this effect refers to lower laborshymarketopportunities for highershysecurity exshyinmates and to peer effectsmdashldquoinmatesmayacquireskillslearnofnewprospectsordevelopcriminalcontactsrdquo36moreofteninhighershythaninlowershysecurityprisonsTheirresultsarealsoperfectlycompatiblewithanotherinterpretationhavingbeeninprisonswithastricterregimestrengthensthecertifyingeffectoncriminalcredentialsandgivesexshyinmatesfromtheseprisonsrelativeto those fromprisonswith lower security levelsgreatercredibilityonthecriminallabormarket
the two pairs have solved the identification problem in the past Butwhatabouttheelementarycaseinwhichreferralsarenotavailableornotpersuasiveorsafeenoughmdashcantwoagentsthenfindadirectsolushytiontotheproblem
It is hard to observe someone committing a crime in the naturalcourseofeventsbutvillainscancertainlyaskapotentialpartnerorreshycruittogivethemevidenceofhavingcommittedcrimesandcandosowithout resorting to an intermediaryThis can work if the crimes inquestionleaveatracethatcanbeknownorpossessedonlybytherealperpetrator One cannot just say that one has committed a crimemdashaphonymayhavereadaboutitinthepaperandsimplybeclaimingtobetheperpetratorOnehastoshowthebootyasitwereasinthefollowingcasePoliceinfourteencountriesincludingtheUnitedStatesarrestednearlytwohundredsuspectedmembersofanInternetchildpornograshyphyringtheWonderlandClubTojointheringonehadtoshowthatonepossessedtenthousandphotographsandbepreparedtosharethemwith other membersThe photographs were screened by a computerprogramwhichcheckedwhethertheyweredifferentfromoneanotherand fromthosealreadyavailable fromother sources37Thisaction sigshynaledthatprospectivemembershadcommittedacrimeandwereserishyouslycommittedtotheactivityofcommoninterestandcouldnotthusbeundercoveragents(Ireturntothiscaseinchapter3)
UltimatelycriminalscanalsoaskapotentialpartnerorrecruittoenshygageinadisplaycrimemdashanactthatanoncriminalwouldneverdomdashandtocommitthecrimeundertheireyesorinsuchawayastoleaveanunmistakablesignofauthorshipThenatureoftheillegalactrequesteddependsonthetypeofcrimeinwhichtheagentsareinvolvedandthelawsthatgovernitDivinetheLosAngelesprostitutewhoachievedherfifteenminutesoffameforadministeringoralsextoBritishactorHughGrant in 1995 revealedherparticularkindof testBefore agreeing totradesheaskedGranttoexposehimselfThereasonshesaidisthatanundercoverpolicemanwouldnotdothatforhewouldbebreakingthelawDivinebelievedonewondershowaccuratelythatexposingoneselfwasasignalonlyrealcustomerscouldafford
The same reasoning inspires a test appliedbydrugdealers inNew
17 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
YorkSincethemidshy1990sldquoaspolicehave intensifiedtheirassault thedealershavealsoadoptedmoreperilous tacticsFiveor six timeseachmonthundercoverinvestigatorsarenowforcedtousecocaineorheroinatgunpointtoprovetodealersthattheycanbetrustedAtleasttwiceamonth anofficer is shotorotherwisewoundedduring a stagedpurshychasesaypolicecommanderswhospokeonconditionofanonymityrdquo38
These kinds of tests are common in organizationswhere loyalty isparamount Before initiation mafia novicesmdashespecially those not alshyreadymembersoffamilieswithamafiatraditionmdashareaskedtocommitamurder(sometimeswouldshybemembersmovefirstandcommitseriouscrimesbeforeanyoneaskedthemtodoso)39Themafiausuallydoesnotkill anyonepurely for the sakeof a testmdashit optimizes byldquowhackingrdquosomeonewhowasmeanttobewhackedanywayand atthesametimetrying out the determination and bona fides of a noviceTheAryanBrotherhoodinprisonadoptedthesametesttogainmembershipcanshydidatesldquohadtokillwhomevertheBrotherhoodtargetedrdquo40AkindredoutfitknownastheAryanWarriorsalsorequiredwouldshybememberstopassatestldquousuallyabloodyassaultorinsomeinstancesadrugripshyofffrom a person outside of the brotherhoodrdquo41 But there are cases inwhichheinous crimes are committed purely as tests In a hairshyraisingaccountoflifeinyouthgangsinColombiathewriterEfraimMedinaReyes claims that it is not uncommon for new gangmembers to beasked to murder innocent friends or members of their own familywhich pushes the test to the extreme42 Revolutionary and resistancegroups deemed to be illegal by the incumbent government have alsousedthesametestBeingaskedtocommitamurderwasforinstanceacommonpractice in theAlgerianFLNSometimes the leaderswouldpick victims more or less at random to see if prospective memberswouldobeyevenmeaninglessorders43
ThismethodexploitsthelawwhichrestrictsthelawshyabidingundershycoveragentsrsquooptionsandturnsittothecriminalsrsquoadvantageIfhowshyeverlawshyenforcementagenciesgivetheirundercoveroperativesgreaterdiscretion to act against the law for the sakeofpersuading thegrouptheyaretryingtoinfiltrateoftheirbonafidesthepowerofthesesignalsisweakened for theagentcannowaffordat least someof themThe
18 c h a p t e r 1
degreesoffreedomvaryfromtimetotimeandfromagencytoagencyPoliceinNewYorkarenowldquoinstructedtoavoidtakingthedrugsunless their lives are in dangerrdquoIfdealersreadtheNew York Timeswherethisinshyformationwaspublishedtheyknowthatforcingbuyerstoingestdrugsby threatening their lives isnowauseless test for itno longerdistinshyguishesgenuinebuyersfromundercoveragents
BeforediscussingthisproblemfurtherIwillpresentthecaseofFBIspecial agent Joseph Pistone aka Donnie Brasco who infiltrated theNewYorkmafiaandcameclosetobeinginitiatedIknowofnobettercase for illustratingall the typesofcostshydiscriminating signalsusedbycriminalsmdashand by those who try to fool them Donnie Brasco pershysuadedthemobstersofhiscriminalcredentialsbyemployingabreathshytakingrangeofsubtlesignalsandnarratedhisexperienceinabookmdasharguablythemostvividethnographyoftheUSmafiafromldquowithinrdquo44
Entering the mob world is needless to say very hardldquoAssociates ofwiseguysdonrsquotdealwithpeopletheydonrsquotknoworwhosomebodyelsedoesnrsquotvouchforrdquo45PriortoPistonersquosinfiltrationtheFBIlackedexpeshyrienceDuringJEdgarHooverrsquosreignatthebureauundercoverworkwasrarelyusedldquobecauseitcouldbeadirtyjobthatcouldenduptaintshyingtheagentsrdquo46AndalthoughithadbeenusedsinceldquosofarasweknewtheFBIhadneverplantedoneofitsownagentsinthemafiardquo47Yettheoperation itwas about to attemptwasextraordinarily shrewdPistoneneededtobuildawholebarrageofsignalswhichtakentogethercouldpersuadethemobstersthathewasarealbadguyAndthatiswhatheandhishandlerssetouttodomindingthatthelawconstrainedhisfreeshydomldquoTheFBIwouldnrsquotletmeactuallygooutonhijackingsandburshyglariesbecausethecrewwentarmedrdquoPistonewrites48
19 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
PistoneneededanamehedecideditwaseasiertosticktoDonnieBrasco the name he had used in a previous undercover operation inFloridaHeneededaplausiblebiographythatcouldbecheckedorbetshyterhardtocheckheposedasanorphanandabachelorHesaidhehadbeenraisedinanorphanageinPittsburghthatburneddowntherewereno records leftThe story needed to be simpleldquoThe fewer [lies] youhave to tell the feweryouhave torememberrdquohenotes49HesaidhehadspenttimeontheWestCoastandinFloridawhereinfacthehadbeenbeforeasldquoDonaldBrascordquointhepreviousoperationandhadesshytablishedsomecontactsHeneededaldquoprofessionrdquoandsettledonjewelrytheftsomethingonecandoaloneandthatdoesnotrequiretheuseofweaponsmdashsomething moreover that allowed him to use confiscatedstolen jewels to sell so he would not have to break the law to stealthem50
Hecouldcountonadvantagesthatwouldhavebeenhardtofakehadtheynotbeenpartofhis realbiographyHis Italianancestryprovidedhim with theldquorightrdquo ethnic background He had grown up in theldquorightrdquoneighborhoodandasayoungsterhungoutinldquojointsrdquopatronshyizedbywiseguysldquoYouhad tobe streetshysmartevencockysometimesEverygoodundercoveragentIhaveknowngrewuponthestreetlikeIdidandwasagoodstreetagentbeforebecominganundercoveragentOnthestreetyoulearnwhatrsquoswhatandwhorsquoswhoYoulearnhowtoreadsituationsandhandleyourselfYou cannot fake the ability It showsrdquo51
It is also interesting to know what he chose not to say or do Heavoided acting in a way that could raise suspicionldquoNo street guy isgoingtothrowmoneyallovertheplaceunlesshersquostryingtoattractatshytentionrdquoPistonereveals ldquoThenthequestionisWhyishetryingtoatshytractattentionrdquo52BydoingsoheeitherbecomesatargetinthatpeoplethinktheycanrobhimorraisessuspicionsthathemaybeacopDonshyniewasparsimonioustooinrevealingdetailsofhislifewhetherrealorphonyforldquoyouneverknowwhatpartofwhatyoudowillbecomepartofyourhistorywhenpeoplewanttocheckonyourdquo53
Ifthey[themobsters]werenrsquotscheminganddreamingtheyweretellingwarstoriesreminiscencesabouttheirtimeinvariousjailsandprisonsEverybodydidtimeinthecanItwaspartofthepriceofdoingbusinessTheyknewallaboutdifferent jailscellblocksguards I had enough phony background set up to establish mycredentialsasaseriouscriminaltoshowthatIwastoughenoughtodo time if Ihad towithout turningratBut I never claimed to have done any prison timebecause IdidnrsquotknowthoseplacesandthatcouldhavejustrippedmeupIfyoudothreetofiveyearsyouget to know the guardsmdashwhat guardrsquos on what tierYou get toknowtheinmatesguyswhoaredoingfifteentotwentyguyswhoarestillthereTheyknewthelingoandtheslangEverybodyreshymembersthoserelationshipsandthattime54
IndirectlyPistonersquos choice showswhat a robust signalhavingbeen inprison is It isnot something that canbeeasily fakedguyswhohavetrulybeentherewouldquicklyspotanimpostor
Donniewentonforacoupleofmonths
playing this game of being noticedwithout being noticed slideintothebadguyworldandbecomeacceptedwithoutdrawingatshytentionYoupushalittlehereandtherebutverygentlyBriefinshytroductions short conversations appearances one place and anshyotherhintsaboutwhatyoursquoreuptocasualmannerismsdemeanorand lingo that youknowyourway aroundmdashall these become atrail of credibility you leave behind youAbove all you cannothurryYoucannotseemeagertomeetcertainpeoplemakecertaincontactslearnaboutcertainscoresThe quickest way to get tagged as a cop is to try to move too fastYouhavetoshowthatyouhavethetime to play by the rules of the street and that includes lettingpeoplecheckyououtandcometoyou55
Hewouldphonethebar leavingmessages forhimself just toestablishthathehadconnectionsandconveythebeliefpeopleknewhepatronshyizedthebar57ldquoWhenIwentotherplacesIcouldsayrdquoPistonewritesldquolsquoIbeenhangingoutat thatplace for fourorfivemonthsrsquoAnd theycould check it outThe guys had been hanging around in this placewouldsaylsquoYeahDonBrascohasbeencominginhereforquiteawhileandheseemsallrightnevertriedtopullanythingonusrsquordquo58
Wealsoread ldquoYoucanrsquotgoinallthetimebyyourselfbecausetheythinkyoursquoreeitherafagoracopAnditrsquosgoodtovarycompanysotheydonrsquot see you with the same people all the time and wonder whatrsquosuprdquo59SoDonniewouldbringanoccasionalfemaleorChuckanotherundercover agentThanks to Chuck he was introduced toAlbertldquoahalfshyasswiseguyrdquoaconnectedshytobutnotamadememberof theCoshylombofamily
Donnie eventually became the proteacutegeacute of a made guy BenjaminldquoLeftyGunsrdquoRuggieroandspentsixyearswiththemafiosilivingtheirdaily lives and sharing their crooked dealingsmdashconstantly exposed totheriskofbeingdiscoveredandkilledInthecourseoftheoperationhewasofferedtheopportunitynotonlytohandlethebookmakingforthemob boss of Milwaukee Frank Balistrieri but also to get inside theskimmingoperationinLasVegasBalistrierisaidhehadagoodcrewbuttheywereldquoolderkindof set in theirways Icoulduse someyoungerguysthatIcouldtrusttotakeoveracoupleofmyclubsandotherbusishynessesYoungerguyswouldbeabletorelatetothewaysoftodayrsquosbusishynessworldrdquo62Leftyvouched forDonnieldquoI told [Balistrieri]rdquoDonnie
22 c h a p t e r 1
saysldquoyouaremybloodrdquo63ButacceptingwouldhavemadeitimpossibleforDonnietoseehisrealfamilysoheturneddowntheofferWhilethatdecisionangeredLeftyitalsoconferredanadvantageasitfurthersigshynaledDonniersquoscredibilityldquoOnethingIhadinmyfavorseenthroughanymobguyrsquoseyeswas thatno cop would ever turn that job downSo Iwouldbeabovesuspicioninthatregardrdquo64
Donniecameupwithmanyother signalsbelieved tobeof akindthat a cop could not afford He pretended to beat up someone whoowedmoney toLeftyHe roughedup a comedianwhohad annoyedLeftyattheThunderbirdaMiamirestaurant65Furthermoreldquotypicallywhatanundercovercopwilldo inabuyshybust situation is try tobuysomethingfromyouCops always buy never sellI was going to sellrdquoPistonereveals66mdashthankstothefactthattheFBIallowedhimdiscretioninthatregard One very special commodity he bought though Lefty RugshygierorsquosprotectionTheFBIdishedoutatotalof$40000forthispurposewhileDonniewasundercoverldquoTheywerepayinghimforhisservicesasalsquowiseguyrsquotoinsuretheyhadtheprotectionoftheBonannofamilyin the event another family tried to interfere with their businessrdquo67
WhilepaymentwasostensiblyaimedatcompensatingLeftyitwasalsoliterallyacostlysignalandintentionallydesignedtoappeartobesoldquoBygivinghimmoneyContiandRossi[twoundercoveragentswhocolshylaboratedwithDonnie] ledLefty tobelieve that theywerewilling tobecomeinvolvedwithhimandhe trusted them as bad guysrdquo68
Mafiosiwerenot taken inbecause theyweredumbratherPistonewasunbelievablysmartandresilientanditjustwasveryhardformobshysterstothinkthattakentogetherallthethingshedidanddidnotdowerenotnearshyperfectdiscriminatingsignalsTheFBIwaslatercriticizedforoperatingverynearorevenbeyondthe limitsof the lawBut thisrelative freedomfooledthemafiosibecause theyassumedthatanunshydercoveragentwouldnotpaythecostofbreakingthelawDivinecouldnothavebankedonherneatlittletestifagentsofthelawhadbeenalshylowedtoexposethemselvesThemobsterswerecheatednotjustinthesense thatDonnieBrascoby faking forging andpretending successshyfullymimickedarealbadguybutalsointhesensethathedidsomereal badactions
23 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
In a short biography ofBonanno familymembersmdashposted on theInternetforawhilethenremovedmdashLeftywasdescribedasldquothebiggestidiotinthehistoryofLaCosaNostraHisblindgreedandlackofinshystinctwerefelthardintheAmericanmafiardquoAndyetLeftywascarefulevenyearsafterDonniehadbeenacceptedasaconnectedguyDonniewasassistedbyotherundercoveragentsoneofwhomwasldquoRossirdquoTotestwhetherRossiwasanundercoveragentLeftydeliberatelyldquolostrdquoaplaneticketthatRossihadbookedonhisowncreditcardforLefty(thiswasacovertwayofpayingprotectiontoLefty)ldquoBypretendingtolosetheticketLeftywantedtoseehowRossi reactedIfhewasanagentLeftyreasonedhewouldgetnervousbecausehewouldprobablyhavetoaccount for the ticket tohisofficeplushewouldbeworried thatsomebodylsquointheunderworldbusinessrsquomightmeanwhilefindtheticketandcheckouttheAmericanExpressnumbertoseeifitwasagovernshymentnumberrdquo69
WhenitwasfinallyrevealedthatDonniewasanundercoveragentthemobsterswereshockedanddidnotbelieveittillDonnieactuallytestishyfied in court against them His operation managed to send many ofthemmostlymembersoftheBonannofamilytojail71
ThemobsterslearnedtheirlessonandincreasedthepriceofthetestsNow not just one butldquotwo mafiosi have to vouch for the proposedmemberrdquoldquoTheyhavetosaytheyhaveknowntheproposedmemberifnotsincechildhoodthenatleastforfifteentotwentyyearsrdquo72Accordshying to theFBI theyalso resumeda traditionalpractice thathadbeenabandonedldquoaproposedmembermustlsquomakehisbonesrsquoorkillsomeonebeforehecanbecomeamadeguyTheyhavedonesobecause no agent
24 c h a p t e r 1
would commit murder while posing as a bad guyrdquo73Murderisreallyapershyfectlydiscriminatingsignalofbeingabadguyasignalthatnoundershycover agentnot evenonebelonging to a rather lax lawshyenforcementagencycouldafford
Thisentryrequirementmdashwhichshowshowcriminalactscanbepershypetratednotmerelyfortheirimmediateinstrumentalvaluebutalsofortheir signaling valuemdashhad never been explicitly removed but it wasno longerusedwithgreat determination In truthDominickldquoSonnyBlackrdquoNapolitanowhoeventuallybecameDonniersquosmainmentorandplannedtoproposeDonnieformembershiphadaskedDonnietomurshydersomeoneldquoHegavemeacontractsothatIwouldhavethatcredenshytialwhenheputmynameuprdquoButtheopportunitytocarryitoutdidnotariseforAnthonyBrunoIndelicatotheintendedvictimwentsucshycessfullyintohidingDonnieshowedthathewasdoingallhecouldtotrackIndelicatodownanditwasnotthoughttobehisfaultwhenhefailedThusalthoughhedidnotcarryoutthekillinghestillmanagedtoshowhiswillingnesstodoitandafewmonthslaterSonnyputhisnameforwardformembershipAtthatpointtheFBIdecidedtostoptheoperationandDonnieresumedonceagainhisrealidentity
Undercoveragentsmdashwhohavetopersuadethegrouptheyaimtoinfilshytrateof theircriminalcredentialsmdasharea serious threat forunlikesolomimicstheycandrawontheresourcesofstateagenciesandcanaffordcomplexmimicryactswhichinvolveposingforgingcredentialstrainshyingandfundsStill itcanbenear impossibleto infiltrategroupsproshytected by an array of features that cannot be successfully imitatedmdashwhichinotherwordsperfectlydistinguishtherealfromthephonyFor
EvenaMuslimCIAofficerwithnativeshylanguageabilities(andtheAgencyaccordingtoseveralactiveshydutycaseofficershasveryfewoperativesfromMiddleEasternbackgrounds)coulddolittlemorein thisenvironment [PeshawarPakistan] thanablondblueshyeyedallshyAmericanCaseofficerscannotlongescapetheembassiesandconsulates in which they serveA US official overseasphotoshygraphedandregisteredwiththelocalintelligenceandsecuritysershyvicescanrsquottravelmuchparticularlyinapoliceshyrichcountrylikePakistanwithouttheldquohostrdquoservicesknowingaboutitAnofficerwho tries togonativepretending tobe a trueshybelieving radicalMuslim searching for brothers in the causewillmake a fool ofhimselfquickly
UndercoveroperationsareaproblematicformofanticrimeactivityforanotherreasonaswellThelogicofcostshydiscriminatingsignalsinclinesundercoveragentstogobeyondinnocentpretensionsandsupportinishytiativesof thesamekinda truecriminalor terroristwouldundertakeSincelawshyenforcementagenciesareunderpressuretokeeptheiragentssafetheypushfordiscretiontobegrantedtothemAndsometimestheundercoveragentsthemselvesunbeknownsttotheiremployerschoosetobreakthelawbecausetheyworryabouttheircredibilityintheeyesof the host group and the consequences if they are discoveredThememoirsofundercoveragentsandspiesarerepletewiththisdilemma
According to incomplete calculations there were about 6500agents provocateurs and other political investigations specialistsoperatinginvariouspoliticalpartiesandorganizationsintheRusshy
26 c h a p t e r 1
sianEmpireatthestartofthetwentiethcenturythepoliceandgendarmesoftensetprioritiesthemselvesattimesevenattheriskofthelivesofhighshyrankinggovernmentofficialsandmembersoftheimperialfamilyMattersconcerningthesecurityofthesecretagentswereoftoppriorityandmaintainingthestrongpositionsofagentswithintheterroristorganizationsof theSocialistshyRevolushytionarieswasconsideredmore important thanpreventingassassishynationsevenagainstofficialsofthegovernment75
AfamouscasewasthatofEvnoAzefanagentwhooperatedinrevolushytionary circles for aboutfifteen years From 1893on hewas a policeagentAsastudentinaGermanpolytechnicschoolhetooktheinitiashytiveofofferinghisservicestothepolicedepartmentat therateof50rublespermonth afterwhichhe attachedhimself to a foreigngroupcallingitselftheUnionofRussianSocialistshyRevolutionariesHeknewaboutthemajorityofterroristactsbeingplannedbytheSRsbuthedidnotalwaysreporttohisbossesaboutthemNeverthelessthepolicepaidhimwellforhisservices76
EpisodesofthiskindarenotrestrictedtopredemocraticsocietiesAnilluminatingcaseoccurredinCanadaAtitspeakin1993theHeritageFront was the largest and bestshyorganized neoshyNazi group in Canadaboastingacontactlistof1800namesGrantBristowcofounderandaleadingmemberofthiswhiteracistgroupturnedouttobeapaidinshyformantoftheCanadianSecurityIntelligenceServiceldquoBristoworchesshytrated aharassment campaign that terrorizedFront enemies harboredleadinginternationalracistsinhisownhomeinclearviolationofbothCSISrulesandtheImmigrationActandassistedintheFrontrsquosinfiltrashytionoftheReformPartyrdquo77ldquoCSISmoleGrantBristowwasanlsquoagentprovocateurrsquowhowithhisspymastersbrokeCanadianlawsandinternalCSISregulationsagroupofMPshaveconcludedBristowrsquosleadershyshiproleinthewhiteracistHeritageFrontthereportsuggestsmay have led to the very events that caused CSIS to keep him in place for several more yearsrdquo78 An inquiry by the Security Intelligence Review CommitteeintotheaffairplayeddowntheaccusationsbutitisclearfromthereportthattherewereseriousbreachesForinstanceontheissueofharassment
27 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
of antiracistmilitants and Jewish communitymembers thedocumentconcludesthatldquoanyinformantwhoenterstheHeritageFrontorasimishylargrouphastomaintainhiscredibilitywithhisassociatesotherwisehewouldnot remain a trustedmember for longThe questionwewerefacedwithwaswhethertheCSISsource[GrantBristow]hadremainedwithintheboundsofappropriatebehaviourwhiletryingtomaintainhiscredibilityTheanswerwearrivedatwasthatin certain circumstances he had not[emphasisintheoriginal]rdquo79
Eveniftheyareonlysupposedtocollectinformationoncriminalorsubversiveactivitiesspiesmayendupproducingmoreofsuchactivitieson theirown initiativeThey tend tobecomeagentsprovocateursnotnecessarilyfortheconspiratorialreasonswhyJosephConradrsquosprotagoshynistinThe Secret Agentdoes(VerlocwasinthepayofanunnamedforshyeignembassythatwantedtopersuadetheBritishtotakeatougherlineagainsttheanarchistsandusedhisdimshywittednephewtostageanldquoanarshychistrdquobombingattack)buttypicallyonlyoutoffearofnotbeingcredshyibleenoughandofriskingtheirlivesThecoststhatmaketheirsignalscredibleintheeyesoftheirtargetsareafterallldquoonlyrdquothoseofbreakinglegalconstraintsTheymayneverbecaughtgiventheintrinsicopacityofwhattheydoandifcaughttheyarenotsolikelytobepunishedcershytainlynotbydeathAndontheothersideoftheequationtheyhavetoconsider the personal costs of failing to persuadeWhen onersquos life isthreatened thecostsofbreakingthe lawmaysuddenlyappear smallerthanthoseofobeyingitThesetofthosewhoarereadytorisktheirlifesacrificetheirfamilyanddeceivedangerouscriminalsforlongperiodsoftimewhileatthesametimeremainingstrictlyalawshyabidingcitizenmustbeextremelysmall
ThisraisesaninterestingquandaryforthecriminalsorterroristswhoaretryingtotestthebonafidesofothersForbyincreasingtheseverityofthepunishmentmetedoutagainstundercoveragentswhoarediscovshyered they encourage the latter to afford costly signals that once disshyplayedmaymakeitimpossibleforthebadguystosaywhethertheposhytentialrecruitsareundercoveragentsinthefirstplace
undercover agentmayfind it preferable to refrain from swallowing itevenatthecostofrevealinghistruetypeforhedoesnotwanttobreakthelawBycontrasttherealcriminalwhowantstodealwiththedrugdealersmayprefertopaythecostofthephysicalillnesscausedbyswalshylowing forhe isentirelyateasewithbreaking the lawThekeyextracost that discriminates between the real criminal and the undercoveragentisthecostofbreakingthelawwhichthemimicfaceswhilethegenuinearticledoesnotAharsherpunishmenthowevercanreversetheequationandmakeitcheaperfortheundercoveragenttoswallowratherthannot swallowevenat thecostofbreaking the lawandthusmakehimbehaviorallyindistinguishablefromtherealcriminalWhenadminshyisteredunder the threatof theharsherpunishment the testno longerseparatesonetypefromtheotherByfailingtoappreciatethisquandaryandthreateningdeathagainstthosewhorefusetoswallowthedrugthedealers fail to realize that theyaredeactivating thevery sourceof thereliabilityoftheirtestforunderthatthreattheagentsarenowallowed(andwouldinanycasefeelinclined)toswallowthedrug
CONCLUSIONS
OncesomeoneintentoncrimeidentifiesapotentialpartnerasabonafidecriminalhehassolvedoneproblemonlytolandinanotherequallydifficultoneHenowhastoestablishwhetherhispartnerisnotjustacrookbutanhonorableoneAfterHughGrantexposedhimselfDivineknewthathewasnotanundercovercopforshebelievedthatcopsdonotdothatYetshestilldidnotknowwhatkindofacustomerhewasProstitutesareconstantlyonguardagainstrobbersorpervertswhoposeasordinarycustomers80AnyonewhoworksoutsidethelawismoreexshyposedthanordinarybusinessmentobecomingthepreyofothercrimishynalswhomimicbeingacriminalofthehonestsortAstreetshydrugdealerwhosuccessfullyadvertises tocustomersmayalsoattract robberswhopretend to be customers in order to get close to the dealers and robthem81Acriminalhastobeonguardagainstbothkindsofmimicslawshyenforcementagentsandcriminalsofthewrongsort
29 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
Ifhonestywerethoughttobeatraitofcertaincriminalsandnotothshyersinordertoestablishwhetherapotentialpartnerishonestonecouldfollowthesamestrategyoneusesforidentifyingwhethersomeoneisacriminal tobeginwithThe samekindof costly signalswouldbe reshyquiredforcriminalstopersuadeoneanotherthattheywerethehonesttypeIncertaincasesthegametheyplayisindeedoneofsignalingtheirtypeHowever inmost circumstancescriminals tend to thinkofeachotherasbeingof justonetypenamelythedishonestoneandbelievethatgivenhalfachancetheywilltakeadvantageofeachotherTheonlyway inwhich they can comealmost toldquotrustrdquo eachother enough tocooperateisthereforenotbysignalingtheirtypebuteitherbyenforcshyingtheirpartnersrsquohonestywiththethreatofsomekindofretaliationormoregenerallybyputtingthemselvesandtheirpartnersinaconditionwherebyldquohonestyrdquo rather thancheating is theirbest courseof actionwhatevertheirtypeIshallexploresomeofthestrategiestheyadoptinchapters2and3
5 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
whosetelephonecommunicationswereinterceptedbytheItaliancusshytomspolice in thecourseof investigating them forothercrimesThepolicewereamazedtohearthemobstersspeakofunspecifiedldquonuclearstuffrdquoandwereinitiallyunsurewhatthatmeantInthespringof1998themobstersfinallythoughttheyhadfoundabuyeranemissaryofanArabcountryThebuyerwhointroducedhimselfasldquotheAccountantrdquowasinrealityanundercoveragentforwhomthepolicehadcreatedawholenew identityTheygavehim falsepenal andprison records forfencingandfabricatedanonexistentrelationshipbetweenhimandanArabcountryandtheIslamicJihadwhichtheagentmentionedastheultimatebuyerldquoOursellersrdquosaysCaptainFerroniwholedtheoperashytionldquodidnotlosetheircomposureOnthecontrarythecredibilityoftheArabworldwhichisalwayshuntingfornuclearmaterialconvincedthemthat[ourman]wasnotatraprdquoTheagentbroughtwithhimanasshysociateanengineerwhowasallowedtotestoneofthebarsandfoundthatitdidindeedcontainuraniumThepolicethentransferredavirtualsumof20billion lireonaSwissBankaccountbargainingdown therequestedprice thatwas twiceasmuchThebrilliantoperationhowshyeverwasonlyapartialsuccessAsinthebestcrimestoriesthemafiosicheatedtwiceoverOntheagreeddayforcompletingthetransactiontheyshowedupwithonlyonebaradifferentonefromtheonethathadbeentestedandfailedtodelivertheothersevenAtthatpointhoweverthecoverwasblownandthepolicehadtoarrestthemThebarsrsquocurshyrent location remainsunknownCaptainFerroni saysldquoThemanwhocouldhavetakenustothosebarsDomenicoStilitanorefusestospeakItisnotinhisinterestOnthe11thofOctober[2001]hewassentencedto4yearsand6monthsasthenewantiterrorismlawsarenotyetapplishycableandthetrafficofstrategicmaterialisstillconsideredasitwereaminorcrimerdquo5
TheidentificationproblemisfurtherintensifiedbythefactthatconshytrarytoawidespreadbeliefcriminalgroupsareunstableIntheundershyworld people have a higher rate of mobility (and mortality) than inmostprofessionsldquomostadultcoshyoffendingdoesnotarisefromparticishypationingroupsthetypicalcoshyoffendingrelationshipappearstobetransitory and there is a continual search forcoshyoffendersrdquo6Andldquothe
6 c h a p t e r 1
life of most of the mobsrdquo said a professional thiefldquois comparativelyshortrdquo7Thisispartlybecausecriminalsarechasedbylawenforcersandhavetokeepmovingandhidingandbecausetheyaremoreinclinedtouseviolenceagainsteachother thanregularbusinessmenare ItcouldalsobeforldquoendogenousreasonsThemorelucrativethebusinessthemorepotentialentry itwillattract resulting in(literally)cutthroatcompetishytionandshortexpectedlifeforanincumbentrdquo8
ThedifficultiesofidentifyingpartnerskeepmuchpotentialcrimeatbayMakingidentificationhardisarguablythemostpowerfuldeterrentagainstcrimethattheforceofthelawbringsaboutbydiscouragingthecountlessdormantcriminalswhorefrainfromactingunlawfullyforfearof being caughtwhen searching or advertisingA blessing for societyidentification constraints are a serious hindrance for criminals whodearly wish they could use theYellowPagesHowdo they solve theproblem
MISTAKEN IDENTIF ICATION
WhentryingtoidentifypartnerscriminalscanmaketwotypesofmisshytakesFirsttheycanmissopportunitiesfailingtoseethroughthedisshyguisesthatgenuinepotentialpartnersadoptinordertopassthemselvesoff as lawshyabiding citizens and avoid being caught (the falseshynegativemistake)InthiscasebothpartieshavethesameinterestsbutmisstheopportunityforafruitfulpartnershipNoticethatthefailureofonetoidentifyreflectsthefailureoftheothertoadvertiseMimickingalawshyabidingcitizenwhichsometimessimplymeanskeepingalowprofileissomethingmost criminals have to doThis however can succeed toowellandonecanfailtoadvertisewhenitwouldbeinonersquosinteresttodoso
Second searchersmay approach a lawshyabidingcitizenorworse anundercoveragentmistaking themforpotentialpartners incrime (thefalseshypositive mistake) Lawshyabiding citizens are not a cause of greatconcernforcriminalsTrueifapproachedtheymayinformtheauthorishytiesButordinarypeopledonothaveaninterestinpassingthemselves
7 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
offascriminalsIfanythingtheyarecareful toavoid lookinglikeoneOnlyuttercarelessnessinapproachingothersorsomeinanemisundershystandingscanleadtoconfusinglawshyabidingcitizensforcriminalsmdashsuchas thatof the fortyshysevenshyyearshyoldCanadianwomanwho in 1991diduse theYellowPagesandcontactedafirminPhoenixArizonacalledldquoGuns forHirerdquo seeking to put a contract on her husbandrsquos life ShefailedtonoticethatthefirmspecializedinputtingonldquoWildWesttheatshyricalshowsforconventionsprivatepartiesandthelikerdquoAfterhanding$2000toanundercoverdetectiveposingasahitmanthewomanwasarrestedandlatersentencedtofourandahalfyearsinjailBeforecallingGunsforHirethedetectivelaterexplainedshehadconsideredcallingmotorcycleclubsandanItalianshyAmericanassociation9Ifcontractkillshyersandpeopleseekingthemreallycouldadvertiseopenlyonewondershowmanymoremurderstherewouldbe
Therealworryconcernsundercoveragentsorinformerswhohaveanactiveinterest inpretendingtobeagenuinepartneranddeceivingthesearchingcriminalInthiscasewhichIconsiderherethecriminalrsquosfailure to identify correctly a lawshyandshyorder agent reflects the latterrsquosmimickingsuccessInparticularIconsiderthecaseoftwoindividualswhoareinasymmetricalpositionsAalreadyknowsthatBisacriminal(andBknowsthatAknowsthat)BhoweverdoesnotknowwhetherAisacriminalRegardlessofwhetherAistrulyacriminaloranundershycoveragentposingasoneAwantstopersuadeBthatheisarealcrimishynalBatthesametimeislookingforevidenceofthetypethatAisThequestioniswhatkindofevidencecansatisfyB
Theprobabilityofmaking identificationmistakes isldquofrequencydeshypendentrdquothehighertheproportionofcriminalsinthesearchenvironshymentthelowertheriskofapproachingthewrongpeopleWherecorshyruption isknowntobewidespread for instancecorruptingothersorsignalingonersquoswillingnesstoacceptbribesisnotmuchofaproblemIftheprobabilityofencounteringacorruptagentiscorrectlybelievedtobehighcriminalswill rationally trymoreandbolderapproachesandwill easily uncover corrupt partners In Russia which may have apshyproached this stateof affairs in recent times the values of corruptionldquofeesrdquo fordifferentpositionsofauthoritywereopenlyreported inthe
Soourquestioniswhatdocriminalslookforwhatkindofsignsdotheyattendtoinordertoidentifytheirkindredspiritsorcatchtheunshydercover agentsThe littlewecanfind in the literatureexplicitlydisshycussingtheidentificationproblemsuggeststhatcriminalsclaimtoposshysessaspecialabilitythatenablesthemtoidentifyothercrooksbyldquogutfeelingsrdquo ldquoalookintheeyesrdquo ldquovibrationsrdquo11NowherecouldIfindanytheorythatunpacksthosefeelingsthatpredictswhatcriminalscanbeexpected to look for But carefully scrutinized the evidence we cangather from the many ethnographic accounts of criminalsrsquo activitiesstronglysuggeststhattheydonotgoaboutiterraticallyCriminalssysshytematicallylookforsignsthatidentifyanotheragentasagenuinecrimishynaltypeandatthesametimetheytryjustassystematically(andcareshyfully)toadvertisebysendingsignalsthatonlyanothergenuinecriminaltypewillpickup
ldquoOnthestreetrdquomdashwroteFBIspecialagentJosephPistonewhoinfilshytratedtheColomboandlatertheBonannomafiafamiliesofNewYorkunderthenameofDonnieBrascomdashldquoeverybodyissuspiciousofeveryshybodyelseuntil youproveyourselfrdquo12 If someone saysldquoI amready todealwithyoupalrdquoorsportssomeitemofclothingthatconventionallyindicatesheisacriminalsuchasapairofdarkglassesthesesignalsarehardlysufficienttoprovethatheisacriminalAsaprofessionalthiefputitldquolanguageisnotinitselfasufficientmeansofdeterminingwhetherapersonistrustworthyforsomepeopleintheunderworldarestoolpishygeons and someoutsiders learn some of the languagerdquo13Provingoneselfrequirestougherteststhancheaptalk
ingconditionagivensignalscanconvincearationalreceiverofasigshynalerrsquoscriminalityifgiventheexpectedbenefitsarationalmimicwhocouldgainbyposingasacriminalfinds s toocostlytoproduceortodisplayInotherwordsa convincing signal of a criminal type is that which only a true criminal can afford to produce and to sendThatdoesnotmeanthatsuchsignalingwillnecessarilybeverycostlyforarealcriminalInthecourseofhiscareerhemayhaveacquiredmuchrawmaterialthatcanbedisplayedatlittleextracostItsufficesthatthesignalbetoocostlyforthemimictoafford
SelectiveEnvironments
Agood indeedthebest signofacriminal typeconsistsofcourseofobserving someone committing a crimeThis is not likely to occurthoughforpeopledonotnormallywishtobeseenengaginginvillainshyousactsThis isaconstraint thatordinarybusinessmendonot faceasthey can showwhat they do to third partieswithout fear of the lawBy contrast criminals have to resort as much as possible to indirectmethods
Acommonstrategythatallowscriminalsinsearchofoneanothertoexchangesignalsconsistsoffrequentingplaceswherenoncriminalsarenot likely tobe foundwhich is likepatronizingaldquosinglesbarrdquowhensearchingforamateldquoTosearchforaccomplicesandtodisposeofillegalgoodsadultoffenderspatronisethesameplacesmakethesamekindsof transactionsandoftenreside in the sameareardquo14Theyhangout inbars gambling dens boxing gyms and social clubs full of other menduringnormalworkinghoursorlateatnightattimesthatiswhenacommonpersonisotherwiseoccupiedOrtheyliveinroughneighborshyhoodsforthesamereasonwellshytoshydocitizensmoveoutofthemmdashbothdreadmakingencountersofthewrongsortInhisresearchoncrimeinNewYorkCitySullivan(1989)foundthatmuchrecruitmentoccursinneighborhoodswherepeopleknowaboutoneanotherandcheckeachotheroutinthenaturalcourseoftheirdailyinteractionsEnvironmentsselected for their criminality those which ldquoregular guysrdquo find morecostlyorlessattractivetopatronizethancriminalsdomakeidentificashy
ByitselfthoughthisstrategyworksonlyuptoapointItsavescrimshyinalsfromdealingbymistakewithlawshyabidingcitizensHoweverifthecostofhangingaroundinsuchenvironmentsisnotveryhighforanonshycriminaltheymaybecomeverydangerousplacesforcriminalspreciselytheplaceswhereundercoveragentswillconvergewhenattemptingtoinfiltrate criminal networks Singles bars increase the probability ofmeeting single people but they do not eliminate the probability ofmeetingpatronswhowhilemarriedgotheremerelypretendingtobesingle In the underworld where the stakes of mistaken identity arehigherifsomeonejustshowsupinabarfullofcriminalsheisnotlikelyto go far without further credentialsTo be reassured criminals needsigns thecostofwhicha lawshyenforcement agentor a spywouldfindharder topayRather thanbeing reliable signs in themselves selectiveenvironments merely offer better opportunities to gather further evishydencedirectlyandindirectly
Referrals
ldquoAnother method [to establish someonersquos criminal credentials] is byfindingoutwhatpeoplethestrangerknowsrdquo15IfCknowsthatAisacriminalCmayintroduceAtoBOrBcansimplyseeCwithAandinferthatAisonetooAgangstercalledJacksoninhisautobiographywroteldquoonthestreetIknowhundredsandhundredsofcharactersbutIdonotknowtheirnamesSayyouareacharacterandIrsquomacharacterandIseeyouwithacharacterthatIknowIhavenowayofcheckingyourcreditratingoranythingelsesoI judge you by whom you associate withIfIknowthatthispersonisagoodpersonandnotapolecatnotastoolpigeonnotthemanrsquosmanthenIhavetogiveyouthecreditforbeingall rightrdquo16 Incertaincriminalcirclesldquoyoursquodbe surprised Itrsquos averycloseshyknitthingamonghustlersYoumeetsomeoneyoursquovenevermetbeforeinaplaceyoursquoveneverseenbeforeyoufindoutsomeonetheyknowTheymayevenhaveheardofyourdquo17Interestinglythisimshypliesthatcriminalshavetobeextravigilantaboutwhomtheyareseen
Onewaytoacquiregoodevidenceofsomeonersquoscriminalitywhichinshytersects with the referral method exploits law enforcement itself Intermsof howeffectively they canmix andmatchkindred spirits thehangouts thatcriminals freelychoosecannotcompetewith theplacesthey are forced to go by the agents who fight against crime there isnothing like prison to mix like with like Prisons promote crime inmanyobviousways18teachingcriminalsnewskillsandbrutalmodesofbehaviorbuttheyalsodosolessobviouslybyshoulderingthecostsofadvertisingandidentifyingwhoisacriminaltobeginwith
JustbeingaprisonerisaclearandsimplesignthatoneiscriminallyinclinedThehardpart is paying the priceof going there in thefirstplaceButitispreciselythatcostthatmakesaprisontermsuchagoodsignofbeingarealcriminalParadoxicallythebetterthecriminaljusticesystemisthesaferitistoassumethatthecompanyputbehindbarswillbe invariably villainousThough there are surely innocent prisonersmanyareguiltythemoresothebetterthesystemOnecanalsobereashysonably sure that phonies peoplewho talkbig about their dangerouscriminaltendenciesbutdonothingwillnotendupinprisonTheinshyterpersonalconflictsthatarerifewithinprisonsasweshallseeinchapshyter4 furtherensure that thephoniesarequickly identifiedAndeventhough undercover policemen have certainly been sent to prison forshortperiodstogaincriminalcredentialsthelongerthetimeprisonersspendinjailthecloserwegettoprisonbeingaperfectdiscriminatingsignmdashnoonechoosestospendtwentyyearsbehindbarsforthesakeofposingasavillainDoingtimeinprisoncanthusbebothastigmaandabadgedependingonwhoislookingatitAnexshyconvictwhowishestoreturntothepathoftherighteouscanfinddoingsoveryhardbeshycausehistimespentinprisonidentifieshimasacriminalldquoOnceyoursquore
12 c h a p t e r 1
markedinprisonyoursquoredoneforrdquosaysadelinquentboyrecountinghisownstory19Butonewhointendstopersistinhisoldwayswillfindhispath smoothed and can display his prison credentials to further hiscriminalcareer
OnemaynotgoasfarasarrangingajailsentenceforoneselfforthepurposeoffosteringnewassociationswithkindredspiritsButonceinprison there is an abundance of opportunity to make villainous acshyquaintanceswhowillbeusefulafteroneleaves
Say that there are fifty quite well established thieves in MalmoumlonlythirtyofthosehaveafenceThosewhodonrsquotaretheyoungeronesaroundeighteenortwentywhohavenrsquotbeenaroundenoughsotheyrsquollhavetoasktheirfriendsorselltothievesForsomeonewhohasbeeninsideasmuchasmeitrsquosnoproblem20
IncarcerationasamarkofreliabilityworksataremoveIftwoformerprisonersdidnotactuallymeetinjailtheycanstilldisplayevidenceofhavingbeenldquointhecanrdquotoadvertisetheircredentialsSoevenifgoingtoprisonwasnotintendedasaperverseformofreacutesumeacutebuildingtherevelationof theexperiencecanbe andoften is an intentional signalTheldquoreferralrdquomethodIdiscussedaboveexploitsprisoncontactstoomdashforifoneisembeddedinanetworkoneisinabetterpositionbothtoreferothersandtobereferredbythemThereisevenevidencethatunshywittinglyunionsandorganizationsthataresupposedtohelpexshyinmatesto reentermainstream society alsohelpunreformedcriminals in theirbusiness21Notleastthesecharitableorganizationsassistthembycertishyfying their status as genuine exshyprisoners thus innocently facilitatingencounterswithactivevillains
whetherandhowfartheenhancingofonersquoscriminalidentityoffsetstheattemptsatrehabilitationthereismuchanecdotalevidencefromcrimishynalsrsquo biographies of the enhancing effectrsquos existence It starts early inyoungshyoffendersrsquoinstitutionsInhisautobiographyJimmyBoyleaScotshytishgangsterreminiscesthatwhenhewassixteen
theApprovedSchoolsurelyplayedavitalpartinmycriminaldeshyvelopmentItgavemeconnectionsthatIwastofindusefulinmyadultdaysItgavemeanintroductiontoguysfromtownsandcitshyiesthroughoutScotlandandfrommanyareasinGlasgowmanyofwhom grew up to be the top thieves or fighters in their areasThere isnodoubtatall thatmostof themgained inacriminalsensefromtheirApprovedSchoolexperience23
HewasdoinghisbesthewritestoavoidbeingcaughtldquobuteverytimeIwentintoprisonIbroadenedmycriminalhorizonsbymakingmoreandmoreconnections indifferent areasrdquo24MalcolmBralywho spentnearly seventeenyears invariousUSprisons forburglarywroteldquoHewasbrokeasIwasandhesuggestedwetrysomethingtogetherItwasreasonableWho is more likely to be trustworthy than someone youhavejustmetinjailrdquo25
CriminalandrebelorganizationsregardaprisonrecordasasignofdistinctionTheRussiancriminalfraternityknownasvorymadehavingbeeninaprisoncampaformalrequirementofmembership26AccordshyingtoMarekKaminskiatleastonememberoftheundergroundSolshyidarity movement in Poland provoked the communist secret servicestoputher inprisonsoshecould improveherreputationldquoUnderthewellshyprogressingperestroika in1987 thePolishcommunistsessentiallystoppedincarceratingtheopposition(sothelsquoincarcerationrsquowasabrief48hours)theystartedtalkswithselectedoppositiongroupsandmanyunderground politicians thought that there would be some role forthem to playwithin the communist regime soonThus the expectedcostofincarcerationwaslowandtheexpectedbenefitswerehighrdquo27
The lengthof time spent in prison further provides anldquoobjectiverdquomeasureoftherespectoneisowedrelativetoothergangmembersThus
14 c h a p t e r 1
Christopher Seymour writes of taking a drive with Japanese yakuza (mobsters)ldquoIntheloosehierarchyoftheHarashygumiKenis themostsenior in the automobile He has already served time in adult prisonwhereastheothershaveonlybeenthroughjuveniledetentionrdquo28LikeshywiseMarekKaminskimdashwhowhenhewasa sociologysophomore inthe1980swasarrestedbythePolishcommunistsecretpolicetogetherwithelevenothermembersofanundergroundSolidarnosc publishinghouseandjailedforfivemonthsmdashreportsldquoSomeofthePolishgrypsmen [inmateswhoaremembersofaprisonfraternityseechapter4]claimthatinthecaseofaprisonerwithasentenceof20+yearshedoesnothavetojointhegrypsmenformallyandsufferthecostsoftheinitiationritualsHeiseligibleforenjoyingallthebenefitsofthecastemembershyshipbyvirtueofthesentencersquoslengthrdquo29FortheRussianmafiaaswellldquothelengthoftimespentinprisonwasasourceofprestigeandasignofdistinction among the criminals who aspired to become voryrdquo30 In atelephoneconversation secretly recordedby Italianpolice thewifeofIvanYakovlev (thenames have been changed) aRussianmobster arshyrestedinItalyin199731usesthelengthofherhusbandrsquosprisonsentencetoinduceoneofhisassociatestoshowduerespectAssignedtothetaskbyherhusband shewarns theRussianwifeof theaccompliceMarioFerrarildquoIvanisbiggerthan[yourhusband]hehasbeeninprisonfor15yearsrdquoFerrarididnotenjoythesameprisoncredentialsthoughhehadclashedwiththelawinthepastfordrugdealingHewasnowmisbeshyhavingbeingoftendrunkanddisheveledandaccordingtoIvanswifedidnotshowenoughrespecttoIvanInasubsequentconversationbeshytweenthetwowomenFerrarirsquoswifeapologizedforherhusbandrsquosbeshyhavior She clearly took the point and repeated word for word whatIvanrsquoswifepreviouslytoldherldquo[Myhusband]understoodthatitisnotIvanwhomustlookforhimbutthathecleanandwelldressedmustgotoIvaninthecarandaskhimwhatneedstobedonebecauseIvanisbiggerthanheishehasbeeninprisonfor15yearsrdquo32
monlyacceptedviewthatldquopunishingacriminalmoreseverelyreducesthatindividualrsquossubsequentprobabilityofrecidivismrdquo33Sinceprisonersareassignedtominimumshylowshyorhighshysecurityprisonsonthebasisoftheirscoreonascalefrom1to10pointsldquointendedtoreflect[their]needforsupervisionrdquo34ChenandShapirowereabletocomparetherearrestratesofexshyinmateswhohadbeenoneithersideofthecutoffboundarshyiesthathadledthemtobeincarceratedinprisonswithdifferentsecushyrity levelsldquoinessenceweargue thatwithin a small interval aroundacutofftheallocationofprisonerstodifferentsecuritylevelsamountstoarandomassignmentrdquo35Althoughtheresultsarebasedonasmallnumberofcases948theystillenabletheauthorstorejectstronglythehypothshyesisthatlowerlevelsofprisonsecurityleadtomorerecidivismafterreshyleaseinsteadtheyindicateinmanywaysthattheoppositeeffectobtainsThe authorsrsquo interpretationof this effect refers to lower laborshymarketopportunities for highershysecurity exshyinmates and to peer effectsmdashldquoinmatesmayacquireskillslearnofnewprospectsordevelopcriminalcontactsrdquo36moreofteninhighershythaninlowershysecurityprisonsTheirresultsarealsoperfectlycompatiblewithanotherinterpretationhavingbeeninprisonswithastricterregimestrengthensthecertifyingeffectoncriminalcredentialsandgivesexshyinmatesfromtheseprisonsrelativeto those fromprisonswith lower security levelsgreatercredibilityonthecriminallabormarket
the two pairs have solved the identification problem in the past Butwhatabouttheelementarycaseinwhichreferralsarenotavailableornotpersuasiveorsafeenoughmdashcantwoagentsthenfindadirectsolushytiontotheproblem
It is hard to observe someone committing a crime in the naturalcourseofeventsbutvillainscancertainlyaskapotentialpartnerorreshycruittogivethemevidenceofhavingcommittedcrimesandcandosowithout resorting to an intermediaryThis can work if the crimes inquestionleaveatracethatcanbeknownorpossessedonlybytherealperpetrator One cannot just say that one has committed a crimemdashaphonymayhavereadaboutitinthepaperandsimplybeclaimingtobetheperpetratorOnehastoshowthebootyasitwereasinthefollowingcasePoliceinfourteencountriesincludingtheUnitedStatesarrestednearlytwohundredsuspectedmembersofanInternetchildpornograshyphyringtheWonderlandClubTojointheringonehadtoshowthatonepossessedtenthousandphotographsandbepreparedtosharethemwith other membersThe photographs were screened by a computerprogramwhichcheckedwhethertheyweredifferentfromoneanotherand fromthosealreadyavailable fromother sources37Thisaction sigshynaledthatprospectivemembershadcommittedacrimeandwereserishyouslycommittedtotheactivityofcommoninterestandcouldnotthusbeundercoveragents(Ireturntothiscaseinchapter3)
UltimatelycriminalscanalsoaskapotentialpartnerorrecruittoenshygageinadisplaycrimemdashanactthatanoncriminalwouldneverdomdashandtocommitthecrimeundertheireyesorinsuchawayastoleaveanunmistakablesignofauthorshipThenatureoftheillegalactrequesteddependsonthetypeofcrimeinwhichtheagentsareinvolvedandthelawsthatgovernitDivinetheLosAngelesprostitutewhoachievedherfifteenminutesoffameforadministeringoralsextoBritishactorHughGrant in 1995 revealedherparticularkindof testBefore agreeing totradesheaskedGranttoexposehimselfThereasonshesaidisthatanundercoverpolicemanwouldnotdothatforhewouldbebreakingthelawDivinebelievedonewondershowaccuratelythatexposingoneselfwasasignalonlyrealcustomerscouldafford
The same reasoning inspires a test appliedbydrugdealers inNew
17 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
YorkSincethemidshy1990sldquoaspolicehave intensifiedtheirassault thedealershavealsoadoptedmoreperilous tacticsFiveor six timeseachmonthundercoverinvestigatorsarenowforcedtousecocaineorheroinatgunpointtoprovetodealersthattheycanbetrustedAtleasttwiceamonth anofficer is shotorotherwisewoundedduring a stagedpurshychasesaypolicecommanderswhospokeonconditionofanonymityrdquo38
These kinds of tests are common in organizationswhere loyalty isparamount Before initiation mafia novicesmdashespecially those not alshyreadymembersoffamilieswithamafiatraditionmdashareaskedtocommitamurder(sometimeswouldshybemembersmovefirstandcommitseriouscrimesbeforeanyoneaskedthemtodoso)39Themafiausuallydoesnotkill anyonepurely for the sakeof a testmdashit optimizes byldquowhackingrdquosomeonewhowasmeanttobewhackedanywayand atthesametimetrying out the determination and bona fides of a noviceTheAryanBrotherhoodinprisonadoptedthesametesttogainmembershipcanshydidatesldquohadtokillwhomevertheBrotherhoodtargetedrdquo40AkindredoutfitknownastheAryanWarriorsalsorequiredwouldshybememberstopassatestldquousuallyabloodyassaultorinsomeinstancesadrugripshyofffrom a person outside of the brotherhoodrdquo41 But there are cases inwhichheinous crimes are committed purely as tests In a hairshyraisingaccountoflifeinyouthgangsinColombiathewriterEfraimMedinaReyes claims that it is not uncommon for new gangmembers to beasked to murder innocent friends or members of their own familywhich pushes the test to the extreme42 Revolutionary and resistancegroups deemed to be illegal by the incumbent government have alsousedthesametestBeingaskedtocommitamurderwasforinstanceacommonpractice in theAlgerianFLNSometimes the leaderswouldpick victims more or less at random to see if prospective memberswouldobeyevenmeaninglessorders43
ThismethodexploitsthelawwhichrestrictsthelawshyabidingundershycoveragentsrsquooptionsandturnsittothecriminalsrsquoadvantageIfhowshyeverlawshyenforcementagenciesgivetheirundercoveroperativesgreaterdiscretion to act against the law for the sakeofpersuading thegrouptheyaretryingtoinfiltrateoftheirbonafidesthepowerofthesesignalsisweakened for theagentcannowaffordat least someof themThe
18 c h a p t e r 1
degreesoffreedomvaryfromtimetotimeandfromagencytoagencyPoliceinNewYorkarenowldquoinstructedtoavoidtakingthedrugsunless their lives are in dangerrdquoIfdealersreadtheNew York Timeswherethisinshyformationwaspublishedtheyknowthatforcingbuyerstoingestdrugsby threatening their lives isnowauseless test for itno longerdistinshyguishesgenuinebuyersfromundercoveragents
BeforediscussingthisproblemfurtherIwillpresentthecaseofFBIspecial agent Joseph Pistone aka Donnie Brasco who infiltrated theNewYorkmafiaandcameclosetobeinginitiatedIknowofnobettercase for illustratingall the typesofcostshydiscriminating signalsusedbycriminalsmdashand by those who try to fool them Donnie Brasco pershysuadedthemobstersofhiscriminalcredentialsbyemployingabreathshytakingrangeofsubtlesignalsandnarratedhisexperienceinabookmdasharguablythemostvividethnographyoftheUSmafiafromldquowithinrdquo44
Entering the mob world is needless to say very hardldquoAssociates ofwiseguysdonrsquotdealwithpeopletheydonrsquotknoworwhosomebodyelsedoesnrsquotvouchforrdquo45PriortoPistonersquosinfiltrationtheFBIlackedexpeshyrienceDuringJEdgarHooverrsquosreignatthebureauundercoverworkwasrarelyusedldquobecauseitcouldbeadirtyjobthatcouldenduptaintshyingtheagentsrdquo46AndalthoughithadbeenusedsinceldquosofarasweknewtheFBIhadneverplantedoneofitsownagentsinthemafiardquo47Yettheoperation itwas about to attemptwasextraordinarily shrewdPistoneneededtobuildawholebarrageofsignalswhichtakentogethercouldpersuadethemobstersthathewasarealbadguyAndthatiswhatheandhishandlerssetouttodomindingthatthelawconstrainedhisfreeshydomldquoTheFBIwouldnrsquotletmeactuallygooutonhijackingsandburshyglariesbecausethecrewwentarmedrdquoPistonewrites48
19 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
PistoneneededanamehedecideditwaseasiertosticktoDonnieBrasco the name he had used in a previous undercover operation inFloridaHeneededaplausiblebiographythatcouldbecheckedorbetshyterhardtocheckheposedasanorphanandabachelorHesaidhehadbeenraisedinanorphanageinPittsburghthatburneddowntherewereno records leftThe story needed to be simpleldquoThe fewer [lies] youhave to tell the feweryouhave torememberrdquohenotes49HesaidhehadspenttimeontheWestCoastandinFloridawhereinfacthehadbeenbeforeasldquoDonaldBrascordquointhepreviousoperationandhadesshytablishedsomecontactsHeneededaldquoprofessionrdquoandsettledonjewelrytheftsomethingonecandoaloneandthatdoesnotrequiretheuseofweaponsmdashsomething moreover that allowed him to use confiscatedstolen jewels to sell so he would not have to break the law to stealthem50
Hecouldcountonadvantagesthatwouldhavebeenhardtofakehadtheynotbeenpartofhis realbiographyHis Italianancestryprovidedhim with theldquorightrdquo ethnic background He had grown up in theldquorightrdquoneighborhoodandasayoungsterhungoutinldquojointsrdquopatronshyizedbywiseguysldquoYouhad tobe streetshysmartevencockysometimesEverygoodundercoveragentIhaveknowngrewuponthestreetlikeIdidandwasagoodstreetagentbeforebecominganundercoveragentOnthestreetyoulearnwhatrsquoswhatandwhorsquoswhoYoulearnhowtoreadsituationsandhandleyourselfYou cannot fake the ability It showsrdquo51
It is also interesting to know what he chose not to say or do Heavoided acting in a way that could raise suspicionldquoNo street guy isgoingtothrowmoneyallovertheplaceunlesshersquostryingtoattractatshytentionrdquoPistonereveals ldquoThenthequestionisWhyishetryingtoatshytractattentionrdquo52BydoingsoheeitherbecomesatargetinthatpeoplethinktheycanrobhimorraisessuspicionsthathemaybeacopDonshyniewasparsimonioustooinrevealingdetailsofhislifewhetherrealorphonyforldquoyouneverknowwhatpartofwhatyoudowillbecomepartofyourhistorywhenpeoplewanttocheckonyourdquo53
Ifthey[themobsters]werenrsquotscheminganddreamingtheyweretellingwarstoriesreminiscencesabouttheirtimeinvariousjailsandprisonsEverybodydidtimeinthecanItwaspartofthepriceofdoingbusinessTheyknewallaboutdifferent jailscellblocksguards I had enough phony background set up to establish mycredentialsasaseriouscriminaltoshowthatIwastoughenoughtodo time if Ihad towithout turningratBut I never claimed to have done any prison timebecause IdidnrsquotknowthoseplacesandthatcouldhavejustrippedmeupIfyoudothreetofiveyearsyouget to know the guardsmdashwhat guardrsquos on what tierYou get toknowtheinmatesguyswhoaredoingfifteentotwentyguyswhoarestillthereTheyknewthelingoandtheslangEverybodyreshymembersthoserelationshipsandthattime54
IndirectlyPistonersquos choice showswhat a robust signalhavingbeen inprison is It isnot something that canbeeasily fakedguyswhohavetrulybeentherewouldquicklyspotanimpostor
Donniewentonforacoupleofmonths
playing this game of being noticedwithout being noticed slideintothebadguyworldandbecomeacceptedwithoutdrawingatshytentionYoupushalittlehereandtherebutverygentlyBriefinshytroductions short conversations appearances one place and anshyotherhintsaboutwhatyoursquoreuptocasualmannerismsdemeanorand lingo that youknowyourway aroundmdashall these become atrail of credibility you leave behind youAbove all you cannothurryYoucannotseemeagertomeetcertainpeoplemakecertaincontactslearnaboutcertainscoresThe quickest way to get tagged as a cop is to try to move too fastYouhavetoshowthatyouhavethetime to play by the rules of the street and that includes lettingpeoplecheckyououtandcometoyou55
Hewouldphonethebar leavingmessages forhimself just toestablishthathehadconnectionsandconveythebeliefpeopleknewhepatronshyizedthebar57ldquoWhenIwentotherplacesIcouldsayrdquoPistonewritesldquolsquoIbeenhangingoutat thatplace for fourorfivemonthsrsquoAnd theycould check it outThe guys had been hanging around in this placewouldsaylsquoYeahDonBrascohasbeencominginhereforquiteawhileandheseemsallrightnevertriedtopullanythingonusrsquordquo58
Wealsoread ldquoYoucanrsquotgoinallthetimebyyourselfbecausetheythinkyoursquoreeitherafagoracopAnditrsquosgoodtovarycompanysotheydonrsquot see you with the same people all the time and wonder whatrsquosuprdquo59SoDonniewouldbringanoccasionalfemaleorChuckanotherundercover agentThanks to Chuck he was introduced toAlbertldquoahalfshyasswiseguyrdquoaconnectedshytobutnotamadememberof theCoshylombofamily
Donnie eventually became the proteacutegeacute of a made guy BenjaminldquoLeftyGunsrdquoRuggieroandspentsixyearswiththemafiosilivingtheirdaily lives and sharing their crooked dealingsmdashconstantly exposed totheriskofbeingdiscoveredandkilledInthecourseoftheoperationhewasofferedtheopportunitynotonlytohandlethebookmakingforthemob boss of Milwaukee Frank Balistrieri but also to get inside theskimmingoperationinLasVegasBalistrierisaidhehadagoodcrewbuttheywereldquoolderkindof set in theirways Icoulduse someyoungerguysthatIcouldtrusttotakeoveracoupleofmyclubsandotherbusishynessesYoungerguyswouldbeabletorelatetothewaysoftodayrsquosbusishynessworldrdquo62Leftyvouched forDonnieldquoI told [Balistrieri]rdquoDonnie
22 c h a p t e r 1
saysldquoyouaremybloodrdquo63ButacceptingwouldhavemadeitimpossibleforDonnietoseehisrealfamilysoheturneddowntheofferWhilethatdecisionangeredLeftyitalsoconferredanadvantageasitfurthersigshynaledDonniersquoscredibilityldquoOnethingIhadinmyfavorseenthroughanymobguyrsquoseyeswas thatno cop would ever turn that job downSo Iwouldbeabovesuspicioninthatregardrdquo64
Donniecameupwithmanyother signalsbelieved tobeof akindthat a cop could not afford He pretended to beat up someone whoowedmoney toLeftyHe roughedup a comedianwhohad annoyedLeftyattheThunderbirdaMiamirestaurant65Furthermoreldquotypicallywhatanundercovercopwilldo inabuyshybust situation is try tobuysomethingfromyouCops always buy never sellI was going to sellrdquoPistonereveals66mdashthankstothefactthattheFBIallowedhimdiscretioninthatregard One very special commodity he bought though Lefty RugshygierorsquosprotectionTheFBIdishedoutatotalof$40000forthispurposewhileDonniewasundercoverldquoTheywerepayinghimforhisservicesasalsquowiseguyrsquotoinsuretheyhadtheprotectionoftheBonannofamilyin the event another family tried to interfere with their businessrdquo67
WhilepaymentwasostensiblyaimedatcompensatingLeftyitwasalsoliterallyacostlysignalandintentionallydesignedtoappeartobesoldquoBygivinghimmoneyContiandRossi[twoundercoveragentswhocolshylaboratedwithDonnie] ledLefty tobelieve that theywerewilling tobecomeinvolvedwithhimandhe trusted them as bad guysrdquo68
Mafiosiwerenot taken inbecause theyweredumbratherPistonewasunbelievablysmartandresilientanditjustwasveryhardformobshysterstothinkthattakentogetherallthethingshedidanddidnotdowerenotnearshyperfectdiscriminatingsignalsTheFBIwaslatercriticizedforoperatingverynearorevenbeyondthe limitsof the lawBut thisrelative freedomfooledthemafiosibecause theyassumedthatanunshydercoveragentwouldnotpaythecostofbreakingthelawDivinecouldnothavebankedonherneatlittletestifagentsofthelawhadbeenalshylowedtoexposethemselvesThemobsterswerecheatednotjustinthesense thatDonnieBrascoby faking forging andpretending successshyfullymimickedarealbadguybutalsointhesensethathedidsomereal badactions
23 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
In a short biography ofBonanno familymembersmdashposted on theInternetforawhilethenremovedmdashLeftywasdescribedasldquothebiggestidiotinthehistoryofLaCosaNostraHisblindgreedandlackofinshystinctwerefelthardintheAmericanmafiardquoAndyetLeftywascarefulevenyearsafterDonniehadbeenacceptedasaconnectedguyDonniewasassistedbyotherundercoveragentsoneofwhomwasldquoRossirdquoTotestwhetherRossiwasanundercoveragentLeftydeliberatelyldquolostrdquoaplaneticketthatRossihadbookedonhisowncreditcardforLefty(thiswasacovertwayofpayingprotectiontoLefty)ldquoBypretendingtolosetheticketLeftywantedtoseehowRossi reactedIfhewasanagentLeftyreasonedhewouldgetnervousbecausehewouldprobablyhavetoaccount for the ticket tohisofficeplushewouldbeworried thatsomebodylsquointheunderworldbusinessrsquomightmeanwhilefindtheticketandcheckouttheAmericanExpressnumbertoseeifitwasagovernshymentnumberrdquo69
WhenitwasfinallyrevealedthatDonniewasanundercoveragentthemobsterswereshockedanddidnotbelieveittillDonnieactuallytestishyfied in court against them His operation managed to send many ofthemmostlymembersoftheBonannofamilytojail71
ThemobsterslearnedtheirlessonandincreasedthepriceofthetestsNow not just one butldquotwo mafiosi have to vouch for the proposedmemberrdquoldquoTheyhavetosaytheyhaveknowntheproposedmemberifnotsincechildhoodthenatleastforfifteentotwentyyearsrdquo72Accordshying to theFBI theyalso resumeda traditionalpractice thathadbeenabandonedldquoaproposedmembermustlsquomakehisbonesrsquoorkillsomeonebeforehecanbecomeamadeguyTheyhavedonesobecause no agent
24 c h a p t e r 1
would commit murder while posing as a bad guyrdquo73Murderisreallyapershyfectlydiscriminatingsignalofbeingabadguyasignalthatnoundershycover agentnot evenonebelonging to a rather lax lawshyenforcementagencycouldafford
Thisentryrequirementmdashwhichshowshowcriminalactscanbepershypetratednotmerelyfortheirimmediateinstrumentalvaluebutalsofortheir signaling valuemdashhad never been explicitly removed but it wasno longerusedwithgreat determination In truthDominickldquoSonnyBlackrdquoNapolitanowhoeventuallybecameDonniersquosmainmentorandplannedtoproposeDonnieformembershiphadaskedDonnietomurshydersomeoneldquoHegavemeacontractsothatIwouldhavethatcredenshytialwhenheputmynameuprdquoButtheopportunitytocarryitoutdidnotariseforAnthonyBrunoIndelicatotheintendedvictimwentsucshycessfullyintohidingDonnieshowedthathewasdoingallhecouldtotrackIndelicatodownanditwasnotthoughttobehisfaultwhenhefailedThusalthoughhedidnotcarryoutthekillinghestillmanagedtoshowhiswillingnesstodoitandafewmonthslaterSonnyputhisnameforwardformembershipAtthatpointtheFBIdecidedtostoptheoperationandDonnieresumedonceagainhisrealidentity
Undercoveragentsmdashwhohavetopersuadethegrouptheyaimtoinfilshytrateof theircriminalcredentialsmdasharea serious threat forunlikesolomimicstheycandrawontheresourcesofstateagenciesandcanaffordcomplexmimicryactswhichinvolveposingforgingcredentialstrainshyingandfundsStill itcanbenear impossibleto infiltrategroupsproshytected by an array of features that cannot be successfully imitatedmdashwhichinotherwordsperfectlydistinguishtherealfromthephonyFor
EvenaMuslimCIAofficerwithnativeshylanguageabilities(andtheAgencyaccordingtoseveralactiveshydutycaseofficershasveryfewoperativesfromMiddleEasternbackgrounds)coulddolittlemorein thisenvironment [PeshawarPakistan] thanablondblueshyeyedallshyAmericanCaseofficerscannotlongescapetheembassiesandconsulates in which they serveA US official overseasphotoshygraphedandregisteredwiththelocalintelligenceandsecuritysershyvicescanrsquottravelmuchparticularlyinapoliceshyrichcountrylikePakistanwithouttheldquohostrdquoservicesknowingaboutitAnofficerwho tries togonativepretending tobe a trueshybelieving radicalMuslim searching for brothers in the causewillmake a fool ofhimselfquickly
UndercoveroperationsareaproblematicformofanticrimeactivityforanotherreasonaswellThelogicofcostshydiscriminatingsignalsinclinesundercoveragentstogobeyondinnocentpretensionsandsupportinishytiativesof thesamekinda truecriminalor terroristwouldundertakeSincelawshyenforcementagenciesareunderpressuretokeeptheiragentssafetheypushfordiscretiontobegrantedtothemAndsometimestheundercoveragentsthemselvesunbeknownsttotheiremployerschoosetobreakthelawbecausetheyworryabouttheircredibilityintheeyesof the host group and the consequences if they are discoveredThememoirsofundercoveragentsandspiesarerepletewiththisdilemma
According to incomplete calculations there were about 6500agents provocateurs and other political investigations specialistsoperatinginvariouspoliticalpartiesandorganizationsintheRusshy
26 c h a p t e r 1
sianEmpireatthestartofthetwentiethcenturythepoliceandgendarmesoftensetprioritiesthemselvesattimesevenattheriskofthelivesofhighshyrankinggovernmentofficialsandmembersoftheimperialfamilyMattersconcerningthesecurityofthesecretagentswereoftoppriorityandmaintainingthestrongpositionsofagentswithintheterroristorganizationsof theSocialistshyRevolushytionarieswasconsideredmore important thanpreventingassassishynationsevenagainstofficialsofthegovernment75
AfamouscasewasthatofEvnoAzefanagentwhooperatedinrevolushytionary circles for aboutfifteen years From 1893on hewas a policeagentAsastudentinaGermanpolytechnicschoolhetooktheinitiashytiveofofferinghisservicestothepolicedepartmentat therateof50rublespermonth afterwhichhe attachedhimself to a foreigngroupcallingitselftheUnionofRussianSocialistshyRevolutionariesHeknewaboutthemajorityofterroristactsbeingplannedbytheSRsbuthedidnotalwaysreporttohisbossesaboutthemNeverthelessthepolicepaidhimwellforhisservices76
EpisodesofthiskindarenotrestrictedtopredemocraticsocietiesAnilluminatingcaseoccurredinCanadaAtitspeakin1993theHeritageFront was the largest and bestshyorganized neoshyNazi group in Canadaboastingacontactlistof1800namesGrantBristowcofounderandaleadingmemberofthiswhiteracistgroupturnedouttobeapaidinshyformantoftheCanadianSecurityIntelligenceServiceldquoBristoworchesshytrated aharassment campaign that terrorizedFront enemies harboredleadinginternationalracistsinhisownhomeinclearviolationofbothCSISrulesandtheImmigrationActandassistedintheFrontrsquosinfiltrashytionoftheReformPartyrdquo77ldquoCSISmoleGrantBristowwasanlsquoagentprovocateurrsquowhowithhisspymastersbrokeCanadianlawsandinternalCSISregulationsagroupofMPshaveconcludedBristowrsquosleadershyshiproleinthewhiteracistHeritageFrontthereportsuggestsmay have led to the very events that caused CSIS to keep him in place for several more yearsrdquo78 An inquiry by the Security Intelligence Review CommitteeintotheaffairplayeddowntheaccusationsbutitisclearfromthereportthattherewereseriousbreachesForinstanceontheissueofharassment
27 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
of antiracistmilitants and Jewish communitymembers thedocumentconcludesthatldquoanyinformantwhoenterstheHeritageFrontorasimishylargrouphastomaintainhiscredibilitywithhisassociatesotherwisehewouldnot remain a trustedmember for longThe questionwewerefacedwithwaswhethertheCSISsource[GrantBristow]hadremainedwithintheboundsofappropriatebehaviourwhiletryingtomaintainhiscredibilityTheanswerwearrivedatwasthatin certain circumstances he had not[emphasisintheoriginal]rdquo79
Eveniftheyareonlysupposedtocollectinformationoncriminalorsubversiveactivitiesspiesmayendupproducingmoreofsuchactivitieson theirown initiativeThey tend tobecomeagentsprovocateursnotnecessarilyfortheconspiratorialreasonswhyJosephConradrsquosprotagoshynistinThe Secret Agentdoes(VerlocwasinthepayofanunnamedforshyeignembassythatwantedtopersuadetheBritishtotakeatougherlineagainsttheanarchistsandusedhisdimshywittednephewtostageanldquoanarshychistrdquobombingattack)buttypicallyonlyoutoffearofnotbeingcredshyibleenoughandofriskingtheirlivesThecoststhatmaketheirsignalscredibleintheeyesoftheirtargetsareafterallldquoonlyrdquothoseofbreakinglegalconstraintsTheymayneverbecaughtgiventheintrinsicopacityofwhattheydoandifcaughttheyarenotsolikelytobepunishedcershytainlynotbydeathAndontheothersideoftheequationtheyhavetoconsider the personal costs of failing to persuadeWhen onersquos life isthreatened thecostsofbreakingthe lawmaysuddenlyappear smallerthanthoseofobeyingitThesetofthosewhoarereadytorisktheirlifesacrificetheirfamilyanddeceivedangerouscriminalsforlongperiodsoftimewhileatthesametimeremainingstrictlyalawshyabidingcitizenmustbeextremelysmall
ThisraisesaninterestingquandaryforthecriminalsorterroristswhoaretryingtotestthebonafidesofothersForbyincreasingtheseverityofthepunishmentmetedoutagainstundercoveragentswhoarediscovshyered they encourage the latter to afford costly signals that once disshyplayedmaymakeitimpossibleforthebadguystosaywhethertheposhytentialrecruitsareundercoveragentsinthefirstplace
undercover agentmayfind it preferable to refrain from swallowing itevenatthecostofrevealinghistruetypeforhedoesnotwanttobreakthelawBycontrasttherealcriminalwhowantstodealwiththedrugdealersmayprefertopaythecostofthephysicalillnesscausedbyswalshylowing forhe isentirelyateasewithbreaking the lawThekeyextracost that discriminates between the real criminal and the undercoveragentisthecostofbreakingthelawwhichthemimicfaceswhilethegenuinearticledoesnotAharsherpunishmenthowevercanreversetheequationandmakeitcheaperfortheundercoveragenttoswallowratherthannot swallowevenat thecostofbreaking the lawandthusmakehimbehaviorallyindistinguishablefromtherealcriminalWhenadminshyisteredunder the threatof theharsherpunishment the testno longerseparatesonetypefromtheotherByfailingtoappreciatethisquandaryandthreateningdeathagainstthosewhorefusetoswallowthedrugthedealers fail to realize that theyaredeactivating thevery sourceof thereliabilityoftheirtestforunderthatthreattheagentsarenowallowed(andwouldinanycasefeelinclined)toswallowthedrug
CONCLUSIONS
OncesomeoneintentoncrimeidentifiesapotentialpartnerasabonafidecriminalhehassolvedoneproblemonlytolandinanotherequallydifficultoneHenowhastoestablishwhetherhispartnerisnotjustacrookbutanhonorableoneAfterHughGrantexposedhimselfDivineknewthathewasnotanundercovercopforshebelievedthatcopsdonotdothatYetshestilldidnotknowwhatkindofacustomerhewasProstitutesareconstantlyonguardagainstrobbersorpervertswhoposeasordinarycustomers80AnyonewhoworksoutsidethelawismoreexshyposedthanordinarybusinessmentobecomingthepreyofothercrimishynalswhomimicbeingacriminalofthehonestsortAstreetshydrugdealerwhosuccessfullyadvertises tocustomersmayalsoattract robberswhopretend to be customers in order to get close to the dealers and robthem81Acriminalhastobeonguardagainstbothkindsofmimicslawshyenforcementagentsandcriminalsofthewrongsort
29 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
Ifhonestywerethoughttobeatraitofcertaincriminalsandnotothshyersinordertoestablishwhetherapotentialpartnerishonestonecouldfollowthesamestrategyoneusesforidentifyingwhethersomeoneisacriminal tobeginwithThe samekindof costly signalswouldbe reshyquiredforcriminalstopersuadeoneanotherthattheywerethehonesttypeIncertaincasesthegametheyplayisindeedoneofsignalingtheirtypeHowever inmost circumstancescriminals tend to thinkofeachotherasbeingof justonetypenamelythedishonestoneandbelievethatgivenhalfachancetheywilltakeadvantageofeachotherTheonlyway inwhich they can comealmost toldquotrustrdquo eachother enough tocooperateisthereforenotbysignalingtheirtypebuteitherbyenforcshyingtheirpartnersrsquohonestywiththethreatofsomekindofretaliationormoregenerallybyputtingthemselvesandtheirpartnersinaconditionwherebyldquohonestyrdquo rather thancheating is theirbest courseof actionwhatevertheirtypeIshallexploresomeofthestrategiestheyadoptinchapters2and3
6 c h a p t e r 1
life of most of the mobsrdquo said a professional thiefldquois comparativelyshortrdquo7Thisispartlybecausecriminalsarechasedbylawenforcersandhavetokeepmovingandhidingandbecausetheyaremoreinclinedtouseviolenceagainsteachother thanregularbusinessmenare ItcouldalsobeforldquoendogenousreasonsThemorelucrativethebusinessthemorepotentialentry itwillattract resulting in(literally)cutthroatcompetishytionandshortexpectedlifeforanincumbentrdquo8
ThedifficultiesofidentifyingpartnerskeepmuchpotentialcrimeatbayMakingidentificationhardisarguablythemostpowerfuldeterrentagainstcrimethattheforceofthelawbringsaboutbydiscouragingthecountlessdormantcriminalswhorefrainfromactingunlawfullyforfearof being caughtwhen searching or advertisingA blessing for societyidentification constraints are a serious hindrance for criminals whodearly wish they could use theYellowPagesHowdo they solve theproblem
MISTAKEN IDENTIF ICATION
WhentryingtoidentifypartnerscriminalscanmaketwotypesofmisshytakesFirsttheycanmissopportunitiesfailingtoseethroughthedisshyguisesthatgenuinepotentialpartnersadoptinordertopassthemselvesoff as lawshyabiding citizens and avoid being caught (the falseshynegativemistake)InthiscasebothpartieshavethesameinterestsbutmisstheopportunityforafruitfulpartnershipNoticethatthefailureofonetoidentifyreflectsthefailureoftheothertoadvertiseMimickingalawshyabidingcitizenwhichsometimessimplymeanskeepingalowprofileissomethingmost criminals have to doThis however can succeed toowellandonecanfailtoadvertisewhenitwouldbeinonersquosinteresttodoso
Second searchersmay approach a lawshyabidingcitizenorworse anundercoveragentmistaking themforpotentialpartners incrime (thefalseshypositive mistake) Lawshyabiding citizens are not a cause of greatconcernforcriminalsTrueifapproachedtheymayinformtheauthorishytiesButordinarypeopledonothaveaninterestinpassingthemselves
7 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
offascriminalsIfanythingtheyarecareful toavoid lookinglikeoneOnlyuttercarelessnessinapproachingothersorsomeinanemisundershystandingscanleadtoconfusinglawshyabidingcitizensforcriminalsmdashsuchas thatof the fortyshysevenshyyearshyoldCanadianwomanwho in 1991diduse theYellowPagesandcontactedafirminPhoenixArizonacalledldquoGuns forHirerdquo seeking to put a contract on her husbandrsquos life ShefailedtonoticethatthefirmspecializedinputtingonldquoWildWesttheatshyricalshowsforconventionsprivatepartiesandthelikerdquoAfterhanding$2000toanundercoverdetectiveposingasahitmanthewomanwasarrestedandlatersentencedtofourandahalfyearsinjailBeforecallingGunsforHirethedetectivelaterexplainedshehadconsideredcallingmotorcycleclubsandanItalianshyAmericanassociation9Ifcontractkillshyersandpeopleseekingthemreallycouldadvertiseopenlyonewondershowmanymoremurderstherewouldbe
Therealworryconcernsundercoveragentsorinformerswhohaveanactiveinterest inpretendingtobeagenuinepartneranddeceivingthesearchingcriminalInthiscasewhichIconsiderherethecriminalrsquosfailure to identify correctly a lawshyandshyorder agent reflects the latterrsquosmimickingsuccessInparticularIconsiderthecaseoftwoindividualswhoareinasymmetricalpositionsAalreadyknowsthatBisacriminal(andBknowsthatAknowsthat)BhoweverdoesnotknowwhetherAisacriminalRegardlessofwhetherAistrulyacriminaloranundershycoveragentposingasoneAwantstopersuadeBthatheisarealcrimishynalBatthesametimeislookingforevidenceofthetypethatAisThequestioniswhatkindofevidencecansatisfyB
Theprobabilityofmaking identificationmistakes isldquofrequencydeshypendentrdquothehighertheproportionofcriminalsinthesearchenvironshymentthelowertheriskofapproachingthewrongpeopleWherecorshyruption isknowntobewidespread for instancecorruptingothersorsignalingonersquoswillingnesstoacceptbribesisnotmuchofaproblemIftheprobabilityofencounteringacorruptagentiscorrectlybelievedtobehighcriminalswill rationally trymoreandbolderapproachesandwill easily uncover corrupt partners In Russia which may have apshyproached this stateof affairs in recent times the values of corruptionldquofeesrdquo fordifferentpositionsofauthoritywereopenlyreported inthe
Soourquestioniswhatdocriminalslookforwhatkindofsignsdotheyattendtoinordertoidentifytheirkindredspiritsorcatchtheunshydercover agentsThe littlewecanfind in the literatureexplicitlydisshycussingtheidentificationproblemsuggeststhatcriminalsclaimtoposshysessaspecialabilitythatenablesthemtoidentifyothercrooksbyldquogutfeelingsrdquo ldquoalookintheeyesrdquo ldquovibrationsrdquo11NowherecouldIfindanytheorythatunpacksthosefeelingsthatpredictswhatcriminalscanbeexpected to look for But carefully scrutinized the evidence we cangather from the many ethnographic accounts of criminalsrsquo activitiesstronglysuggeststhattheydonotgoaboutiterraticallyCriminalssysshytematicallylookforsignsthatidentifyanotheragentasagenuinecrimishynaltypeandatthesametimetheytryjustassystematically(andcareshyfully)toadvertisebysendingsignalsthatonlyanothergenuinecriminaltypewillpickup
ldquoOnthestreetrdquomdashwroteFBIspecialagentJosephPistonewhoinfilshytratedtheColomboandlatertheBonannomafiafamiliesofNewYorkunderthenameofDonnieBrascomdashldquoeverybodyissuspiciousofeveryshybodyelseuntil youproveyourselfrdquo12 If someone saysldquoI amready todealwithyoupalrdquoorsportssomeitemofclothingthatconventionallyindicatesheisacriminalsuchasapairofdarkglassesthesesignalsarehardlysufficienttoprovethatheisacriminalAsaprofessionalthiefputitldquolanguageisnotinitselfasufficientmeansofdeterminingwhetherapersonistrustworthyforsomepeopleintheunderworldarestoolpishygeons and someoutsiders learn some of the languagerdquo13Provingoneselfrequirestougherteststhancheaptalk
ingconditionagivensignalscanconvincearationalreceiverofasigshynalerrsquoscriminalityifgiventheexpectedbenefitsarationalmimicwhocouldgainbyposingasacriminalfinds s toocostlytoproduceortodisplayInotherwordsa convincing signal of a criminal type is that which only a true criminal can afford to produce and to sendThatdoesnotmeanthatsuchsignalingwillnecessarilybeverycostlyforarealcriminalInthecourseofhiscareerhemayhaveacquiredmuchrawmaterialthatcanbedisplayedatlittleextracostItsufficesthatthesignalbetoocostlyforthemimictoafford
SelectiveEnvironments
Agood indeedthebest signofacriminal typeconsistsofcourseofobserving someone committing a crimeThis is not likely to occurthoughforpeopledonotnormallywishtobeseenengaginginvillainshyousactsThis isaconstraint thatordinarybusinessmendonot faceasthey can showwhat they do to third partieswithout fear of the lawBy contrast criminals have to resort as much as possible to indirectmethods
Acommonstrategythatallowscriminalsinsearchofoneanothertoexchangesignalsconsistsoffrequentingplaceswherenoncriminalsarenot likely tobe foundwhich is likepatronizingaldquosinglesbarrdquowhensearchingforamateldquoTosearchforaccomplicesandtodisposeofillegalgoodsadultoffenderspatronisethesameplacesmakethesamekindsof transactionsandoftenreside in the sameareardquo14Theyhangout inbars gambling dens boxing gyms and social clubs full of other menduringnormalworkinghoursorlateatnightattimesthatiswhenacommonpersonisotherwiseoccupiedOrtheyliveinroughneighborshyhoodsforthesamereasonwellshytoshydocitizensmoveoutofthemmdashbothdreadmakingencountersofthewrongsortInhisresearchoncrimeinNewYorkCitySullivan(1989)foundthatmuchrecruitmentoccursinneighborhoodswherepeopleknowaboutoneanotherandcheckeachotheroutinthenaturalcourseoftheirdailyinteractionsEnvironmentsselected for their criminality those which ldquoregular guysrdquo find morecostlyorlessattractivetopatronizethancriminalsdomakeidentificashy
ByitselfthoughthisstrategyworksonlyuptoapointItsavescrimshyinalsfromdealingbymistakewithlawshyabidingcitizensHoweverifthecostofhangingaroundinsuchenvironmentsisnotveryhighforanonshycriminaltheymaybecomeverydangerousplacesforcriminalspreciselytheplaceswhereundercoveragentswillconvergewhenattemptingtoinfiltrate criminal networks Singles bars increase the probability ofmeeting single people but they do not eliminate the probability ofmeetingpatronswhowhilemarriedgotheremerelypretendingtobesingle In the underworld where the stakes of mistaken identity arehigherifsomeonejustshowsupinabarfullofcriminalsheisnotlikelyto go far without further credentialsTo be reassured criminals needsigns thecostofwhicha lawshyenforcement agentor a spywouldfindharder topayRather thanbeing reliable signs in themselves selectiveenvironments merely offer better opportunities to gather further evishydencedirectlyandindirectly
Referrals
ldquoAnother method [to establish someonersquos criminal credentials] is byfindingoutwhatpeoplethestrangerknowsrdquo15IfCknowsthatAisacriminalCmayintroduceAtoBOrBcansimplyseeCwithAandinferthatAisonetooAgangstercalledJacksoninhisautobiographywroteldquoonthestreetIknowhundredsandhundredsofcharactersbutIdonotknowtheirnamesSayyouareacharacterandIrsquomacharacterandIseeyouwithacharacterthatIknowIhavenowayofcheckingyourcreditratingoranythingelsesoI judge you by whom you associate withIfIknowthatthispersonisagoodpersonandnotapolecatnotastoolpigeonnotthemanrsquosmanthenIhavetogiveyouthecreditforbeingall rightrdquo16 Incertaincriminalcirclesldquoyoursquodbe surprised Itrsquos averycloseshyknitthingamonghustlersYoumeetsomeoneyoursquovenevermetbeforeinaplaceyoursquoveneverseenbeforeyoufindoutsomeonetheyknowTheymayevenhaveheardofyourdquo17Interestinglythisimshypliesthatcriminalshavetobeextravigilantaboutwhomtheyareseen
Onewaytoacquiregoodevidenceofsomeonersquoscriminalitywhichinshytersects with the referral method exploits law enforcement itself Intermsof howeffectively they canmix andmatchkindred spirits thehangouts thatcriminals freelychoosecannotcompetewith theplacesthey are forced to go by the agents who fight against crime there isnothing like prison to mix like with like Prisons promote crime inmanyobviousways18teachingcriminalsnewskillsandbrutalmodesofbehaviorbuttheyalsodosolessobviouslybyshoulderingthecostsofadvertisingandidentifyingwhoisacriminaltobeginwith
JustbeingaprisonerisaclearandsimplesignthatoneiscriminallyinclinedThehardpart is paying the priceof going there in thefirstplaceButitispreciselythatcostthatmakesaprisontermsuchagoodsignofbeingarealcriminalParadoxicallythebetterthecriminaljusticesystemisthesaferitistoassumethatthecompanyputbehindbarswillbe invariably villainousThough there are surely innocent prisonersmanyareguiltythemoresothebetterthesystemOnecanalsobereashysonably sure that phonies peoplewho talkbig about their dangerouscriminaltendenciesbutdonothingwillnotendupinprisonTheinshyterpersonalconflictsthatarerifewithinprisonsasweshallseeinchapshyter4 furtherensure that thephoniesarequickly identifiedAndeventhough undercover policemen have certainly been sent to prison forshortperiodstogaincriminalcredentialsthelongerthetimeprisonersspendinjailthecloserwegettoprisonbeingaperfectdiscriminatingsignmdashnoonechoosestospendtwentyyearsbehindbarsforthesakeofposingasavillainDoingtimeinprisoncanthusbebothastigmaandabadgedependingonwhoislookingatitAnexshyconvictwhowishestoreturntothepathoftherighteouscanfinddoingsoveryhardbeshycausehistimespentinprisonidentifieshimasacriminalldquoOnceyoursquore
12 c h a p t e r 1
markedinprisonyoursquoredoneforrdquosaysadelinquentboyrecountinghisownstory19Butonewhointendstopersistinhisoldwayswillfindhispath smoothed and can display his prison credentials to further hiscriminalcareer
OnemaynotgoasfarasarrangingajailsentenceforoneselfforthepurposeoffosteringnewassociationswithkindredspiritsButonceinprison there is an abundance of opportunity to make villainous acshyquaintanceswhowillbeusefulafteroneleaves
Say that there are fifty quite well established thieves in MalmoumlonlythirtyofthosehaveafenceThosewhodonrsquotaretheyoungeronesaroundeighteenortwentywhohavenrsquotbeenaroundenoughsotheyrsquollhavetoasktheirfriendsorselltothievesForsomeonewhohasbeeninsideasmuchasmeitrsquosnoproblem20
IncarcerationasamarkofreliabilityworksataremoveIftwoformerprisonersdidnotactuallymeetinjailtheycanstilldisplayevidenceofhavingbeenldquointhecanrdquotoadvertisetheircredentialsSoevenifgoingtoprisonwasnotintendedasaperverseformofreacutesumeacutebuildingtherevelationof theexperiencecanbe andoften is an intentional signalTheldquoreferralrdquomethodIdiscussedaboveexploitsprisoncontactstoomdashforifoneisembeddedinanetworkoneisinabetterpositionbothtoreferothersandtobereferredbythemThereisevenevidencethatunshywittinglyunionsandorganizationsthataresupposedtohelpexshyinmatesto reentermainstream society alsohelpunreformedcriminals in theirbusiness21Notleastthesecharitableorganizationsassistthembycertishyfying their status as genuine exshyprisoners thus innocently facilitatingencounterswithactivevillains
whetherandhowfartheenhancingofonersquoscriminalidentityoffsetstheattemptsatrehabilitationthereismuchanecdotalevidencefromcrimishynalsrsquo biographies of the enhancing effectrsquos existence It starts early inyoungshyoffendersrsquoinstitutionsInhisautobiographyJimmyBoyleaScotshytishgangsterreminiscesthatwhenhewassixteen
theApprovedSchoolsurelyplayedavitalpartinmycriminaldeshyvelopmentItgavemeconnectionsthatIwastofindusefulinmyadultdaysItgavemeanintroductiontoguysfromtownsandcitshyiesthroughoutScotlandandfrommanyareasinGlasgowmanyofwhom grew up to be the top thieves or fighters in their areasThere isnodoubtatall thatmostof themgained inacriminalsensefromtheirApprovedSchoolexperience23
HewasdoinghisbesthewritestoavoidbeingcaughtldquobuteverytimeIwentintoprisonIbroadenedmycriminalhorizonsbymakingmoreandmoreconnections indifferent areasrdquo24MalcolmBralywho spentnearly seventeenyears invariousUSprisons forburglarywroteldquoHewasbrokeasIwasandhesuggestedwetrysomethingtogetherItwasreasonableWho is more likely to be trustworthy than someone youhavejustmetinjailrdquo25
CriminalandrebelorganizationsregardaprisonrecordasasignofdistinctionTheRussiancriminalfraternityknownasvorymadehavingbeeninaprisoncampaformalrequirementofmembership26AccordshyingtoMarekKaminskiatleastonememberoftheundergroundSolshyidarity movement in Poland provoked the communist secret servicestoputher inprisonsoshecould improveherreputationldquoUnderthewellshyprogressingperestroika in1987 thePolishcommunistsessentiallystoppedincarceratingtheopposition(sothelsquoincarcerationrsquowasabrief48hours)theystartedtalkswithselectedoppositiongroupsandmanyunderground politicians thought that there would be some role forthem to playwithin the communist regime soonThus the expectedcostofincarcerationwaslowandtheexpectedbenefitswerehighrdquo27
The lengthof time spent in prison further provides anldquoobjectiverdquomeasureoftherespectoneisowedrelativetoothergangmembersThus
14 c h a p t e r 1
Christopher Seymour writes of taking a drive with Japanese yakuza (mobsters)ldquoIntheloosehierarchyoftheHarashygumiKenis themostsenior in the automobile He has already served time in adult prisonwhereastheothershaveonlybeenthroughjuveniledetentionrdquo28LikeshywiseMarekKaminskimdashwhowhenhewasa sociologysophomore inthe1980swasarrestedbythePolishcommunistsecretpolicetogetherwithelevenothermembersofanundergroundSolidarnosc publishinghouseandjailedforfivemonthsmdashreportsldquoSomeofthePolishgrypsmen [inmateswhoaremembersofaprisonfraternityseechapter4]claimthatinthecaseofaprisonerwithasentenceof20+yearshedoesnothavetojointhegrypsmenformallyandsufferthecostsoftheinitiationritualsHeiseligibleforenjoyingallthebenefitsofthecastemembershyshipbyvirtueofthesentencersquoslengthrdquo29FortheRussianmafiaaswellldquothelengthoftimespentinprisonwasasourceofprestigeandasignofdistinction among the criminals who aspired to become voryrdquo30 In atelephoneconversation secretly recordedby Italianpolice thewifeofIvanYakovlev (thenames have been changed) aRussianmobster arshyrestedinItalyin199731usesthelengthofherhusbandrsquosprisonsentencetoinduceoneofhisassociatestoshowduerespectAssignedtothetaskbyherhusband shewarns theRussianwifeof theaccompliceMarioFerrarildquoIvanisbiggerthan[yourhusband]hehasbeeninprisonfor15yearsrdquoFerrarididnotenjoythesameprisoncredentialsthoughhehadclashedwiththelawinthepastfordrugdealingHewasnowmisbeshyhavingbeingoftendrunkanddisheveledandaccordingtoIvanswifedidnotshowenoughrespecttoIvanInasubsequentconversationbeshytweenthetwowomenFerrarirsquoswifeapologizedforherhusbandrsquosbeshyhavior She clearly took the point and repeated word for word whatIvanrsquoswifepreviouslytoldherldquo[Myhusband]understoodthatitisnotIvanwhomustlookforhimbutthathecleanandwelldressedmustgotoIvaninthecarandaskhimwhatneedstobedonebecauseIvanisbiggerthanheishehasbeeninprisonfor15yearsrdquo32
monlyacceptedviewthatldquopunishingacriminalmoreseverelyreducesthatindividualrsquossubsequentprobabilityofrecidivismrdquo33Sinceprisonersareassignedtominimumshylowshyorhighshysecurityprisonsonthebasisoftheirscoreonascalefrom1to10pointsldquointendedtoreflect[their]needforsupervisionrdquo34ChenandShapirowereabletocomparetherearrestratesofexshyinmateswhohadbeenoneithersideofthecutoffboundarshyiesthathadledthemtobeincarceratedinprisonswithdifferentsecushyrity levelsldquoinessenceweargue thatwithin a small interval aroundacutofftheallocationofprisonerstodifferentsecuritylevelsamountstoarandomassignmentrdquo35Althoughtheresultsarebasedonasmallnumberofcases948theystillenabletheauthorstorejectstronglythehypothshyesisthatlowerlevelsofprisonsecurityleadtomorerecidivismafterreshyleaseinsteadtheyindicateinmanywaysthattheoppositeeffectobtainsThe authorsrsquo interpretationof this effect refers to lower laborshymarketopportunities for highershysecurity exshyinmates and to peer effectsmdashldquoinmatesmayacquireskillslearnofnewprospectsordevelopcriminalcontactsrdquo36moreofteninhighershythaninlowershysecurityprisonsTheirresultsarealsoperfectlycompatiblewithanotherinterpretationhavingbeeninprisonswithastricterregimestrengthensthecertifyingeffectoncriminalcredentialsandgivesexshyinmatesfromtheseprisonsrelativeto those fromprisonswith lower security levelsgreatercredibilityonthecriminallabormarket
the two pairs have solved the identification problem in the past Butwhatabouttheelementarycaseinwhichreferralsarenotavailableornotpersuasiveorsafeenoughmdashcantwoagentsthenfindadirectsolushytiontotheproblem
It is hard to observe someone committing a crime in the naturalcourseofeventsbutvillainscancertainlyaskapotentialpartnerorreshycruittogivethemevidenceofhavingcommittedcrimesandcandosowithout resorting to an intermediaryThis can work if the crimes inquestionleaveatracethatcanbeknownorpossessedonlybytherealperpetrator One cannot just say that one has committed a crimemdashaphonymayhavereadaboutitinthepaperandsimplybeclaimingtobetheperpetratorOnehastoshowthebootyasitwereasinthefollowingcasePoliceinfourteencountriesincludingtheUnitedStatesarrestednearlytwohundredsuspectedmembersofanInternetchildpornograshyphyringtheWonderlandClubTojointheringonehadtoshowthatonepossessedtenthousandphotographsandbepreparedtosharethemwith other membersThe photographs were screened by a computerprogramwhichcheckedwhethertheyweredifferentfromoneanotherand fromthosealreadyavailable fromother sources37Thisaction sigshynaledthatprospectivemembershadcommittedacrimeandwereserishyouslycommittedtotheactivityofcommoninterestandcouldnotthusbeundercoveragents(Ireturntothiscaseinchapter3)
UltimatelycriminalscanalsoaskapotentialpartnerorrecruittoenshygageinadisplaycrimemdashanactthatanoncriminalwouldneverdomdashandtocommitthecrimeundertheireyesorinsuchawayastoleaveanunmistakablesignofauthorshipThenatureoftheillegalactrequesteddependsonthetypeofcrimeinwhichtheagentsareinvolvedandthelawsthatgovernitDivinetheLosAngelesprostitutewhoachievedherfifteenminutesoffameforadministeringoralsextoBritishactorHughGrant in 1995 revealedherparticularkindof testBefore agreeing totradesheaskedGranttoexposehimselfThereasonshesaidisthatanundercoverpolicemanwouldnotdothatforhewouldbebreakingthelawDivinebelievedonewondershowaccuratelythatexposingoneselfwasasignalonlyrealcustomerscouldafford
The same reasoning inspires a test appliedbydrugdealers inNew
17 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
YorkSincethemidshy1990sldquoaspolicehave intensifiedtheirassault thedealershavealsoadoptedmoreperilous tacticsFiveor six timeseachmonthundercoverinvestigatorsarenowforcedtousecocaineorheroinatgunpointtoprovetodealersthattheycanbetrustedAtleasttwiceamonth anofficer is shotorotherwisewoundedduring a stagedpurshychasesaypolicecommanderswhospokeonconditionofanonymityrdquo38
These kinds of tests are common in organizationswhere loyalty isparamount Before initiation mafia novicesmdashespecially those not alshyreadymembersoffamilieswithamafiatraditionmdashareaskedtocommitamurder(sometimeswouldshybemembersmovefirstandcommitseriouscrimesbeforeanyoneaskedthemtodoso)39Themafiausuallydoesnotkill anyonepurely for the sakeof a testmdashit optimizes byldquowhackingrdquosomeonewhowasmeanttobewhackedanywayand atthesametimetrying out the determination and bona fides of a noviceTheAryanBrotherhoodinprisonadoptedthesametesttogainmembershipcanshydidatesldquohadtokillwhomevertheBrotherhoodtargetedrdquo40AkindredoutfitknownastheAryanWarriorsalsorequiredwouldshybememberstopassatestldquousuallyabloodyassaultorinsomeinstancesadrugripshyofffrom a person outside of the brotherhoodrdquo41 But there are cases inwhichheinous crimes are committed purely as tests In a hairshyraisingaccountoflifeinyouthgangsinColombiathewriterEfraimMedinaReyes claims that it is not uncommon for new gangmembers to beasked to murder innocent friends or members of their own familywhich pushes the test to the extreme42 Revolutionary and resistancegroups deemed to be illegal by the incumbent government have alsousedthesametestBeingaskedtocommitamurderwasforinstanceacommonpractice in theAlgerianFLNSometimes the leaderswouldpick victims more or less at random to see if prospective memberswouldobeyevenmeaninglessorders43
ThismethodexploitsthelawwhichrestrictsthelawshyabidingundershycoveragentsrsquooptionsandturnsittothecriminalsrsquoadvantageIfhowshyeverlawshyenforcementagenciesgivetheirundercoveroperativesgreaterdiscretion to act against the law for the sakeofpersuading thegrouptheyaretryingtoinfiltrateoftheirbonafidesthepowerofthesesignalsisweakened for theagentcannowaffordat least someof themThe
18 c h a p t e r 1
degreesoffreedomvaryfromtimetotimeandfromagencytoagencyPoliceinNewYorkarenowldquoinstructedtoavoidtakingthedrugsunless their lives are in dangerrdquoIfdealersreadtheNew York Timeswherethisinshyformationwaspublishedtheyknowthatforcingbuyerstoingestdrugsby threatening their lives isnowauseless test for itno longerdistinshyguishesgenuinebuyersfromundercoveragents
BeforediscussingthisproblemfurtherIwillpresentthecaseofFBIspecial agent Joseph Pistone aka Donnie Brasco who infiltrated theNewYorkmafiaandcameclosetobeinginitiatedIknowofnobettercase for illustratingall the typesofcostshydiscriminating signalsusedbycriminalsmdashand by those who try to fool them Donnie Brasco pershysuadedthemobstersofhiscriminalcredentialsbyemployingabreathshytakingrangeofsubtlesignalsandnarratedhisexperienceinabookmdasharguablythemostvividethnographyoftheUSmafiafromldquowithinrdquo44
Entering the mob world is needless to say very hardldquoAssociates ofwiseguysdonrsquotdealwithpeopletheydonrsquotknoworwhosomebodyelsedoesnrsquotvouchforrdquo45PriortoPistonersquosinfiltrationtheFBIlackedexpeshyrienceDuringJEdgarHooverrsquosreignatthebureauundercoverworkwasrarelyusedldquobecauseitcouldbeadirtyjobthatcouldenduptaintshyingtheagentsrdquo46AndalthoughithadbeenusedsinceldquosofarasweknewtheFBIhadneverplantedoneofitsownagentsinthemafiardquo47Yettheoperation itwas about to attemptwasextraordinarily shrewdPistoneneededtobuildawholebarrageofsignalswhichtakentogethercouldpersuadethemobstersthathewasarealbadguyAndthatiswhatheandhishandlerssetouttodomindingthatthelawconstrainedhisfreeshydomldquoTheFBIwouldnrsquotletmeactuallygooutonhijackingsandburshyglariesbecausethecrewwentarmedrdquoPistonewrites48
19 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
PistoneneededanamehedecideditwaseasiertosticktoDonnieBrasco the name he had used in a previous undercover operation inFloridaHeneededaplausiblebiographythatcouldbecheckedorbetshyterhardtocheckheposedasanorphanandabachelorHesaidhehadbeenraisedinanorphanageinPittsburghthatburneddowntherewereno records leftThe story needed to be simpleldquoThe fewer [lies] youhave to tell the feweryouhave torememberrdquohenotes49HesaidhehadspenttimeontheWestCoastandinFloridawhereinfacthehadbeenbeforeasldquoDonaldBrascordquointhepreviousoperationandhadesshytablishedsomecontactsHeneededaldquoprofessionrdquoandsettledonjewelrytheftsomethingonecandoaloneandthatdoesnotrequiretheuseofweaponsmdashsomething moreover that allowed him to use confiscatedstolen jewels to sell so he would not have to break the law to stealthem50
Hecouldcountonadvantagesthatwouldhavebeenhardtofakehadtheynotbeenpartofhis realbiographyHis Italianancestryprovidedhim with theldquorightrdquo ethnic background He had grown up in theldquorightrdquoneighborhoodandasayoungsterhungoutinldquojointsrdquopatronshyizedbywiseguysldquoYouhad tobe streetshysmartevencockysometimesEverygoodundercoveragentIhaveknowngrewuponthestreetlikeIdidandwasagoodstreetagentbeforebecominganundercoveragentOnthestreetyoulearnwhatrsquoswhatandwhorsquoswhoYoulearnhowtoreadsituationsandhandleyourselfYou cannot fake the ability It showsrdquo51
It is also interesting to know what he chose not to say or do Heavoided acting in a way that could raise suspicionldquoNo street guy isgoingtothrowmoneyallovertheplaceunlesshersquostryingtoattractatshytentionrdquoPistonereveals ldquoThenthequestionisWhyishetryingtoatshytractattentionrdquo52BydoingsoheeitherbecomesatargetinthatpeoplethinktheycanrobhimorraisessuspicionsthathemaybeacopDonshyniewasparsimonioustooinrevealingdetailsofhislifewhetherrealorphonyforldquoyouneverknowwhatpartofwhatyoudowillbecomepartofyourhistorywhenpeoplewanttocheckonyourdquo53
Ifthey[themobsters]werenrsquotscheminganddreamingtheyweretellingwarstoriesreminiscencesabouttheirtimeinvariousjailsandprisonsEverybodydidtimeinthecanItwaspartofthepriceofdoingbusinessTheyknewallaboutdifferent jailscellblocksguards I had enough phony background set up to establish mycredentialsasaseriouscriminaltoshowthatIwastoughenoughtodo time if Ihad towithout turningratBut I never claimed to have done any prison timebecause IdidnrsquotknowthoseplacesandthatcouldhavejustrippedmeupIfyoudothreetofiveyearsyouget to know the guardsmdashwhat guardrsquos on what tierYou get toknowtheinmatesguyswhoaredoingfifteentotwentyguyswhoarestillthereTheyknewthelingoandtheslangEverybodyreshymembersthoserelationshipsandthattime54
IndirectlyPistonersquos choice showswhat a robust signalhavingbeen inprison is It isnot something that canbeeasily fakedguyswhohavetrulybeentherewouldquicklyspotanimpostor
Donniewentonforacoupleofmonths
playing this game of being noticedwithout being noticed slideintothebadguyworldandbecomeacceptedwithoutdrawingatshytentionYoupushalittlehereandtherebutverygentlyBriefinshytroductions short conversations appearances one place and anshyotherhintsaboutwhatyoursquoreuptocasualmannerismsdemeanorand lingo that youknowyourway aroundmdashall these become atrail of credibility you leave behind youAbove all you cannothurryYoucannotseemeagertomeetcertainpeoplemakecertaincontactslearnaboutcertainscoresThe quickest way to get tagged as a cop is to try to move too fastYouhavetoshowthatyouhavethetime to play by the rules of the street and that includes lettingpeoplecheckyououtandcometoyou55
Hewouldphonethebar leavingmessages forhimself just toestablishthathehadconnectionsandconveythebeliefpeopleknewhepatronshyizedthebar57ldquoWhenIwentotherplacesIcouldsayrdquoPistonewritesldquolsquoIbeenhangingoutat thatplace for fourorfivemonthsrsquoAnd theycould check it outThe guys had been hanging around in this placewouldsaylsquoYeahDonBrascohasbeencominginhereforquiteawhileandheseemsallrightnevertriedtopullanythingonusrsquordquo58
Wealsoread ldquoYoucanrsquotgoinallthetimebyyourselfbecausetheythinkyoursquoreeitherafagoracopAnditrsquosgoodtovarycompanysotheydonrsquot see you with the same people all the time and wonder whatrsquosuprdquo59SoDonniewouldbringanoccasionalfemaleorChuckanotherundercover agentThanks to Chuck he was introduced toAlbertldquoahalfshyasswiseguyrdquoaconnectedshytobutnotamadememberof theCoshylombofamily
Donnie eventually became the proteacutegeacute of a made guy BenjaminldquoLeftyGunsrdquoRuggieroandspentsixyearswiththemafiosilivingtheirdaily lives and sharing their crooked dealingsmdashconstantly exposed totheriskofbeingdiscoveredandkilledInthecourseoftheoperationhewasofferedtheopportunitynotonlytohandlethebookmakingforthemob boss of Milwaukee Frank Balistrieri but also to get inside theskimmingoperationinLasVegasBalistrierisaidhehadagoodcrewbuttheywereldquoolderkindof set in theirways Icoulduse someyoungerguysthatIcouldtrusttotakeoveracoupleofmyclubsandotherbusishynessesYoungerguyswouldbeabletorelatetothewaysoftodayrsquosbusishynessworldrdquo62Leftyvouched forDonnieldquoI told [Balistrieri]rdquoDonnie
22 c h a p t e r 1
saysldquoyouaremybloodrdquo63ButacceptingwouldhavemadeitimpossibleforDonnietoseehisrealfamilysoheturneddowntheofferWhilethatdecisionangeredLeftyitalsoconferredanadvantageasitfurthersigshynaledDonniersquoscredibilityldquoOnethingIhadinmyfavorseenthroughanymobguyrsquoseyeswas thatno cop would ever turn that job downSo Iwouldbeabovesuspicioninthatregardrdquo64
Donniecameupwithmanyother signalsbelieved tobeof akindthat a cop could not afford He pretended to beat up someone whoowedmoney toLeftyHe roughedup a comedianwhohad annoyedLeftyattheThunderbirdaMiamirestaurant65Furthermoreldquotypicallywhatanundercovercopwilldo inabuyshybust situation is try tobuysomethingfromyouCops always buy never sellI was going to sellrdquoPistonereveals66mdashthankstothefactthattheFBIallowedhimdiscretioninthatregard One very special commodity he bought though Lefty RugshygierorsquosprotectionTheFBIdishedoutatotalof$40000forthispurposewhileDonniewasundercoverldquoTheywerepayinghimforhisservicesasalsquowiseguyrsquotoinsuretheyhadtheprotectionoftheBonannofamilyin the event another family tried to interfere with their businessrdquo67
WhilepaymentwasostensiblyaimedatcompensatingLeftyitwasalsoliterallyacostlysignalandintentionallydesignedtoappeartobesoldquoBygivinghimmoneyContiandRossi[twoundercoveragentswhocolshylaboratedwithDonnie] ledLefty tobelieve that theywerewilling tobecomeinvolvedwithhimandhe trusted them as bad guysrdquo68
Mafiosiwerenot taken inbecause theyweredumbratherPistonewasunbelievablysmartandresilientanditjustwasveryhardformobshysterstothinkthattakentogetherallthethingshedidanddidnotdowerenotnearshyperfectdiscriminatingsignalsTheFBIwaslatercriticizedforoperatingverynearorevenbeyondthe limitsof the lawBut thisrelative freedomfooledthemafiosibecause theyassumedthatanunshydercoveragentwouldnotpaythecostofbreakingthelawDivinecouldnothavebankedonherneatlittletestifagentsofthelawhadbeenalshylowedtoexposethemselvesThemobsterswerecheatednotjustinthesense thatDonnieBrascoby faking forging andpretending successshyfullymimickedarealbadguybutalsointhesensethathedidsomereal badactions
23 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
In a short biography ofBonanno familymembersmdashposted on theInternetforawhilethenremovedmdashLeftywasdescribedasldquothebiggestidiotinthehistoryofLaCosaNostraHisblindgreedandlackofinshystinctwerefelthardintheAmericanmafiardquoAndyetLeftywascarefulevenyearsafterDonniehadbeenacceptedasaconnectedguyDonniewasassistedbyotherundercoveragentsoneofwhomwasldquoRossirdquoTotestwhetherRossiwasanundercoveragentLeftydeliberatelyldquolostrdquoaplaneticketthatRossihadbookedonhisowncreditcardforLefty(thiswasacovertwayofpayingprotectiontoLefty)ldquoBypretendingtolosetheticketLeftywantedtoseehowRossi reactedIfhewasanagentLeftyreasonedhewouldgetnervousbecausehewouldprobablyhavetoaccount for the ticket tohisofficeplushewouldbeworried thatsomebodylsquointheunderworldbusinessrsquomightmeanwhilefindtheticketandcheckouttheAmericanExpressnumbertoseeifitwasagovernshymentnumberrdquo69
WhenitwasfinallyrevealedthatDonniewasanundercoveragentthemobsterswereshockedanddidnotbelieveittillDonnieactuallytestishyfied in court against them His operation managed to send many ofthemmostlymembersoftheBonannofamilytojail71
ThemobsterslearnedtheirlessonandincreasedthepriceofthetestsNow not just one butldquotwo mafiosi have to vouch for the proposedmemberrdquoldquoTheyhavetosaytheyhaveknowntheproposedmemberifnotsincechildhoodthenatleastforfifteentotwentyyearsrdquo72Accordshying to theFBI theyalso resumeda traditionalpractice thathadbeenabandonedldquoaproposedmembermustlsquomakehisbonesrsquoorkillsomeonebeforehecanbecomeamadeguyTheyhavedonesobecause no agent
24 c h a p t e r 1
would commit murder while posing as a bad guyrdquo73Murderisreallyapershyfectlydiscriminatingsignalofbeingabadguyasignalthatnoundershycover agentnot evenonebelonging to a rather lax lawshyenforcementagencycouldafford
Thisentryrequirementmdashwhichshowshowcriminalactscanbepershypetratednotmerelyfortheirimmediateinstrumentalvaluebutalsofortheir signaling valuemdashhad never been explicitly removed but it wasno longerusedwithgreat determination In truthDominickldquoSonnyBlackrdquoNapolitanowhoeventuallybecameDonniersquosmainmentorandplannedtoproposeDonnieformembershiphadaskedDonnietomurshydersomeoneldquoHegavemeacontractsothatIwouldhavethatcredenshytialwhenheputmynameuprdquoButtheopportunitytocarryitoutdidnotariseforAnthonyBrunoIndelicatotheintendedvictimwentsucshycessfullyintohidingDonnieshowedthathewasdoingallhecouldtotrackIndelicatodownanditwasnotthoughttobehisfaultwhenhefailedThusalthoughhedidnotcarryoutthekillinghestillmanagedtoshowhiswillingnesstodoitandafewmonthslaterSonnyputhisnameforwardformembershipAtthatpointtheFBIdecidedtostoptheoperationandDonnieresumedonceagainhisrealidentity
Undercoveragentsmdashwhohavetopersuadethegrouptheyaimtoinfilshytrateof theircriminalcredentialsmdasharea serious threat forunlikesolomimicstheycandrawontheresourcesofstateagenciesandcanaffordcomplexmimicryactswhichinvolveposingforgingcredentialstrainshyingandfundsStill itcanbenear impossibleto infiltrategroupsproshytected by an array of features that cannot be successfully imitatedmdashwhichinotherwordsperfectlydistinguishtherealfromthephonyFor
EvenaMuslimCIAofficerwithnativeshylanguageabilities(andtheAgencyaccordingtoseveralactiveshydutycaseofficershasveryfewoperativesfromMiddleEasternbackgrounds)coulddolittlemorein thisenvironment [PeshawarPakistan] thanablondblueshyeyedallshyAmericanCaseofficerscannotlongescapetheembassiesandconsulates in which they serveA US official overseasphotoshygraphedandregisteredwiththelocalintelligenceandsecuritysershyvicescanrsquottravelmuchparticularlyinapoliceshyrichcountrylikePakistanwithouttheldquohostrdquoservicesknowingaboutitAnofficerwho tries togonativepretending tobe a trueshybelieving radicalMuslim searching for brothers in the causewillmake a fool ofhimselfquickly
UndercoveroperationsareaproblematicformofanticrimeactivityforanotherreasonaswellThelogicofcostshydiscriminatingsignalsinclinesundercoveragentstogobeyondinnocentpretensionsandsupportinishytiativesof thesamekinda truecriminalor terroristwouldundertakeSincelawshyenforcementagenciesareunderpressuretokeeptheiragentssafetheypushfordiscretiontobegrantedtothemAndsometimestheundercoveragentsthemselvesunbeknownsttotheiremployerschoosetobreakthelawbecausetheyworryabouttheircredibilityintheeyesof the host group and the consequences if they are discoveredThememoirsofundercoveragentsandspiesarerepletewiththisdilemma
According to incomplete calculations there were about 6500agents provocateurs and other political investigations specialistsoperatinginvariouspoliticalpartiesandorganizationsintheRusshy
26 c h a p t e r 1
sianEmpireatthestartofthetwentiethcenturythepoliceandgendarmesoftensetprioritiesthemselvesattimesevenattheriskofthelivesofhighshyrankinggovernmentofficialsandmembersoftheimperialfamilyMattersconcerningthesecurityofthesecretagentswereoftoppriorityandmaintainingthestrongpositionsofagentswithintheterroristorganizationsof theSocialistshyRevolushytionarieswasconsideredmore important thanpreventingassassishynationsevenagainstofficialsofthegovernment75
AfamouscasewasthatofEvnoAzefanagentwhooperatedinrevolushytionary circles for aboutfifteen years From 1893on hewas a policeagentAsastudentinaGermanpolytechnicschoolhetooktheinitiashytiveofofferinghisservicestothepolicedepartmentat therateof50rublespermonth afterwhichhe attachedhimself to a foreigngroupcallingitselftheUnionofRussianSocialistshyRevolutionariesHeknewaboutthemajorityofterroristactsbeingplannedbytheSRsbuthedidnotalwaysreporttohisbossesaboutthemNeverthelessthepolicepaidhimwellforhisservices76
EpisodesofthiskindarenotrestrictedtopredemocraticsocietiesAnilluminatingcaseoccurredinCanadaAtitspeakin1993theHeritageFront was the largest and bestshyorganized neoshyNazi group in Canadaboastingacontactlistof1800namesGrantBristowcofounderandaleadingmemberofthiswhiteracistgroupturnedouttobeapaidinshyformantoftheCanadianSecurityIntelligenceServiceldquoBristoworchesshytrated aharassment campaign that terrorizedFront enemies harboredleadinginternationalracistsinhisownhomeinclearviolationofbothCSISrulesandtheImmigrationActandassistedintheFrontrsquosinfiltrashytionoftheReformPartyrdquo77ldquoCSISmoleGrantBristowwasanlsquoagentprovocateurrsquowhowithhisspymastersbrokeCanadianlawsandinternalCSISregulationsagroupofMPshaveconcludedBristowrsquosleadershyshiproleinthewhiteracistHeritageFrontthereportsuggestsmay have led to the very events that caused CSIS to keep him in place for several more yearsrdquo78 An inquiry by the Security Intelligence Review CommitteeintotheaffairplayeddowntheaccusationsbutitisclearfromthereportthattherewereseriousbreachesForinstanceontheissueofharassment
27 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
of antiracistmilitants and Jewish communitymembers thedocumentconcludesthatldquoanyinformantwhoenterstheHeritageFrontorasimishylargrouphastomaintainhiscredibilitywithhisassociatesotherwisehewouldnot remain a trustedmember for longThe questionwewerefacedwithwaswhethertheCSISsource[GrantBristow]hadremainedwithintheboundsofappropriatebehaviourwhiletryingtomaintainhiscredibilityTheanswerwearrivedatwasthatin certain circumstances he had not[emphasisintheoriginal]rdquo79
Eveniftheyareonlysupposedtocollectinformationoncriminalorsubversiveactivitiesspiesmayendupproducingmoreofsuchactivitieson theirown initiativeThey tend tobecomeagentsprovocateursnotnecessarilyfortheconspiratorialreasonswhyJosephConradrsquosprotagoshynistinThe Secret Agentdoes(VerlocwasinthepayofanunnamedforshyeignembassythatwantedtopersuadetheBritishtotakeatougherlineagainsttheanarchistsandusedhisdimshywittednephewtostageanldquoanarshychistrdquobombingattack)buttypicallyonlyoutoffearofnotbeingcredshyibleenoughandofriskingtheirlivesThecoststhatmaketheirsignalscredibleintheeyesoftheirtargetsareafterallldquoonlyrdquothoseofbreakinglegalconstraintsTheymayneverbecaughtgiventheintrinsicopacityofwhattheydoandifcaughttheyarenotsolikelytobepunishedcershytainlynotbydeathAndontheothersideoftheequationtheyhavetoconsider the personal costs of failing to persuadeWhen onersquos life isthreatened thecostsofbreakingthe lawmaysuddenlyappear smallerthanthoseofobeyingitThesetofthosewhoarereadytorisktheirlifesacrificetheirfamilyanddeceivedangerouscriminalsforlongperiodsoftimewhileatthesametimeremainingstrictlyalawshyabidingcitizenmustbeextremelysmall
ThisraisesaninterestingquandaryforthecriminalsorterroristswhoaretryingtotestthebonafidesofothersForbyincreasingtheseverityofthepunishmentmetedoutagainstundercoveragentswhoarediscovshyered they encourage the latter to afford costly signals that once disshyplayedmaymakeitimpossibleforthebadguystosaywhethertheposhytentialrecruitsareundercoveragentsinthefirstplace
undercover agentmayfind it preferable to refrain from swallowing itevenatthecostofrevealinghistruetypeforhedoesnotwanttobreakthelawBycontrasttherealcriminalwhowantstodealwiththedrugdealersmayprefertopaythecostofthephysicalillnesscausedbyswalshylowing forhe isentirelyateasewithbreaking the lawThekeyextracost that discriminates between the real criminal and the undercoveragentisthecostofbreakingthelawwhichthemimicfaceswhilethegenuinearticledoesnotAharsherpunishmenthowevercanreversetheequationandmakeitcheaperfortheundercoveragenttoswallowratherthannot swallowevenat thecostofbreaking the lawandthusmakehimbehaviorallyindistinguishablefromtherealcriminalWhenadminshyisteredunder the threatof theharsherpunishment the testno longerseparatesonetypefromtheotherByfailingtoappreciatethisquandaryandthreateningdeathagainstthosewhorefusetoswallowthedrugthedealers fail to realize that theyaredeactivating thevery sourceof thereliabilityoftheirtestforunderthatthreattheagentsarenowallowed(andwouldinanycasefeelinclined)toswallowthedrug
CONCLUSIONS
OncesomeoneintentoncrimeidentifiesapotentialpartnerasabonafidecriminalhehassolvedoneproblemonlytolandinanotherequallydifficultoneHenowhastoestablishwhetherhispartnerisnotjustacrookbutanhonorableoneAfterHughGrantexposedhimselfDivineknewthathewasnotanundercovercopforshebelievedthatcopsdonotdothatYetshestilldidnotknowwhatkindofacustomerhewasProstitutesareconstantlyonguardagainstrobbersorpervertswhoposeasordinarycustomers80AnyonewhoworksoutsidethelawismoreexshyposedthanordinarybusinessmentobecomingthepreyofothercrimishynalswhomimicbeingacriminalofthehonestsortAstreetshydrugdealerwhosuccessfullyadvertises tocustomersmayalsoattract robberswhopretend to be customers in order to get close to the dealers and robthem81Acriminalhastobeonguardagainstbothkindsofmimicslawshyenforcementagentsandcriminalsofthewrongsort
29 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
Ifhonestywerethoughttobeatraitofcertaincriminalsandnotothshyersinordertoestablishwhetherapotentialpartnerishonestonecouldfollowthesamestrategyoneusesforidentifyingwhethersomeoneisacriminal tobeginwithThe samekindof costly signalswouldbe reshyquiredforcriminalstopersuadeoneanotherthattheywerethehonesttypeIncertaincasesthegametheyplayisindeedoneofsignalingtheirtypeHowever inmost circumstancescriminals tend to thinkofeachotherasbeingof justonetypenamelythedishonestoneandbelievethatgivenhalfachancetheywilltakeadvantageofeachotherTheonlyway inwhich they can comealmost toldquotrustrdquo eachother enough tocooperateisthereforenotbysignalingtheirtypebuteitherbyenforcshyingtheirpartnersrsquohonestywiththethreatofsomekindofretaliationormoregenerallybyputtingthemselvesandtheirpartnersinaconditionwherebyldquohonestyrdquo rather thancheating is theirbest courseof actionwhatevertheirtypeIshallexploresomeofthestrategiestheyadoptinchapters2and3
7 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
offascriminalsIfanythingtheyarecareful toavoid lookinglikeoneOnlyuttercarelessnessinapproachingothersorsomeinanemisundershystandingscanleadtoconfusinglawshyabidingcitizensforcriminalsmdashsuchas thatof the fortyshysevenshyyearshyoldCanadianwomanwho in 1991diduse theYellowPagesandcontactedafirminPhoenixArizonacalledldquoGuns forHirerdquo seeking to put a contract on her husbandrsquos life ShefailedtonoticethatthefirmspecializedinputtingonldquoWildWesttheatshyricalshowsforconventionsprivatepartiesandthelikerdquoAfterhanding$2000toanundercoverdetectiveposingasahitmanthewomanwasarrestedandlatersentencedtofourandahalfyearsinjailBeforecallingGunsforHirethedetectivelaterexplainedshehadconsideredcallingmotorcycleclubsandanItalianshyAmericanassociation9Ifcontractkillshyersandpeopleseekingthemreallycouldadvertiseopenlyonewondershowmanymoremurderstherewouldbe
Therealworryconcernsundercoveragentsorinformerswhohaveanactiveinterest inpretendingtobeagenuinepartneranddeceivingthesearchingcriminalInthiscasewhichIconsiderherethecriminalrsquosfailure to identify correctly a lawshyandshyorder agent reflects the latterrsquosmimickingsuccessInparticularIconsiderthecaseoftwoindividualswhoareinasymmetricalpositionsAalreadyknowsthatBisacriminal(andBknowsthatAknowsthat)BhoweverdoesnotknowwhetherAisacriminalRegardlessofwhetherAistrulyacriminaloranundershycoveragentposingasoneAwantstopersuadeBthatheisarealcrimishynalBatthesametimeislookingforevidenceofthetypethatAisThequestioniswhatkindofevidencecansatisfyB
Theprobabilityofmaking identificationmistakes isldquofrequencydeshypendentrdquothehighertheproportionofcriminalsinthesearchenvironshymentthelowertheriskofapproachingthewrongpeopleWherecorshyruption isknowntobewidespread for instancecorruptingothersorsignalingonersquoswillingnesstoacceptbribesisnotmuchofaproblemIftheprobabilityofencounteringacorruptagentiscorrectlybelievedtobehighcriminalswill rationally trymoreandbolderapproachesandwill easily uncover corrupt partners In Russia which may have apshyproached this stateof affairs in recent times the values of corruptionldquofeesrdquo fordifferentpositionsofauthoritywereopenlyreported inthe
Soourquestioniswhatdocriminalslookforwhatkindofsignsdotheyattendtoinordertoidentifytheirkindredspiritsorcatchtheunshydercover agentsThe littlewecanfind in the literatureexplicitlydisshycussingtheidentificationproblemsuggeststhatcriminalsclaimtoposshysessaspecialabilitythatenablesthemtoidentifyothercrooksbyldquogutfeelingsrdquo ldquoalookintheeyesrdquo ldquovibrationsrdquo11NowherecouldIfindanytheorythatunpacksthosefeelingsthatpredictswhatcriminalscanbeexpected to look for But carefully scrutinized the evidence we cangather from the many ethnographic accounts of criminalsrsquo activitiesstronglysuggeststhattheydonotgoaboutiterraticallyCriminalssysshytematicallylookforsignsthatidentifyanotheragentasagenuinecrimishynaltypeandatthesametimetheytryjustassystematically(andcareshyfully)toadvertisebysendingsignalsthatonlyanothergenuinecriminaltypewillpickup
ldquoOnthestreetrdquomdashwroteFBIspecialagentJosephPistonewhoinfilshytratedtheColomboandlatertheBonannomafiafamiliesofNewYorkunderthenameofDonnieBrascomdashldquoeverybodyissuspiciousofeveryshybodyelseuntil youproveyourselfrdquo12 If someone saysldquoI amready todealwithyoupalrdquoorsportssomeitemofclothingthatconventionallyindicatesheisacriminalsuchasapairofdarkglassesthesesignalsarehardlysufficienttoprovethatheisacriminalAsaprofessionalthiefputitldquolanguageisnotinitselfasufficientmeansofdeterminingwhetherapersonistrustworthyforsomepeopleintheunderworldarestoolpishygeons and someoutsiders learn some of the languagerdquo13Provingoneselfrequirestougherteststhancheaptalk
ingconditionagivensignalscanconvincearationalreceiverofasigshynalerrsquoscriminalityifgiventheexpectedbenefitsarationalmimicwhocouldgainbyposingasacriminalfinds s toocostlytoproduceortodisplayInotherwordsa convincing signal of a criminal type is that which only a true criminal can afford to produce and to sendThatdoesnotmeanthatsuchsignalingwillnecessarilybeverycostlyforarealcriminalInthecourseofhiscareerhemayhaveacquiredmuchrawmaterialthatcanbedisplayedatlittleextracostItsufficesthatthesignalbetoocostlyforthemimictoafford
SelectiveEnvironments
Agood indeedthebest signofacriminal typeconsistsofcourseofobserving someone committing a crimeThis is not likely to occurthoughforpeopledonotnormallywishtobeseenengaginginvillainshyousactsThis isaconstraint thatordinarybusinessmendonot faceasthey can showwhat they do to third partieswithout fear of the lawBy contrast criminals have to resort as much as possible to indirectmethods
Acommonstrategythatallowscriminalsinsearchofoneanothertoexchangesignalsconsistsoffrequentingplaceswherenoncriminalsarenot likely tobe foundwhich is likepatronizingaldquosinglesbarrdquowhensearchingforamateldquoTosearchforaccomplicesandtodisposeofillegalgoodsadultoffenderspatronisethesameplacesmakethesamekindsof transactionsandoftenreside in the sameareardquo14Theyhangout inbars gambling dens boxing gyms and social clubs full of other menduringnormalworkinghoursorlateatnightattimesthatiswhenacommonpersonisotherwiseoccupiedOrtheyliveinroughneighborshyhoodsforthesamereasonwellshytoshydocitizensmoveoutofthemmdashbothdreadmakingencountersofthewrongsortInhisresearchoncrimeinNewYorkCitySullivan(1989)foundthatmuchrecruitmentoccursinneighborhoodswherepeopleknowaboutoneanotherandcheckeachotheroutinthenaturalcourseoftheirdailyinteractionsEnvironmentsselected for their criminality those which ldquoregular guysrdquo find morecostlyorlessattractivetopatronizethancriminalsdomakeidentificashy
ByitselfthoughthisstrategyworksonlyuptoapointItsavescrimshyinalsfromdealingbymistakewithlawshyabidingcitizensHoweverifthecostofhangingaroundinsuchenvironmentsisnotveryhighforanonshycriminaltheymaybecomeverydangerousplacesforcriminalspreciselytheplaceswhereundercoveragentswillconvergewhenattemptingtoinfiltrate criminal networks Singles bars increase the probability ofmeeting single people but they do not eliminate the probability ofmeetingpatronswhowhilemarriedgotheremerelypretendingtobesingle In the underworld where the stakes of mistaken identity arehigherifsomeonejustshowsupinabarfullofcriminalsheisnotlikelyto go far without further credentialsTo be reassured criminals needsigns thecostofwhicha lawshyenforcement agentor a spywouldfindharder topayRather thanbeing reliable signs in themselves selectiveenvironments merely offer better opportunities to gather further evishydencedirectlyandindirectly
Referrals
ldquoAnother method [to establish someonersquos criminal credentials] is byfindingoutwhatpeoplethestrangerknowsrdquo15IfCknowsthatAisacriminalCmayintroduceAtoBOrBcansimplyseeCwithAandinferthatAisonetooAgangstercalledJacksoninhisautobiographywroteldquoonthestreetIknowhundredsandhundredsofcharactersbutIdonotknowtheirnamesSayyouareacharacterandIrsquomacharacterandIseeyouwithacharacterthatIknowIhavenowayofcheckingyourcreditratingoranythingelsesoI judge you by whom you associate withIfIknowthatthispersonisagoodpersonandnotapolecatnotastoolpigeonnotthemanrsquosmanthenIhavetogiveyouthecreditforbeingall rightrdquo16 Incertaincriminalcirclesldquoyoursquodbe surprised Itrsquos averycloseshyknitthingamonghustlersYoumeetsomeoneyoursquovenevermetbeforeinaplaceyoursquoveneverseenbeforeyoufindoutsomeonetheyknowTheymayevenhaveheardofyourdquo17Interestinglythisimshypliesthatcriminalshavetobeextravigilantaboutwhomtheyareseen
Onewaytoacquiregoodevidenceofsomeonersquoscriminalitywhichinshytersects with the referral method exploits law enforcement itself Intermsof howeffectively they canmix andmatchkindred spirits thehangouts thatcriminals freelychoosecannotcompetewith theplacesthey are forced to go by the agents who fight against crime there isnothing like prison to mix like with like Prisons promote crime inmanyobviousways18teachingcriminalsnewskillsandbrutalmodesofbehaviorbuttheyalsodosolessobviouslybyshoulderingthecostsofadvertisingandidentifyingwhoisacriminaltobeginwith
JustbeingaprisonerisaclearandsimplesignthatoneiscriminallyinclinedThehardpart is paying the priceof going there in thefirstplaceButitispreciselythatcostthatmakesaprisontermsuchagoodsignofbeingarealcriminalParadoxicallythebetterthecriminaljusticesystemisthesaferitistoassumethatthecompanyputbehindbarswillbe invariably villainousThough there are surely innocent prisonersmanyareguiltythemoresothebetterthesystemOnecanalsobereashysonably sure that phonies peoplewho talkbig about their dangerouscriminaltendenciesbutdonothingwillnotendupinprisonTheinshyterpersonalconflictsthatarerifewithinprisonsasweshallseeinchapshyter4 furtherensure that thephoniesarequickly identifiedAndeventhough undercover policemen have certainly been sent to prison forshortperiodstogaincriminalcredentialsthelongerthetimeprisonersspendinjailthecloserwegettoprisonbeingaperfectdiscriminatingsignmdashnoonechoosestospendtwentyyearsbehindbarsforthesakeofposingasavillainDoingtimeinprisoncanthusbebothastigmaandabadgedependingonwhoislookingatitAnexshyconvictwhowishestoreturntothepathoftherighteouscanfinddoingsoveryhardbeshycausehistimespentinprisonidentifieshimasacriminalldquoOnceyoursquore
12 c h a p t e r 1
markedinprisonyoursquoredoneforrdquosaysadelinquentboyrecountinghisownstory19Butonewhointendstopersistinhisoldwayswillfindhispath smoothed and can display his prison credentials to further hiscriminalcareer
OnemaynotgoasfarasarrangingajailsentenceforoneselfforthepurposeoffosteringnewassociationswithkindredspiritsButonceinprison there is an abundance of opportunity to make villainous acshyquaintanceswhowillbeusefulafteroneleaves
Say that there are fifty quite well established thieves in MalmoumlonlythirtyofthosehaveafenceThosewhodonrsquotaretheyoungeronesaroundeighteenortwentywhohavenrsquotbeenaroundenoughsotheyrsquollhavetoasktheirfriendsorselltothievesForsomeonewhohasbeeninsideasmuchasmeitrsquosnoproblem20
IncarcerationasamarkofreliabilityworksataremoveIftwoformerprisonersdidnotactuallymeetinjailtheycanstilldisplayevidenceofhavingbeenldquointhecanrdquotoadvertisetheircredentialsSoevenifgoingtoprisonwasnotintendedasaperverseformofreacutesumeacutebuildingtherevelationof theexperiencecanbe andoften is an intentional signalTheldquoreferralrdquomethodIdiscussedaboveexploitsprisoncontactstoomdashforifoneisembeddedinanetworkoneisinabetterpositionbothtoreferothersandtobereferredbythemThereisevenevidencethatunshywittinglyunionsandorganizationsthataresupposedtohelpexshyinmatesto reentermainstream society alsohelpunreformedcriminals in theirbusiness21Notleastthesecharitableorganizationsassistthembycertishyfying their status as genuine exshyprisoners thus innocently facilitatingencounterswithactivevillains
whetherandhowfartheenhancingofonersquoscriminalidentityoffsetstheattemptsatrehabilitationthereismuchanecdotalevidencefromcrimishynalsrsquo biographies of the enhancing effectrsquos existence It starts early inyoungshyoffendersrsquoinstitutionsInhisautobiographyJimmyBoyleaScotshytishgangsterreminiscesthatwhenhewassixteen
theApprovedSchoolsurelyplayedavitalpartinmycriminaldeshyvelopmentItgavemeconnectionsthatIwastofindusefulinmyadultdaysItgavemeanintroductiontoguysfromtownsandcitshyiesthroughoutScotlandandfrommanyareasinGlasgowmanyofwhom grew up to be the top thieves or fighters in their areasThere isnodoubtatall thatmostof themgained inacriminalsensefromtheirApprovedSchoolexperience23
HewasdoinghisbesthewritestoavoidbeingcaughtldquobuteverytimeIwentintoprisonIbroadenedmycriminalhorizonsbymakingmoreandmoreconnections indifferent areasrdquo24MalcolmBralywho spentnearly seventeenyears invariousUSprisons forburglarywroteldquoHewasbrokeasIwasandhesuggestedwetrysomethingtogetherItwasreasonableWho is more likely to be trustworthy than someone youhavejustmetinjailrdquo25
CriminalandrebelorganizationsregardaprisonrecordasasignofdistinctionTheRussiancriminalfraternityknownasvorymadehavingbeeninaprisoncampaformalrequirementofmembership26AccordshyingtoMarekKaminskiatleastonememberoftheundergroundSolshyidarity movement in Poland provoked the communist secret servicestoputher inprisonsoshecould improveherreputationldquoUnderthewellshyprogressingperestroika in1987 thePolishcommunistsessentiallystoppedincarceratingtheopposition(sothelsquoincarcerationrsquowasabrief48hours)theystartedtalkswithselectedoppositiongroupsandmanyunderground politicians thought that there would be some role forthem to playwithin the communist regime soonThus the expectedcostofincarcerationwaslowandtheexpectedbenefitswerehighrdquo27
The lengthof time spent in prison further provides anldquoobjectiverdquomeasureoftherespectoneisowedrelativetoothergangmembersThus
14 c h a p t e r 1
Christopher Seymour writes of taking a drive with Japanese yakuza (mobsters)ldquoIntheloosehierarchyoftheHarashygumiKenis themostsenior in the automobile He has already served time in adult prisonwhereastheothershaveonlybeenthroughjuveniledetentionrdquo28LikeshywiseMarekKaminskimdashwhowhenhewasa sociologysophomore inthe1980swasarrestedbythePolishcommunistsecretpolicetogetherwithelevenothermembersofanundergroundSolidarnosc publishinghouseandjailedforfivemonthsmdashreportsldquoSomeofthePolishgrypsmen [inmateswhoaremembersofaprisonfraternityseechapter4]claimthatinthecaseofaprisonerwithasentenceof20+yearshedoesnothavetojointhegrypsmenformallyandsufferthecostsoftheinitiationritualsHeiseligibleforenjoyingallthebenefitsofthecastemembershyshipbyvirtueofthesentencersquoslengthrdquo29FortheRussianmafiaaswellldquothelengthoftimespentinprisonwasasourceofprestigeandasignofdistinction among the criminals who aspired to become voryrdquo30 In atelephoneconversation secretly recordedby Italianpolice thewifeofIvanYakovlev (thenames have been changed) aRussianmobster arshyrestedinItalyin199731usesthelengthofherhusbandrsquosprisonsentencetoinduceoneofhisassociatestoshowduerespectAssignedtothetaskbyherhusband shewarns theRussianwifeof theaccompliceMarioFerrarildquoIvanisbiggerthan[yourhusband]hehasbeeninprisonfor15yearsrdquoFerrarididnotenjoythesameprisoncredentialsthoughhehadclashedwiththelawinthepastfordrugdealingHewasnowmisbeshyhavingbeingoftendrunkanddisheveledandaccordingtoIvanswifedidnotshowenoughrespecttoIvanInasubsequentconversationbeshytweenthetwowomenFerrarirsquoswifeapologizedforherhusbandrsquosbeshyhavior She clearly took the point and repeated word for word whatIvanrsquoswifepreviouslytoldherldquo[Myhusband]understoodthatitisnotIvanwhomustlookforhimbutthathecleanandwelldressedmustgotoIvaninthecarandaskhimwhatneedstobedonebecauseIvanisbiggerthanheishehasbeeninprisonfor15yearsrdquo32
monlyacceptedviewthatldquopunishingacriminalmoreseverelyreducesthatindividualrsquossubsequentprobabilityofrecidivismrdquo33Sinceprisonersareassignedtominimumshylowshyorhighshysecurityprisonsonthebasisoftheirscoreonascalefrom1to10pointsldquointendedtoreflect[their]needforsupervisionrdquo34ChenandShapirowereabletocomparetherearrestratesofexshyinmateswhohadbeenoneithersideofthecutoffboundarshyiesthathadledthemtobeincarceratedinprisonswithdifferentsecushyrity levelsldquoinessenceweargue thatwithin a small interval aroundacutofftheallocationofprisonerstodifferentsecuritylevelsamountstoarandomassignmentrdquo35Althoughtheresultsarebasedonasmallnumberofcases948theystillenabletheauthorstorejectstronglythehypothshyesisthatlowerlevelsofprisonsecurityleadtomorerecidivismafterreshyleaseinsteadtheyindicateinmanywaysthattheoppositeeffectobtainsThe authorsrsquo interpretationof this effect refers to lower laborshymarketopportunities for highershysecurity exshyinmates and to peer effectsmdashldquoinmatesmayacquireskillslearnofnewprospectsordevelopcriminalcontactsrdquo36moreofteninhighershythaninlowershysecurityprisonsTheirresultsarealsoperfectlycompatiblewithanotherinterpretationhavingbeeninprisonswithastricterregimestrengthensthecertifyingeffectoncriminalcredentialsandgivesexshyinmatesfromtheseprisonsrelativeto those fromprisonswith lower security levelsgreatercredibilityonthecriminallabormarket
the two pairs have solved the identification problem in the past Butwhatabouttheelementarycaseinwhichreferralsarenotavailableornotpersuasiveorsafeenoughmdashcantwoagentsthenfindadirectsolushytiontotheproblem
It is hard to observe someone committing a crime in the naturalcourseofeventsbutvillainscancertainlyaskapotentialpartnerorreshycruittogivethemevidenceofhavingcommittedcrimesandcandosowithout resorting to an intermediaryThis can work if the crimes inquestionleaveatracethatcanbeknownorpossessedonlybytherealperpetrator One cannot just say that one has committed a crimemdashaphonymayhavereadaboutitinthepaperandsimplybeclaimingtobetheperpetratorOnehastoshowthebootyasitwereasinthefollowingcasePoliceinfourteencountriesincludingtheUnitedStatesarrestednearlytwohundredsuspectedmembersofanInternetchildpornograshyphyringtheWonderlandClubTojointheringonehadtoshowthatonepossessedtenthousandphotographsandbepreparedtosharethemwith other membersThe photographs were screened by a computerprogramwhichcheckedwhethertheyweredifferentfromoneanotherand fromthosealreadyavailable fromother sources37Thisaction sigshynaledthatprospectivemembershadcommittedacrimeandwereserishyouslycommittedtotheactivityofcommoninterestandcouldnotthusbeundercoveragents(Ireturntothiscaseinchapter3)
UltimatelycriminalscanalsoaskapotentialpartnerorrecruittoenshygageinadisplaycrimemdashanactthatanoncriminalwouldneverdomdashandtocommitthecrimeundertheireyesorinsuchawayastoleaveanunmistakablesignofauthorshipThenatureoftheillegalactrequesteddependsonthetypeofcrimeinwhichtheagentsareinvolvedandthelawsthatgovernitDivinetheLosAngelesprostitutewhoachievedherfifteenminutesoffameforadministeringoralsextoBritishactorHughGrant in 1995 revealedherparticularkindof testBefore agreeing totradesheaskedGranttoexposehimselfThereasonshesaidisthatanundercoverpolicemanwouldnotdothatforhewouldbebreakingthelawDivinebelievedonewondershowaccuratelythatexposingoneselfwasasignalonlyrealcustomerscouldafford
The same reasoning inspires a test appliedbydrugdealers inNew
17 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
YorkSincethemidshy1990sldquoaspolicehave intensifiedtheirassault thedealershavealsoadoptedmoreperilous tacticsFiveor six timeseachmonthundercoverinvestigatorsarenowforcedtousecocaineorheroinatgunpointtoprovetodealersthattheycanbetrustedAtleasttwiceamonth anofficer is shotorotherwisewoundedduring a stagedpurshychasesaypolicecommanderswhospokeonconditionofanonymityrdquo38
These kinds of tests are common in organizationswhere loyalty isparamount Before initiation mafia novicesmdashespecially those not alshyreadymembersoffamilieswithamafiatraditionmdashareaskedtocommitamurder(sometimeswouldshybemembersmovefirstandcommitseriouscrimesbeforeanyoneaskedthemtodoso)39Themafiausuallydoesnotkill anyonepurely for the sakeof a testmdashit optimizes byldquowhackingrdquosomeonewhowasmeanttobewhackedanywayand atthesametimetrying out the determination and bona fides of a noviceTheAryanBrotherhoodinprisonadoptedthesametesttogainmembershipcanshydidatesldquohadtokillwhomevertheBrotherhoodtargetedrdquo40AkindredoutfitknownastheAryanWarriorsalsorequiredwouldshybememberstopassatestldquousuallyabloodyassaultorinsomeinstancesadrugripshyofffrom a person outside of the brotherhoodrdquo41 But there are cases inwhichheinous crimes are committed purely as tests In a hairshyraisingaccountoflifeinyouthgangsinColombiathewriterEfraimMedinaReyes claims that it is not uncommon for new gangmembers to beasked to murder innocent friends or members of their own familywhich pushes the test to the extreme42 Revolutionary and resistancegroups deemed to be illegal by the incumbent government have alsousedthesametestBeingaskedtocommitamurderwasforinstanceacommonpractice in theAlgerianFLNSometimes the leaderswouldpick victims more or less at random to see if prospective memberswouldobeyevenmeaninglessorders43
ThismethodexploitsthelawwhichrestrictsthelawshyabidingundershycoveragentsrsquooptionsandturnsittothecriminalsrsquoadvantageIfhowshyeverlawshyenforcementagenciesgivetheirundercoveroperativesgreaterdiscretion to act against the law for the sakeofpersuading thegrouptheyaretryingtoinfiltrateoftheirbonafidesthepowerofthesesignalsisweakened for theagentcannowaffordat least someof themThe
18 c h a p t e r 1
degreesoffreedomvaryfromtimetotimeandfromagencytoagencyPoliceinNewYorkarenowldquoinstructedtoavoidtakingthedrugsunless their lives are in dangerrdquoIfdealersreadtheNew York Timeswherethisinshyformationwaspublishedtheyknowthatforcingbuyerstoingestdrugsby threatening their lives isnowauseless test for itno longerdistinshyguishesgenuinebuyersfromundercoveragents
BeforediscussingthisproblemfurtherIwillpresentthecaseofFBIspecial agent Joseph Pistone aka Donnie Brasco who infiltrated theNewYorkmafiaandcameclosetobeinginitiatedIknowofnobettercase for illustratingall the typesofcostshydiscriminating signalsusedbycriminalsmdashand by those who try to fool them Donnie Brasco pershysuadedthemobstersofhiscriminalcredentialsbyemployingabreathshytakingrangeofsubtlesignalsandnarratedhisexperienceinabookmdasharguablythemostvividethnographyoftheUSmafiafromldquowithinrdquo44
Entering the mob world is needless to say very hardldquoAssociates ofwiseguysdonrsquotdealwithpeopletheydonrsquotknoworwhosomebodyelsedoesnrsquotvouchforrdquo45PriortoPistonersquosinfiltrationtheFBIlackedexpeshyrienceDuringJEdgarHooverrsquosreignatthebureauundercoverworkwasrarelyusedldquobecauseitcouldbeadirtyjobthatcouldenduptaintshyingtheagentsrdquo46AndalthoughithadbeenusedsinceldquosofarasweknewtheFBIhadneverplantedoneofitsownagentsinthemafiardquo47Yettheoperation itwas about to attemptwasextraordinarily shrewdPistoneneededtobuildawholebarrageofsignalswhichtakentogethercouldpersuadethemobstersthathewasarealbadguyAndthatiswhatheandhishandlerssetouttodomindingthatthelawconstrainedhisfreeshydomldquoTheFBIwouldnrsquotletmeactuallygooutonhijackingsandburshyglariesbecausethecrewwentarmedrdquoPistonewrites48
19 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
PistoneneededanamehedecideditwaseasiertosticktoDonnieBrasco the name he had used in a previous undercover operation inFloridaHeneededaplausiblebiographythatcouldbecheckedorbetshyterhardtocheckheposedasanorphanandabachelorHesaidhehadbeenraisedinanorphanageinPittsburghthatburneddowntherewereno records leftThe story needed to be simpleldquoThe fewer [lies] youhave to tell the feweryouhave torememberrdquohenotes49HesaidhehadspenttimeontheWestCoastandinFloridawhereinfacthehadbeenbeforeasldquoDonaldBrascordquointhepreviousoperationandhadesshytablishedsomecontactsHeneededaldquoprofessionrdquoandsettledonjewelrytheftsomethingonecandoaloneandthatdoesnotrequiretheuseofweaponsmdashsomething moreover that allowed him to use confiscatedstolen jewels to sell so he would not have to break the law to stealthem50
Hecouldcountonadvantagesthatwouldhavebeenhardtofakehadtheynotbeenpartofhis realbiographyHis Italianancestryprovidedhim with theldquorightrdquo ethnic background He had grown up in theldquorightrdquoneighborhoodandasayoungsterhungoutinldquojointsrdquopatronshyizedbywiseguysldquoYouhad tobe streetshysmartevencockysometimesEverygoodundercoveragentIhaveknowngrewuponthestreetlikeIdidandwasagoodstreetagentbeforebecominganundercoveragentOnthestreetyoulearnwhatrsquoswhatandwhorsquoswhoYoulearnhowtoreadsituationsandhandleyourselfYou cannot fake the ability It showsrdquo51
It is also interesting to know what he chose not to say or do Heavoided acting in a way that could raise suspicionldquoNo street guy isgoingtothrowmoneyallovertheplaceunlesshersquostryingtoattractatshytentionrdquoPistonereveals ldquoThenthequestionisWhyishetryingtoatshytractattentionrdquo52BydoingsoheeitherbecomesatargetinthatpeoplethinktheycanrobhimorraisessuspicionsthathemaybeacopDonshyniewasparsimonioustooinrevealingdetailsofhislifewhetherrealorphonyforldquoyouneverknowwhatpartofwhatyoudowillbecomepartofyourhistorywhenpeoplewanttocheckonyourdquo53
Ifthey[themobsters]werenrsquotscheminganddreamingtheyweretellingwarstoriesreminiscencesabouttheirtimeinvariousjailsandprisonsEverybodydidtimeinthecanItwaspartofthepriceofdoingbusinessTheyknewallaboutdifferent jailscellblocksguards I had enough phony background set up to establish mycredentialsasaseriouscriminaltoshowthatIwastoughenoughtodo time if Ihad towithout turningratBut I never claimed to have done any prison timebecause IdidnrsquotknowthoseplacesandthatcouldhavejustrippedmeupIfyoudothreetofiveyearsyouget to know the guardsmdashwhat guardrsquos on what tierYou get toknowtheinmatesguyswhoaredoingfifteentotwentyguyswhoarestillthereTheyknewthelingoandtheslangEverybodyreshymembersthoserelationshipsandthattime54
IndirectlyPistonersquos choice showswhat a robust signalhavingbeen inprison is It isnot something that canbeeasily fakedguyswhohavetrulybeentherewouldquicklyspotanimpostor
Donniewentonforacoupleofmonths
playing this game of being noticedwithout being noticed slideintothebadguyworldandbecomeacceptedwithoutdrawingatshytentionYoupushalittlehereandtherebutverygentlyBriefinshytroductions short conversations appearances one place and anshyotherhintsaboutwhatyoursquoreuptocasualmannerismsdemeanorand lingo that youknowyourway aroundmdashall these become atrail of credibility you leave behind youAbove all you cannothurryYoucannotseemeagertomeetcertainpeoplemakecertaincontactslearnaboutcertainscoresThe quickest way to get tagged as a cop is to try to move too fastYouhavetoshowthatyouhavethetime to play by the rules of the street and that includes lettingpeoplecheckyououtandcometoyou55
Hewouldphonethebar leavingmessages forhimself just toestablishthathehadconnectionsandconveythebeliefpeopleknewhepatronshyizedthebar57ldquoWhenIwentotherplacesIcouldsayrdquoPistonewritesldquolsquoIbeenhangingoutat thatplace for fourorfivemonthsrsquoAnd theycould check it outThe guys had been hanging around in this placewouldsaylsquoYeahDonBrascohasbeencominginhereforquiteawhileandheseemsallrightnevertriedtopullanythingonusrsquordquo58
Wealsoread ldquoYoucanrsquotgoinallthetimebyyourselfbecausetheythinkyoursquoreeitherafagoracopAnditrsquosgoodtovarycompanysotheydonrsquot see you with the same people all the time and wonder whatrsquosuprdquo59SoDonniewouldbringanoccasionalfemaleorChuckanotherundercover agentThanks to Chuck he was introduced toAlbertldquoahalfshyasswiseguyrdquoaconnectedshytobutnotamadememberof theCoshylombofamily
Donnie eventually became the proteacutegeacute of a made guy BenjaminldquoLeftyGunsrdquoRuggieroandspentsixyearswiththemafiosilivingtheirdaily lives and sharing their crooked dealingsmdashconstantly exposed totheriskofbeingdiscoveredandkilledInthecourseoftheoperationhewasofferedtheopportunitynotonlytohandlethebookmakingforthemob boss of Milwaukee Frank Balistrieri but also to get inside theskimmingoperationinLasVegasBalistrierisaidhehadagoodcrewbuttheywereldquoolderkindof set in theirways Icoulduse someyoungerguysthatIcouldtrusttotakeoveracoupleofmyclubsandotherbusishynessesYoungerguyswouldbeabletorelatetothewaysoftodayrsquosbusishynessworldrdquo62Leftyvouched forDonnieldquoI told [Balistrieri]rdquoDonnie
22 c h a p t e r 1
saysldquoyouaremybloodrdquo63ButacceptingwouldhavemadeitimpossibleforDonnietoseehisrealfamilysoheturneddowntheofferWhilethatdecisionangeredLeftyitalsoconferredanadvantageasitfurthersigshynaledDonniersquoscredibilityldquoOnethingIhadinmyfavorseenthroughanymobguyrsquoseyeswas thatno cop would ever turn that job downSo Iwouldbeabovesuspicioninthatregardrdquo64
Donniecameupwithmanyother signalsbelieved tobeof akindthat a cop could not afford He pretended to beat up someone whoowedmoney toLeftyHe roughedup a comedianwhohad annoyedLeftyattheThunderbirdaMiamirestaurant65Furthermoreldquotypicallywhatanundercovercopwilldo inabuyshybust situation is try tobuysomethingfromyouCops always buy never sellI was going to sellrdquoPistonereveals66mdashthankstothefactthattheFBIallowedhimdiscretioninthatregard One very special commodity he bought though Lefty RugshygierorsquosprotectionTheFBIdishedoutatotalof$40000forthispurposewhileDonniewasundercoverldquoTheywerepayinghimforhisservicesasalsquowiseguyrsquotoinsuretheyhadtheprotectionoftheBonannofamilyin the event another family tried to interfere with their businessrdquo67
WhilepaymentwasostensiblyaimedatcompensatingLeftyitwasalsoliterallyacostlysignalandintentionallydesignedtoappeartobesoldquoBygivinghimmoneyContiandRossi[twoundercoveragentswhocolshylaboratedwithDonnie] ledLefty tobelieve that theywerewilling tobecomeinvolvedwithhimandhe trusted them as bad guysrdquo68
Mafiosiwerenot taken inbecause theyweredumbratherPistonewasunbelievablysmartandresilientanditjustwasveryhardformobshysterstothinkthattakentogetherallthethingshedidanddidnotdowerenotnearshyperfectdiscriminatingsignalsTheFBIwaslatercriticizedforoperatingverynearorevenbeyondthe limitsof the lawBut thisrelative freedomfooledthemafiosibecause theyassumedthatanunshydercoveragentwouldnotpaythecostofbreakingthelawDivinecouldnothavebankedonherneatlittletestifagentsofthelawhadbeenalshylowedtoexposethemselvesThemobsterswerecheatednotjustinthesense thatDonnieBrascoby faking forging andpretending successshyfullymimickedarealbadguybutalsointhesensethathedidsomereal badactions
23 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
In a short biography ofBonanno familymembersmdashposted on theInternetforawhilethenremovedmdashLeftywasdescribedasldquothebiggestidiotinthehistoryofLaCosaNostraHisblindgreedandlackofinshystinctwerefelthardintheAmericanmafiardquoAndyetLeftywascarefulevenyearsafterDonniehadbeenacceptedasaconnectedguyDonniewasassistedbyotherundercoveragentsoneofwhomwasldquoRossirdquoTotestwhetherRossiwasanundercoveragentLeftydeliberatelyldquolostrdquoaplaneticketthatRossihadbookedonhisowncreditcardforLefty(thiswasacovertwayofpayingprotectiontoLefty)ldquoBypretendingtolosetheticketLeftywantedtoseehowRossi reactedIfhewasanagentLeftyreasonedhewouldgetnervousbecausehewouldprobablyhavetoaccount for the ticket tohisofficeplushewouldbeworried thatsomebodylsquointheunderworldbusinessrsquomightmeanwhilefindtheticketandcheckouttheAmericanExpressnumbertoseeifitwasagovernshymentnumberrdquo69
WhenitwasfinallyrevealedthatDonniewasanundercoveragentthemobsterswereshockedanddidnotbelieveittillDonnieactuallytestishyfied in court against them His operation managed to send many ofthemmostlymembersoftheBonannofamilytojail71
ThemobsterslearnedtheirlessonandincreasedthepriceofthetestsNow not just one butldquotwo mafiosi have to vouch for the proposedmemberrdquoldquoTheyhavetosaytheyhaveknowntheproposedmemberifnotsincechildhoodthenatleastforfifteentotwentyyearsrdquo72Accordshying to theFBI theyalso resumeda traditionalpractice thathadbeenabandonedldquoaproposedmembermustlsquomakehisbonesrsquoorkillsomeonebeforehecanbecomeamadeguyTheyhavedonesobecause no agent
24 c h a p t e r 1
would commit murder while posing as a bad guyrdquo73Murderisreallyapershyfectlydiscriminatingsignalofbeingabadguyasignalthatnoundershycover agentnot evenonebelonging to a rather lax lawshyenforcementagencycouldafford
Thisentryrequirementmdashwhichshowshowcriminalactscanbepershypetratednotmerelyfortheirimmediateinstrumentalvaluebutalsofortheir signaling valuemdashhad never been explicitly removed but it wasno longerusedwithgreat determination In truthDominickldquoSonnyBlackrdquoNapolitanowhoeventuallybecameDonniersquosmainmentorandplannedtoproposeDonnieformembershiphadaskedDonnietomurshydersomeoneldquoHegavemeacontractsothatIwouldhavethatcredenshytialwhenheputmynameuprdquoButtheopportunitytocarryitoutdidnotariseforAnthonyBrunoIndelicatotheintendedvictimwentsucshycessfullyintohidingDonnieshowedthathewasdoingallhecouldtotrackIndelicatodownanditwasnotthoughttobehisfaultwhenhefailedThusalthoughhedidnotcarryoutthekillinghestillmanagedtoshowhiswillingnesstodoitandafewmonthslaterSonnyputhisnameforwardformembershipAtthatpointtheFBIdecidedtostoptheoperationandDonnieresumedonceagainhisrealidentity
Undercoveragentsmdashwhohavetopersuadethegrouptheyaimtoinfilshytrateof theircriminalcredentialsmdasharea serious threat forunlikesolomimicstheycandrawontheresourcesofstateagenciesandcanaffordcomplexmimicryactswhichinvolveposingforgingcredentialstrainshyingandfundsStill itcanbenear impossibleto infiltrategroupsproshytected by an array of features that cannot be successfully imitatedmdashwhichinotherwordsperfectlydistinguishtherealfromthephonyFor
EvenaMuslimCIAofficerwithnativeshylanguageabilities(andtheAgencyaccordingtoseveralactiveshydutycaseofficershasveryfewoperativesfromMiddleEasternbackgrounds)coulddolittlemorein thisenvironment [PeshawarPakistan] thanablondblueshyeyedallshyAmericanCaseofficerscannotlongescapetheembassiesandconsulates in which they serveA US official overseasphotoshygraphedandregisteredwiththelocalintelligenceandsecuritysershyvicescanrsquottravelmuchparticularlyinapoliceshyrichcountrylikePakistanwithouttheldquohostrdquoservicesknowingaboutitAnofficerwho tries togonativepretending tobe a trueshybelieving radicalMuslim searching for brothers in the causewillmake a fool ofhimselfquickly
UndercoveroperationsareaproblematicformofanticrimeactivityforanotherreasonaswellThelogicofcostshydiscriminatingsignalsinclinesundercoveragentstogobeyondinnocentpretensionsandsupportinishytiativesof thesamekinda truecriminalor terroristwouldundertakeSincelawshyenforcementagenciesareunderpressuretokeeptheiragentssafetheypushfordiscretiontobegrantedtothemAndsometimestheundercoveragentsthemselvesunbeknownsttotheiremployerschoosetobreakthelawbecausetheyworryabouttheircredibilityintheeyesof the host group and the consequences if they are discoveredThememoirsofundercoveragentsandspiesarerepletewiththisdilemma
According to incomplete calculations there were about 6500agents provocateurs and other political investigations specialistsoperatinginvariouspoliticalpartiesandorganizationsintheRusshy
26 c h a p t e r 1
sianEmpireatthestartofthetwentiethcenturythepoliceandgendarmesoftensetprioritiesthemselvesattimesevenattheriskofthelivesofhighshyrankinggovernmentofficialsandmembersoftheimperialfamilyMattersconcerningthesecurityofthesecretagentswereoftoppriorityandmaintainingthestrongpositionsofagentswithintheterroristorganizationsof theSocialistshyRevolushytionarieswasconsideredmore important thanpreventingassassishynationsevenagainstofficialsofthegovernment75
AfamouscasewasthatofEvnoAzefanagentwhooperatedinrevolushytionary circles for aboutfifteen years From 1893on hewas a policeagentAsastudentinaGermanpolytechnicschoolhetooktheinitiashytiveofofferinghisservicestothepolicedepartmentat therateof50rublespermonth afterwhichhe attachedhimself to a foreigngroupcallingitselftheUnionofRussianSocialistshyRevolutionariesHeknewaboutthemajorityofterroristactsbeingplannedbytheSRsbuthedidnotalwaysreporttohisbossesaboutthemNeverthelessthepolicepaidhimwellforhisservices76
EpisodesofthiskindarenotrestrictedtopredemocraticsocietiesAnilluminatingcaseoccurredinCanadaAtitspeakin1993theHeritageFront was the largest and bestshyorganized neoshyNazi group in Canadaboastingacontactlistof1800namesGrantBristowcofounderandaleadingmemberofthiswhiteracistgroupturnedouttobeapaidinshyformantoftheCanadianSecurityIntelligenceServiceldquoBristoworchesshytrated aharassment campaign that terrorizedFront enemies harboredleadinginternationalracistsinhisownhomeinclearviolationofbothCSISrulesandtheImmigrationActandassistedintheFrontrsquosinfiltrashytionoftheReformPartyrdquo77ldquoCSISmoleGrantBristowwasanlsquoagentprovocateurrsquowhowithhisspymastersbrokeCanadianlawsandinternalCSISregulationsagroupofMPshaveconcludedBristowrsquosleadershyshiproleinthewhiteracistHeritageFrontthereportsuggestsmay have led to the very events that caused CSIS to keep him in place for several more yearsrdquo78 An inquiry by the Security Intelligence Review CommitteeintotheaffairplayeddowntheaccusationsbutitisclearfromthereportthattherewereseriousbreachesForinstanceontheissueofharassment
27 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
of antiracistmilitants and Jewish communitymembers thedocumentconcludesthatldquoanyinformantwhoenterstheHeritageFrontorasimishylargrouphastomaintainhiscredibilitywithhisassociatesotherwisehewouldnot remain a trustedmember for longThe questionwewerefacedwithwaswhethertheCSISsource[GrantBristow]hadremainedwithintheboundsofappropriatebehaviourwhiletryingtomaintainhiscredibilityTheanswerwearrivedatwasthatin certain circumstances he had not[emphasisintheoriginal]rdquo79
Eveniftheyareonlysupposedtocollectinformationoncriminalorsubversiveactivitiesspiesmayendupproducingmoreofsuchactivitieson theirown initiativeThey tend tobecomeagentsprovocateursnotnecessarilyfortheconspiratorialreasonswhyJosephConradrsquosprotagoshynistinThe Secret Agentdoes(VerlocwasinthepayofanunnamedforshyeignembassythatwantedtopersuadetheBritishtotakeatougherlineagainsttheanarchistsandusedhisdimshywittednephewtostageanldquoanarshychistrdquobombingattack)buttypicallyonlyoutoffearofnotbeingcredshyibleenoughandofriskingtheirlivesThecoststhatmaketheirsignalscredibleintheeyesoftheirtargetsareafterallldquoonlyrdquothoseofbreakinglegalconstraintsTheymayneverbecaughtgiventheintrinsicopacityofwhattheydoandifcaughttheyarenotsolikelytobepunishedcershytainlynotbydeathAndontheothersideoftheequationtheyhavetoconsider the personal costs of failing to persuadeWhen onersquos life isthreatened thecostsofbreakingthe lawmaysuddenlyappear smallerthanthoseofobeyingitThesetofthosewhoarereadytorisktheirlifesacrificetheirfamilyanddeceivedangerouscriminalsforlongperiodsoftimewhileatthesametimeremainingstrictlyalawshyabidingcitizenmustbeextremelysmall
ThisraisesaninterestingquandaryforthecriminalsorterroristswhoaretryingtotestthebonafidesofothersForbyincreasingtheseverityofthepunishmentmetedoutagainstundercoveragentswhoarediscovshyered they encourage the latter to afford costly signals that once disshyplayedmaymakeitimpossibleforthebadguystosaywhethertheposhytentialrecruitsareundercoveragentsinthefirstplace
undercover agentmayfind it preferable to refrain from swallowing itevenatthecostofrevealinghistruetypeforhedoesnotwanttobreakthelawBycontrasttherealcriminalwhowantstodealwiththedrugdealersmayprefertopaythecostofthephysicalillnesscausedbyswalshylowing forhe isentirelyateasewithbreaking the lawThekeyextracost that discriminates between the real criminal and the undercoveragentisthecostofbreakingthelawwhichthemimicfaceswhilethegenuinearticledoesnotAharsherpunishmenthowevercanreversetheequationandmakeitcheaperfortheundercoveragenttoswallowratherthannot swallowevenat thecostofbreaking the lawandthusmakehimbehaviorallyindistinguishablefromtherealcriminalWhenadminshyisteredunder the threatof theharsherpunishment the testno longerseparatesonetypefromtheotherByfailingtoappreciatethisquandaryandthreateningdeathagainstthosewhorefusetoswallowthedrugthedealers fail to realize that theyaredeactivating thevery sourceof thereliabilityoftheirtestforunderthatthreattheagentsarenowallowed(andwouldinanycasefeelinclined)toswallowthedrug
CONCLUSIONS
OncesomeoneintentoncrimeidentifiesapotentialpartnerasabonafidecriminalhehassolvedoneproblemonlytolandinanotherequallydifficultoneHenowhastoestablishwhetherhispartnerisnotjustacrookbutanhonorableoneAfterHughGrantexposedhimselfDivineknewthathewasnotanundercovercopforshebelievedthatcopsdonotdothatYetshestilldidnotknowwhatkindofacustomerhewasProstitutesareconstantlyonguardagainstrobbersorpervertswhoposeasordinarycustomers80AnyonewhoworksoutsidethelawismoreexshyposedthanordinarybusinessmentobecomingthepreyofothercrimishynalswhomimicbeingacriminalofthehonestsortAstreetshydrugdealerwhosuccessfullyadvertises tocustomersmayalsoattract robberswhopretend to be customers in order to get close to the dealers and robthem81Acriminalhastobeonguardagainstbothkindsofmimicslawshyenforcementagentsandcriminalsofthewrongsort
29 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
Ifhonestywerethoughttobeatraitofcertaincriminalsandnotothshyersinordertoestablishwhetherapotentialpartnerishonestonecouldfollowthesamestrategyoneusesforidentifyingwhethersomeoneisacriminal tobeginwithThe samekindof costly signalswouldbe reshyquiredforcriminalstopersuadeoneanotherthattheywerethehonesttypeIncertaincasesthegametheyplayisindeedoneofsignalingtheirtypeHowever inmost circumstancescriminals tend to thinkofeachotherasbeingof justonetypenamelythedishonestoneandbelievethatgivenhalfachancetheywilltakeadvantageofeachotherTheonlyway inwhich they can comealmost toldquotrustrdquo eachother enough tocooperateisthereforenotbysignalingtheirtypebuteitherbyenforcshyingtheirpartnersrsquohonestywiththethreatofsomekindofretaliationormoregenerallybyputtingthemselvesandtheirpartnersinaconditionwherebyldquohonestyrdquo rather thancheating is theirbest courseof actionwhatevertheirtypeIshallexploresomeofthestrategiestheyadoptinchapters2and3
Soourquestioniswhatdocriminalslookforwhatkindofsignsdotheyattendtoinordertoidentifytheirkindredspiritsorcatchtheunshydercover agentsThe littlewecanfind in the literatureexplicitlydisshycussingtheidentificationproblemsuggeststhatcriminalsclaimtoposshysessaspecialabilitythatenablesthemtoidentifyothercrooksbyldquogutfeelingsrdquo ldquoalookintheeyesrdquo ldquovibrationsrdquo11NowherecouldIfindanytheorythatunpacksthosefeelingsthatpredictswhatcriminalscanbeexpected to look for But carefully scrutinized the evidence we cangather from the many ethnographic accounts of criminalsrsquo activitiesstronglysuggeststhattheydonotgoaboutiterraticallyCriminalssysshytematicallylookforsignsthatidentifyanotheragentasagenuinecrimishynaltypeandatthesametimetheytryjustassystematically(andcareshyfully)toadvertisebysendingsignalsthatonlyanothergenuinecriminaltypewillpickup
ldquoOnthestreetrdquomdashwroteFBIspecialagentJosephPistonewhoinfilshytratedtheColomboandlatertheBonannomafiafamiliesofNewYorkunderthenameofDonnieBrascomdashldquoeverybodyissuspiciousofeveryshybodyelseuntil youproveyourselfrdquo12 If someone saysldquoI amready todealwithyoupalrdquoorsportssomeitemofclothingthatconventionallyindicatesheisacriminalsuchasapairofdarkglassesthesesignalsarehardlysufficienttoprovethatheisacriminalAsaprofessionalthiefputitldquolanguageisnotinitselfasufficientmeansofdeterminingwhetherapersonistrustworthyforsomepeopleintheunderworldarestoolpishygeons and someoutsiders learn some of the languagerdquo13Provingoneselfrequirestougherteststhancheaptalk
ingconditionagivensignalscanconvincearationalreceiverofasigshynalerrsquoscriminalityifgiventheexpectedbenefitsarationalmimicwhocouldgainbyposingasacriminalfinds s toocostlytoproduceortodisplayInotherwordsa convincing signal of a criminal type is that which only a true criminal can afford to produce and to sendThatdoesnotmeanthatsuchsignalingwillnecessarilybeverycostlyforarealcriminalInthecourseofhiscareerhemayhaveacquiredmuchrawmaterialthatcanbedisplayedatlittleextracostItsufficesthatthesignalbetoocostlyforthemimictoafford
SelectiveEnvironments
Agood indeedthebest signofacriminal typeconsistsofcourseofobserving someone committing a crimeThis is not likely to occurthoughforpeopledonotnormallywishtobeseenengaginginvillainshyousactsThis isaconstraint thatordinarybusinessmendonot faceasthey can showwhat they do to third partieswithout fear of the lawBy contrast criminals have to resort as much as possible to indirectmethods
Acommonstrategythatallowscriminalsinsearchofoneanothertoexchangesignalsconsistsoffrequentingplaceswherenoncriminalsarenot likely tobe foundwhich is likepatronizingaldquosinglesbarrdquowhensearchingforamateldquoTosearchforaccomplicesandtodisposeofillegalgoodsadultoffenderspatronisethesameplacesmakethesamekindsof transactionsandoftenreside in the sameareardquo14Theyhangout inbars gambling dens boxing gyms and social clubs full of other menduringnormalworkinghoursorlateatnightattimesthatiswhenacommonpersonisotherwiseoccupiedOrtheyliveinroughneighborshyhoodsforthesamereasonwellshytoshydocitizensmoveoutofthemmdashbothdreadmakingencountersofthewrongsortInhisresearchoncrimeinNewYorkCitySullivan(1989)foundthatmuchrecruitmentoccursinneighborhoodswherepeopleknowaboutoneanotherandcheckeachotheroutinthenaturalcourseoftheirdailyinteractionsEnvironmentsselected for their criminality those which ldquoregular guysrdquo find morecostlyorlessattractivetopatronizethancriminalsdomakeidentificashy
ByitselfthoughthisstrategyworksonlyuptoapointItsavescrimshyinalsfromdealingbymistakewithlawshyabidingcitizensHoweverifthecostofhangingaroundinsuchenvironmentsisnotveryhighforanonshycriminaltheymaybecomeverydangerousplacesforcriminalspreciselytheplaceswhereundercoveragentswillconvergewhenattemptingtoinfiltrate criminal networks Singles bars increase the probability ofmeeting single people but they do not eliminate the probability ofmeetingpatronswhowhilemarriedgotheremerelypretendingtobesingle In the underworld where the stakes of mistaken identity arehigherifsomeonejustshowsupinabarfullofcriminalsheisnotlikelyto go far without further credentialsTo be reassured criminals needsigns thecostofwhicha lawshyenforcement agentor a spywouldfindharder topayRather thanbeing reliable signs in themselves selectiveenvironments merely offer better opportunities to gather further evishydencedirectlyandindirectly
Referrals
ldquoAnother method [to establish someonersquos criminal credentials] is byfindingoutwhatpeoplethestrangerknowsrdquo15IfCknowsthatAisacriminalCmayintroduceAtoBOrBcansimplyseeCwithAandinferthatAisonetooAgangstercalledJacksoninhisautobiographywroteldquoonthestreetIknowhundredsandhundredsofcharactersbutIdonotknowtheirnamesSayyouareacharacterandIrsquomacharacterandIseeyouwithacharacterthatIknowIhavenowayofcheckingyourcreditratingoranythingelsesoI judge you by whom you associate withIfIknowthatthispersonisagoodpersonandnotapolecatnotastoolpigeonnotthemanrsquosmanthenIhavetogiveyouthecreditforbeingall rightrdquo16 Incertaincriminalcirclesldquoyoursquodbe surprised Itrsquos averycloseshyknitthingamonghustlersYoumeetsomeoneyoursquovenevermetbeforeinaplaceyoursquoveneverseenbeforeyoufindoutsomeonetheyknowTheymayevenhaveheardofyourdquo17Interestinglythisimshypliesthatcriminalshavetobeextravigilantaboutwhomtheyareseen
Onewaytoacquiregoodevidenceofsomeonersquoscriminalitywhichinshytersects with the referral method exploits law enforcement itself Intermsof howeffectively they canmix andmatchkindred spirits thehangouts thatcriminals freelychoosecannotcompetewith theplacesthey are forced to go by the agents who fight against crime there isnothing like prison to mix like with like Prisons promote crime inmanyobviousways18teachingcriminalsnewskillsandbrutalmodesofbehaviorbuttheyalsodosolessobviouslybyshoulderingthecostsofadvertisingandidentifyingwhoisacriminaltobeginwith
JustbeingaprisonerisaclearandsimplesignthatoneiscriminallyinclinedThehardpart is paying the priceof going there in thefirstplaceButitispreciselythatcostthatmakesaprisontermsuchagoodsignofbeingarealcriminalParadoxicallythebetterthecriminaljusticesystemisthesaferitistoassumethatthecompanyputbehindbarswillbe invariably villainousThough there are surely innocent prisonersmanyareguiltythemoresothebetterthesystemOnecanalsobereashysonably sure that phonies peoplewho talkbig about their dangerouscriminaltendenciesbutdonothingwillnotendupinprisonTheinshyterpersonalconflictsthatarerifewithinprisonsasweshallseeinchapshyter4 furtherensure that thephoniesarequickly identifiedAndeventhough undercover policemen have certainly been sent to prison forshortperiodstogaincriminalcredentialsthelongerthetimeprisonersspendinjailthecloserwegettoprisonbeingaperfectdiscriminatingsignmdashnoonechoosestospendtwentyyearsbehindbarsforthesakeofposingasavillainDoingtimeinprisoncanthusbebothastigmaandabadgedependingonwhoislookingatitAnexshyconvictwhowishestoreturntothepathoftherighteouscanfinddoingsoveryhardbeshycausehistimespentinprisonidentifieshimasacriminalldquoOnceyoursquore
12 c h a p t e r 1
markedinprisonyoursquoredoneforrdquosaysadelinquentboyrecountinghisownstory19Butonewhointendstopersistinhisoldwayswillfindhispath smoothed and can display his prison credentials to further hiscriminalcareer
OnemaynotgoasfarasarrangingajailsentenceforoneselfforthepurposeoffosteringnewassociationswithkindredspiritsButonceinprison there is an abundance of opportunity to make villainous acshyquaintanceswhowillbeusefulafteroneleaves
Say that there are fifty quite well established thieves in MalmoumlonlythirtyofthosehaveafenceThosewhodonrsquotaretheyoungeronesaroundeighteenortwentywhohavenrsquotbeenaroundenoughsotheyrsquollhavetoasktheirfriendsorselltothievesForsomeonewhohasbeeninsideasmuchasmeitrsquosnoproblem20
IncarcerationasamarkofreliabilityworksataremoveIftwoformerprisonersdidnotactuallymeetinjailtheycanstilldisplayevidenceofhavingbeenldquointhecanrdquotoadvertisetheircredentialsSoevenifgoingtoprisonwasnotintendedasaperverseformofreacutesumeacutebuildingtherevelationof theexperiencecanbe andoften is an intentional signalTheldquoreferralrdquomethodIdiscussedaboveexploitsprisoncontactstoomdashforifoneisembeddedinanetworkoneisinabetterpositionbothtoreferothersandtobereferredbythemThereisevenevidencethatunshywittinglyunionsandorganizationsthataresupposedtohelpexshyinmatesto reentermainstream society alsohelpunreformedcriminals in theirbusiness21Notleastthesecharitableorganizationsassistthembycertishyfying their status as genuine exshyprisoners thus innocently facilitatingencounterswithactivevillains
whetherandhowfartheenhancingofonersquoscriminalidentityoffsetstheattemptsatrehabilitationthereismuchanecdotalevidencefromcrimishynalsrsquo biographies of the enhancing effectrsquos existence It starts early inyoungshyoffendersrsquoinstitutionsInhisautobiographyJimmyBoyleaScotshytishgangsterreminiscesthatwhenhewassixteen
theApprovedSchoolsurelyplayedavitalpartinmycriminaldeshyvelopmentItgavemeconnectionsthatIwastofindusefulinmyadultdaysItgavemeanintroductiontoguysfromtownsandcitshyiesthroughoutScotlandandfrommanyareasinGlasgowmanyofwhom grew up to be the top thieves or fighters in their areasThere isnodoubtatall thatmostof themgained inacriminalsensefromtheirApprovedSchoolexperience23
HewasdoinghisbesthewritestoavoidbeingcaughtldquobuteverytimeIwentintoprisonIbroadenedmycriminalhorizonsbymakingmoreandmoreconnections indifferent areasrdquo24MalcolmBralywho spentnearly seventeenyears invariousUSprisons forburglarywroteldquoHewasbrokeasIwasandhesuggestedwetrysomethingtogetherItwasreasonableWho is more likely to be trustworthy than someone youhavejustmetinjailrdquo25
CriminalandrebelorganizationsregardaprisonrecordasasignofdistinctionTheRussiancriminalfraternityknownasvorymadehavingbeeninaprisoncampaformalrequirementofmembership26AccordshyingtoMarekKaminskiatleastonememberoftheundergroundSolshyidarity movement in Poland provoked the communist secret servicestoputher inprisonsoshecould improveherreputationldquoUnderthewellshyprogressingperestroika in1987 thePolishcommunistsessentiallystoppedincarceratingtheopposition(sothelsquoincarcerationrsquowasabrief48hours)theystartedtalkswithselectedoppositiongroupsandmanyunderground politicians thought that there would be some role forthem to playwithin the communist regime soonThus the expectedcostofincarcerationwaslowandtheexpectedbenefitswerehighrdquo27
The lengthof time spent in prison further provides anldquoobjectiverdquomeasureoftherespectoneisowedrelativetoothergangmembersThus
14 c h a p t e r 1
Christopher Seymour writes of taking a drive with Japanese yakuza (mobsters)ldquoIntheloosehierarchyoftheHarashygumiKenis themostsenior in the automobile He has already served time in adult prisonwhereastheothershaveonlybeenthroughjuveniledetentionrdquo28LikeshywiseMarekKaminskimdashwhowhenhewasa sociologysophomore inthe1980swasarrestedbythePolishcommunistsecretpolicetogetherwithelevenothermembersofanundergroundSolidarnosc publishinghouseandjailedforfivemonthsmdashreportsldquoSomeofthePolishgrypsmen [inmateswhoaremembersofaprisonfraternityseechapter4]claimthatinthecaseofaprisonerwithasentenceof20+yearshedoesnothavetojointhegrypsmenformallyandsufferthecostsoftheinitiationritualsHeiseligibleforenjoyingallthebenefitsofthecastemembershyshipbyvirtueofthesentencersquoslengthrdquo29FortheRussianmafiaaswellldquothelengthoftimespentinprisonwasasourceofprestigeandasignofdistinction among the criminals who aspired to become voryrdquo30 In atelephoneconversation secretly recordedby Italianpolice thewifeofIvanYakovlev (thenames have been changed) aRussianmobster arshyrestedinItalyin199731usesthelengthofherhusbandrsquosprisonsentencetoinduceoneofhisassociatestoshowduerespectAssignedtothetaskbyherhusband shewarns theRussianwifeof theaccompliceMarioFerrarildquoIvanisbiggerthan[yourhusband]hehasbeeninprisonfor15yearsrdquoFerrarididnotenjoythesameprisoncredentialsthoughhehadclashedwiththelawinthepastfordrugdealingHewasnowmisbeshyhavingbeingoftendrunkanddisheveledandaccordingtoIvanswifedidnotshowenoughrespecttoIvanInasubsequentconversationbeshytweenthetwowomenFerrarirsquoswifeapologizedforherhusbandrsquosbeshyhavior She clearly took the point and repeated word for word whatIvanrsquoswifepreviouslytoldherldquo[Myhusband]understoodthatitisnotIvanwhomustlookforhimbutthathecleanandwelldressedmustgotoIvaninthecarandaskhimwhatneedstobedonebecauseIvanisbiggerthanheishehasbeeninprisonfor15yearsrdquo32
monlyacceptedviewthatldquopunishingacriminalmoreseverelyreducesthatindividualrsquossubsequentprobabilityofrecidivismrdquo33Sinceprisonersareassignedtominimumshylowshyorhighshysecurityprisonsonthebasisoftheirscoreonascalefrom1to10pointsldquointendedtoreflect[their]needforsupervisionrdquo34ChenandShapirowereabletocomparetherearrestratesofexshyinmateswhohadbeenoneithersideofthecutoffboundarshyiesthathadledthemtobeincarceratedinprisonswithdifferentsecushyrity levelsldquoinessenceweargue thatwithin a small interval aroundacutofftheallocationofprisonerstodifferentsecuritylevelsamountstoarandomassignmentrdquo35Althoughtheresultsarebasedonasmallnumberofcases948theystillenabletheauthorstorejectstronglythehypothshyesisthatlowerlevelsofprisonsecurityleadtomorerecidivismafterreshyleaseinsteadtheyindicateinmanywaysthattheoppositeeffectobtainsThe authorsrsquo interpretationof this effect refers to lower laborshymarketopportunities for highershysecurity exshyinmates and to peer effectsmdashldquoinmatesmayacquireskillslearnofnewprospectsordevelopcriminalcontactsrdquo36moreofteninhighershythaninlowershysecurityprisonsTheirresultsarealsoperfectlycompatiblewithanotherinterpretationhavingbeeninprisonswithastricterregimestrengthensthecertifyingeffectoncriminalcredentialsandgivesexshyinmatesfromtheseprisonsrelativeto those fromprisonswith lower security levelsgreatercredibilityonthecriminallabormarket
the two pairs have solved the identification problem in the past Butwhatabouttheelementarycaseinwhichreferralsarenotavailableornotpersuasiveorsafeenoughmdashcantwoagentsthenfindadirectsolushytiontotheproblem
It is hard to observe someone committing a crime in the naturalcourseofeventsbutvillainscancertainlyaskapotentialpartnerorreshycruittogivethemevidenceofhavingcommittedcrimesandcandosowithout resorting to an intermediaryThis can work if the crimes inquestionleaveatracethatcanbeknownorpossessedonlybytherealperpetrator One cannot just say that one has committed a crimemdashaphonymayhavereadaboutitinthepaperandsimplybeclaimingtobetheperpetratorOnehastoshowthebootyasitwereasinthefollowingcasePoliceinfourteencountriesincludingtheUnitedStatesarrestednearlytwohundredsuspectedmembersofanInternetchildpornograshyphyringtheWonderlandClubTojointheringonehadtoshowthatonepossessedtenthousandphotographsandbepreparedtosharethemwith other membersThe photographs were screened by a computerprogramwhichcheckedwhethertheyweredifferentfromoneanotherand fromthosealreadyavailable fromother sources37Thisaction sigshynaledthatprospectivemembershadcommittedacrimeandwereserishyouslycommittedtotheactivityofcommoninterestandcouldnotthusbeundercoveragents(Ireturntothiscaseinchapter3)
UltimatelycriminalscanalsoaskapotentialpartnerorrecruittoenshygageinadisplaycrimemdashanactthatanoncriminalwouldneverdomdashandtocommitthecrimeundertheireyesorinsuchawayastoleaveanunmistakablesignofauthorshipThenatureoftheillegalactrequesteddependsonthetypeofcrimeinwhichtheagentsareinvolvedandthelawsthatgovernitDivinetheLosAngelesprostitutewhoachievedherfifteenminutesoffameforadministeringoralsextoBritishactorHughGrant in 1995 revealedherparticularkindof testBefore agreeing totradesheaskedGranttoexposehimselfThereasonshesaidisthatanundercoverpolicemanwouldnotdothatforhewouldbebreakingthelawDivinebelievedonewondershowaccuratelythatexposingoneselfwasasignalonlyrealcustomerscouldafford
The same reasoning inspires a test appliedbydrugdealers inNew
17 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
YorkSincethemidshy1990sldquoaspolicehave intensifiedtheirassault thedealershavealsoadoptedmoreperilous tacticsFiveor six timeseachmonthundercoverinvestigatorsarenowforcedtousecocaineorheroinatgunpointtoprovetodealersthattheycanbetrustedAtleasttwiceamonth anofficer is shotorotherwisewoundedduring a stagedpurshychasesaypolicecommanderswhospokeonconditionofanonymityrdquo38
These kinds of tests are common in organizationswhere loyalty isparamount Before initiation mafia novicesmdashespecially those not alshyreadymembersoffamilieswithamafiatraditionmdashareaskedtocommitamurder(sometimeswouldshybemembersmovefirstandcommitseriouscrimesbeforeanyoneaskedthemtodoso)39Themafiausuallydoesnotkill anyonepurely for the sakeof a testmdashit optimizes byldquowhackingrdquosomeonewhowasmeanttobewhackedanywayand atthesametimetrying out the determination and bona fides of a noviceTheAryanBrotherhoodinprisonadoptedthesametesttogainmembershipcanshydidatesldquohadtokillwhomevertheBrotherhoodtargetedrdquo40AkindredoutfitknownastheAryanWarriorsalsorequiredwouldshybememberstopassatestldquousuallyabloodyassaultorinsomeinstancesadrugripshyofffrom a person outside of the brotherhoodrdquo41 But there are cases inwhichheinous crimes are committed purely as tests In a hairshyraisingaccountoflifeinyouthgangsinColombiathewriterEfraimMedinaReyes claims that it is not uncommon for new gangmembers to beasked to murder innocent friends or members of their own familywhich pushes the test to the extreme42 Revolutionary and resistancegroups deemed to be illegal by the incumbent government have alsousedthesametestBeingaskedtocommitamurderwasforinstanceacommonpractice in theAlgerianFLNSometimes the leaderswouldpick victims more or less at random to see if prospective memberswouldobeyevenmeaninglessorders43
ThismethodexploitsthelawwhichrestrictsthelawshyabidingundershycoveragentsrsquooptionsandturnsittothecriminalsrsquoadvantageIfhowshyeverlawshyenforcementagenciesgivetheirundercoveroperativesgreaterdiscretion to act against the law for the sakeofpersuading thegrouptheyaretryingtoinfiltrateoftheirbonafidesthepowerofthesesignalsisweakened for theagentcannowaffordat least someof themThe
18 c h a p t e r 1
degreesoffreedomvaryfromtimetotimeandfromagencytoagencyPoliceinNewYorkarenowldquoinstructedtoavoidtakingthedrugsunless their lives are in dangerrdquoIfdealersreadtheNew York Timeswherethisinshyformationwaspublishedtheyknowthatforcingbuyerstoingestdrugsby threatening their lives isnowauseless test for itno longerdistinshyguishesgenuinebuyersfromundercoveragents
BeforediscussingthisproblemfurtherIwillpresentthecaseofFBIspecial agent Joseph Pistone aka Donnie Brasco who infiltrated theNewYorkmafiaandcameclosetobeinginitiatedIknowofnobettercase for illustratingall the typesofcostshydiscriminating signalsusedbycriminalsmdashand by those who try to fool them Donnie Brasco pershysuadedthemobstersofhiscriminalcredentialsbyemployingabreathshytakingrangeofsubtlesignalsandnarratedhisexperienceinabookmdasharguablythemostvividethnographyoftheUSmafiafromldquowithinrdquo44
Entering the mob world is needless to say very hardldquoAssociates ofwiseguysdonrsquotdealwithpeopletheydonrsquotknoworwhosomebodyelsedoesnrsquotvouchforrdquo45PriortoPistonersquosinfiltrationtheFBIlackedexpeshyrienceDuringJEdgarHooverrsquosreignatthebureauundercoverworkwasrarelyusedldquobecauseitcouldbeadirtyjobthatcouldenduptaintshyingtheagentsrdquo46AndalthoughithadbeenusedsinceldquosofarasweknewtheFBIhadneverplantedoneofitsownagentsinthemafiardquo47Yettheoperation itwas about to attemptwasextraordinarily shrewdPistoneneededtobuildawholebarrageofsignalswhichtakentogethercouldpersuadethemobstersthathewasarealbadguyAndthatiswhatheandhishandlerssetouttodomindingthatthelawconstrainedhisfreeshydomldquoTheFBIwouldnrsquotletmeactuallygooutonhijackingsandburshyglariesbecausethecrewwentarmedrdquoPistonewrites48
19 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
PistoneneededanamehedecideditwaseasiertosticktoDonnieBrasco the name he had used in a previous undercover operation inFloridaHeneededaplausiblebiographythatcouldbecheckedorbetshyterhardtocheckheposedasanorphanandabachelorHesaidhehadbeenraisedinanorphanageinPittsburghthatburneddowntherewereno records leftThe story needed to be simpleldquoThe fewer [lies] youhave to tell the feweryouhave torememberrdquohenotes49HesaidhehadspenttimeontheWestCoastandinFloridawhereinfacthehadbeenbeforeasldquoDonaldBrascordquointhepreviousoperationandhadesshytablishedsomecontactsHeneededaldquoprofessionrdquoandsettledonjewelrytheftsomethingonecandoaloneandthatdoesnotrequiretheuseofweaponsmdashsomething moreover that allowed him to use confiscatedstolen jewels to sell so he would not have to break the law to stealthem50
Hecouldcountonadvantagesthatwouldhavebeenhardtofakehadtheynotbeenpartofhis realbiographyHis Italianancestryprovidedhim with theldquorightrdquo ethnic background He had grown up in theldquorightrdquoneighborhoodandasayoungsterhungoutinldquojointsrdquopatronshyizedbywiseguysldquoYouhad tobe streetshysmartevencockysometimesEverygoodundercoveragentIhaveknowngrewuponthestreetlikeIdidandwasagoodstreetagentbeforebecominganundercoveragentOnthestreetyoulearnwhatrsquoswhatandwhorsquoswhoYoulearnhowtoreadsituationsandhandleyourselfYou cannot fake the ability It showsrdquo51
It is also interesting to know what he chose not to say or do Heavoided acting in a way that could raise suspicionldquoNo street guy isgoingtothrowmoneyallovertheplaceunlesshersquostryingtoattractatshytentionrdquoPistonereveals ldquoThenthequestionisWhyishetryingtoatshytractattentionrdquo52BydoingsoheeitherbecomesatargetinthatpeoplethinktheycanrobhimorraisessuspicionsthathemaybeacopDonshyniewasparsimonioustooinrevealingdetailsofhislifewhetherrealorphonyforldquoyouneverknowwhatpartofwhatyoudowillbecomepartofyourhistorywhenpeoplewanttocheckonyourdquo53
Ifthey[themobsters]werenrsquotscheminganddreamingtheyweretellingwarstoriesreminiscencesabouttheirtimeinvariousjailsandprisonsEverybodydidtimeinthecanItwaspartofthepriceofdoingbusinessTheyknewallaboutdifferent jailscellblocksguards I had enough phony background set up to establish mycredentialsasaseriouscriminaltoshowthatIwastoughenoughtodo time if Ihad towithout turningratBut I never claimed to have done any prison timebecause IdidnrsquotknowthoseplacesandthatcouldhavejustrippedmeupIfyoudothreetofiveyearsyouget to know the guardsmdashwhat guardrsquos on what tierYou get toknowtheinmatesguyswhoaredoingfifteentotwentyguyswhoarestillthereTheyknewthelingoandtheslangEverybodyreshymembersthoserelationshipsandthattime54
IndirectlyPistonersquos choice showswhat a robust signalhavingbeen inprison is It isnot something that canbeeasily fakedguyswhohavetrulybeentherewouldquicklyspotanimpostor
Donniewentonforacoupleofmonths
playing this game of being noticedwithout being noticed slideintothebadguyworldandbecomeacceptedwithoutdrawingatshytentionYoupushalittlehereandtherebutverygentlyBriefinshytroductions short conversations appearances one place and anshyotherhintsaboutwhatyoursquoreuptocasualmannerismsdemeanorand lingo that youknowyourway aroundmdashall these become atrail of credibility you leave behind youAbove all you cannothurryYoucannotseemeagertomeetcertainpeoplemakecertaincontactslearnaboutcertainscoresThe quickest way to get tagged as a cop is to try to move too fastYouhavetoshowthatyouhavethetime to play by the rules of the street and that includes lettingpeoplecheckyououtandcometoyou55
Hewouldphonethebar leavingmessages forhimself just toestablishthathehadconnectionsandconveythebeliefpeopleknewhepatronshyizedthebar57ldquoWhenIwentotherplacesIcouldsayrdquoPistonewritesldquolsquoIbeenhangingoutat thatplace for fourorfivemonthsrsquoAnd theycould check it outThe guys had been hanging around in this placewouldsaylsquoYeahDonBrascohasbeencominginhereforquiteawhileandheseemsallrightnevertriedtopullanythingonusrsquordquo58
Wealsoread ldquoYoucanrsquotgoinallthetimebyyourselfbecausetheythinkyoursquoreeitherafagoracopAnditrsquosgoodtovarycompanysotheydonrsquot see you with the same people all the time and wonder whatrsquosuprdquo59SoDonniewouldbringanoccasionalfemaleorChuckanotherundercover agentThanks to Chuck he was introduced toAlbertldquoahalfshyasswiseguyrdquoaconnectedshytobutnotamadememberof theCoshylombofamily
Donnie eventually became the proteacutegeacute of a made guy BenjaminldquoLeftyGunsrdquoRuggieroandspentsixyearswiththemafiosilivingtheirdaily lives and sharing their crooked dealingsmdashconstantly exposed totheriskofbeingdiscoveredandkilledInthecourseoftheoperationhewasofferedtheopportunitynotonlytohandlethebookmakingforthemob boss of Milwaukee Frank Balistrieri but also to get inside theskimmingoperationinLasVegasBalistrierisaidhehadagoodcrewbuttheywereldquoolderkindof set in theirways Icoulduse someyoungerguysthatIcouldtrusttotakeoveracoupleofmyclubsandotherbusishynessesYoungerguyswouldbeabletorelatetothewaysoftodayrsquosbusishynessworldrdquo62Leftyvouched forDonnieldquoI told [Balistrieri]rdquoDonnie
22 c h a p t e r 1
saysldquoyouaremybloodrdquo63ButacceptingwouldhavemadeitimpossibleforDonnietoseehisrealfamilysoheturneddowntheofferWhilethatdecisionangeredLeftyitalsoconferredanadvantageasitfurthersigshynaledDonniersquoscredibilityldquoOnethingIhadinmyfavorseenthroughanymobguyrsquoseyeswas thatno cop would ever turn that job downSo Iwouldbeabovesuspicioninthatregardrdquo64
Donniecameupwithmanyother signalsbelieved tobeof akindthat a cop could not afford He pretended to beat up someone whoowedmoney toLeftyHe roughedup a comedianwhohad annoyedLeftyattheThunderbirdaMiamirestaurant65Furthermoreldquotypicallywhatanundercovercopwilldo inabuyshybust situation is try tobuysomethingfromyouCops always buy never sellI was going to sellrdquoPistonereveals66mdashthankstothefactthattheFBIallowedhimdiscretioninthatregard One very special commodity he bought though Lefty RugshygierorsquosprotectionTheFBIdishedoutatotalof$40000forthispurposewhileDonniewasundercoverldquoTheywerepayinghimforhisservicesasalsquowiseguyrsquotoinsuretheyhadtheprotectionoftheBonannofamilyin the event another family tried to interfere with their businessrdquo67
WhilepaymentwasostensiblyaimedatcompensatingLeftyitwasalsoliterallyacostlysignalandintentionallydesignedtoappeartobesoldquoBygivinghimmoneyContiandRossi[twoundercoveragentswhocolshylaboratedwithDonnie] ledLefty tobelieve that theywerewilling tobecomeinvolvedwithhimandhe trusted them as bad guysrdquo68
Mafiosiwerenot taken inbecause theyweredumbratherPistonewasunbelievablysmartandresilientanditjustwasveryhardformobshysterstothinkthattakentogetherallthethingshedidanddidnotdowerenotnearshyperfectdiscriminatingsignalsTheFBIwaslatercriticizedforoperatingverynearorevenbeyondthe limitsof the lawBut thisrelative freedomfooledthemafiosibecause theyassumedthatanunshydercoveragentwouldnotpaythecostofbreakingthelawDivinecouldnothavebankedonherneatlittletestifagentsofthelawhadbeenalshylowedtoexposethemselvesThemobsterswerecheatednotjustinthesense thatDonnieBrascoby faking forging andpretending successshyfullymimickedarealbadguybutalsointhesensethathedidsomereal badactions
23 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
In a short biography ofBonanno familymembersmdashposted on theInternetforawhilethenremovedmdashLeftywasdescribedasldquothebiggestidiotinthehistoryofLaCosaNostraHisblindgreedandlackofinshystinctwerefelthardintheAmericanmafiardquoAndyetLeftywascarefulevenyearsafterDonniehadbeenacceptedasaconnectedguyDonniewasassistedbyotherundercoveragentsoneofwhomwasldquoRossirdquoTotestwhetherRossiwasanundercoveragentLeftydeliberatelyldquolostrdquoaplaneticketthatRossihadbookedonhisowncreditcardforLefty(thiswasacovertwayofpayingprotectiontoLefty)ldquoBypretendingtolosetheticketLeftywantedtoseehowRossi reactedIfhewasanagentLeftyreasonedhewouldgetnervousbecausehewouldprobablyhavetoaccount for the ticket tohisofficeplushewouldbeworried thatsomebodylsquointheunderworldbusinessrsquomightmeanwhilefindtheticketandcheckouttheAmericanExpressnumbertoseeifitwasagovernshymentnumberrdquo69
WhenitwasfinallyrevealedthatDonniewasanundercoveragentthemobsterswereshockedanddidnotbelieveittillDonnieactuallytestishyfied in court against them His operation managed to send many ofthemmostlymembersoftheBonannofamilytojail71
ThemobsterslearnedtheirlessonandincreasedthepriceofthetestsNow not just one butldquotwo mafiosi have to vouch for the proposedmemberrdquoldquoTheyhavetosaytheyhaveknowntheproposedmemberifnotsincechildhoodthenatleastforfifteentotwentyyearsrdquo72Accordshying to theFBI theyalso resumeda traditionalpractice thathadbeenabandonedldquoaproposedmembermustlsquomakehisbonesrsquoorkillsomeonebeforehecanbecomeamadeguyTheyhavedonesobecause no agent
24 c h a p t e r 1
would commit murder while posing as a bad guyrdquo73Murderisreallyapershyfectlydiscriminatingsignalofbeingabadguyasignalthatnoundershycover agentnot evenonebelonging to a rather lax lawshyenforcementagencycouldafford
Thisentryrequirementmdashwhichshowshowcriminalactscanbepershypetratednotmerelyfortheirimmediateinstrumentalvaluebutalsofortheir signaling valuemdashhad never been explicitly removed but it wasno longerusedwithgreat determination In truthDominickldquoSonnyBlackrdquoNapolitanowhoeventuallybecameDonniersquosmainmentorandplannedtoproposeDonnieformembershiphadaskedDonnietomurshydersomeoneldquoHegavemeacontractsothatIwouldhavethatcredenshytialwhenheputmynameuprdquoButtheopportunitytocarryitoutdidnotariseforAnthonyBrunoIndelicatotheintendedvictimwentsucshycessfullyintohidingDonnieshowedthathewasdoingallhecouldtotrackIndelicatodownanditwasnotthoughttobehisfaultwhenhefailedThusalthoughhedidnotcarryoutthekillinghestillmanagedtoshowhiswillingnesstodoitandafewmonthslaterSonnyputhisnameforwardformembershipAtthatpointtheFBIdecidedtostoptheoperationandDonnieresumedonceagainhisrealidentity
Undercoveragentsmdashwhohavetopersuadethegrouptheyaimtoinfilshytrateof theircriminalcredentialsmdasharea serious threat forunlikesolomimicstheycandrawontheresourcesofstateagenciesandcanaffordcomplexmimicryactswhichinvolveposingforgingcredentialstrainshyingandfundsStill itcanbenear impossibleto infiltrategroupsproshytected by an array of features that cannot be successfully imitatedmdashwhichinotherwordsperfectlydistinguishtherealfromthephonyFor
EvenaMuslimCIAofficerwithnativeshylanguageabilities(andtheAgencyaccordingtoseveralactiveshydutycaseofficershasveryfewoperativesfromMiddleEasternbackgrounds)coulddolittlemorein thisenvironment [PeshawarPakistan] thanablondblueshyeyedallshyAmericanCaseofficerscannotlongescapetheembassiesandconsulates in which they serveA US official overseasphotoshygraphedandregisteredwiththelocalintelligenceandsecuritysershyvicescanrsquottravelmuchparticularlyinapoliceshyrichcountrylikePakistanwithouttheldquohostrdquoservicesknowingaboutitAnofficerwho tries togonativepretending tobe a trueshybelieving radicalMuslim searching for brothers in the causewillmake a fool ofhimselfquickly
UndercoveroperationsareaproblematicformofanticrimeactivityforanotherreasonaswellThelogicofcostshydiscriminatingsignalsinclinesundercoveragentstogobeyondinnocentpretensionsandsupportinishytiativesof thesamekinda truecriminalor terroristwouldundertakeSincelawshyenforcementagenciesareunderpressuretokeeptheiragentssafetheypushfordiscretiontobegrantedtothemAndsometimestheundercoveragentsthemselvesunbeknownsttotheiremployerschoosetobreakthelawbecausetheyworryabouttheircredibilityintheeyesof the host group and the consequences if they are discoveredThememoirsofundercoveragentsandspiesarerepletewiththisdilemma
According to incomplete calculations there were about 6500agents provocateurs and other political investigations specialistsoperatinginvariouspoliticalpartiesandorganizationsintheRusshy
26 c h a p t e r 1
sianEmpireatthestartofthetwentiethcenturythepoliceandgendarmesoftensetprioritiesthemselvesattimesevenattheriskofthelivesofhighshyrankinggovernmentofficialsandmembersoftheimperialfamilyMattersconcerningthesecurityofthesecretagentswereoftoppriorityandmaintainingthestrongpositionsofagentswithintheterroristorganizationsof theSocialistshyRevolushytionarieswasconsideredmore important thanpreventingassassishynationsevenagainstofficialsofthegovernment75
AfamouscasewasthatofEvnoAzefanagentwhooperatedinrevolushytionary circles for aboutfifteen years From 1893on hewas a policeagentAsastudentinaGermanpolytechnicschoolhetooktheinitiashytiveofofferinghisservicestothepolicedepartmentat therateof50rublespermonth afterwhichhe attachedhimself to a foreigngroupcallingitselftheUnionofRussianSocialistshyRevolutionariesHeknewaboutthemajorityofterroristactsbeingplannedbytheSRsbuthedidnotalwaysreporttohisbossesaboutthemNeverthelessthepolicepaidhimwellforhisservices76
EpisodesofthiskindarenotrestrictedtopredemocraticsocietiesAnilluminatingcaseoccurredinCanadaAtitspeakin1993theHeritageFront was the largest and bestshyorganized neoshyNazi group in Canadaboastingacontactlistof1800namesGrantBristowcofounderandaleadingmemberofthiswhiteracistgroupturnedouttobeapaidinshyformantoftheCanadianSecurityIntelligenceServiceldquoBristoworchesshytrated aharassment campaign that terrorizedFront enemies harboredleadinginternationalracistsinhisownhomeinclearviolationofbothCSISrulesandtheImmigrationActandassistedintheFrontrsquosinfiltrashytionoftheReformPartyrdquo77ldquoCSISmoleGrantBristowwasanlsquoagentprovocateurrsquowhowithhisspymastersbrokeCanadianlawsandinternalCSISregulationsagroupofMPshaveconcludedBristowrsquosleadershyshiproleinthewhiteracistHeritageFrontthereportsuggestsmay have led to the very events that caused CSIS to keep him in place for several more yearsrdquo78 An inquiry by the Security Intelligence Review CommitteeintotheaffairplayeddowntheaccusationsbutitisclearfromthereportthattherewereseriousbreachesForinstanceontheissueofharassment
27 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
of antiracistmilitants and Jewish communitymembers thedocumentconcludesthatldquoanyinformantwhoenterstheHeritageFrontorasimishylargrouphastomaintainhiscredibilitywithhisassociatesotherwisehewouldnot remain a trustedmember for longThe questionwewerefacedwithwaswhethertheCSISsource[GrantBristow]hadremainedwithintheboundsofappropriatebehaviourwhiletryingtomaintainhiscredibilityTheanswerwearrivedatwasthatin certain circumstances he had not[emphasisintheoriginal]rdquo79
Eveniftheyareonlysupposedtocollectinformationoncriminalorsubversiveactivitiesspiesmayendupproducingmoreofsuchactivitieson theirown initiativeThey tend tobecomeagentsprovocateursnotnecessarilyfortheconspiratorialreasonswhyJosephConradrsquosprotagoshynistinThe Secret Agentdoes(VerlocwasinthepayofanunnamedforshyeignembassythatwantedtopersuadetheBritishtotakeatougherlineagainsttheanarchistsandusedhisdimshywittednephewtostageanldquoanarshychistrdquobombingattack)buttypicallyonlyoutoffearofnotbeingcredshyibleenoughandofriskingtheirlivesThecoststhatmaketheirsignalscredibleintheeyesoftheirtargetsareafterallldquoonlyrdquothoseofbreakinglegalconstraintsTheymayneverbecaughtgiventheintrinsicopacityofwhattheydoandifcaughttheyarenotsolikelytobepunishedcershytainlynotbydeathAndontheothersideoftheequationtheyhavetoconsider the personal costs of failing to persuadeWhen onersquos life isthreatened thecostsofbreakingthe lawmaysuddenlyappear smallerthanthoseofobeyingitThesetofthosewhoarereadytorisktheirlifesacrificetheirfamilyanddeceivedangerouscriminalsforlongperiodsoftimewhileatthesametimeremainingstrictlyalawshyabidingcitizenmustbeextremelysmall
ThisraisesaninterestingquandaryforthecriminalsorterroristswhoaretryingtotestthebonafidesofothersForbyincreasingtheseverityofthepunishmentmetedoutagainstundercoveragentswhoarediscovshyered they encourage the latter to afford costly signals that once disshyplayedmaymakeitimpossibleforthebadguystosaywhethertheposhytentialrecruitsareundercoveragentsinthefirstplace
undercover agentmayfind it preferable to refrain from swallowing itevenatthecostofrevealinghistruetypeforhedoesnotwanttobreakthelawBycontrasttherealcriminalwhowantstodealwiththedrugdealersmayprefertopaythecostofthephysicalillnesscausedbyswalshylowing forhe isentirelyateasewithbreaking the lawThekeyextracost that discriminates between the real criminal and the undercoveragentisthecostofbreakingthelawwhichthemimicfaceswhilethegenuinearticledoesnotAharsherpunishmenthowevercanreversetheequationandmakeitcheaperfortheundercoveragenttoswallowratherthannot swallowevenat thecostofbreaking the lawandthusmakehimbehaviorallyindistinguishablefromtherealcriminalWhenadminshyisteredunder the threatof theharsherpunishment the testno longerseparatesonetypefromtheotherByfailingtoappreciatethisquandaryandthreateningdeathagainstthosewhorefusetoswallowthedrugthedealers fail to realize that theyaredeactivating thevery sourceof thereliabilityoftheirtestforunderthatthreattheagentsarenowallowed(andwouldinanycasefeelinclined)toswallowthedrug
CONCLUSIONS
OncesomeoneintentoncrimeidentifiesapotentialpartnerasabonafidecriminalhehassolvedoneproblemonlytolandinanotherequallydifficultoneHenowhastoestablishwhetherhispartnerisnotjustacrookbutanhonorableoneAfterHughGrantexposedhimselfDivineknewthathewasnotanundercovercopforshebelievedthatcopsdonotdothatYetshestilldidnotknowwhatkindofacustomerhewasProstitutesareconstantlyonguardagainstrobbersorpervertswhoposeasordinarycustomers80AnyonewhoworksoutsidethelawismoreexshyposedthanordinarybusinessmentobecomingthepreyofothercrimishynalswhomimicbeingacriminalofthehonestsortAstreetshydrugdealerwhosuccessfullyadvertises tocustomersmayalsoattract robberswhopretend to be customers in order to get close to the dealers and robthem81Acriminalhastobeonguardagainstbothkindsofmimicslawshyenforcementagentsandcriminalsofthewrongsort
29 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
Ifhonestywerethoughttobeatraitofcertaincriminalsandnotothshyersinordertoestablishwhetherapotentialpartnerishonestonecouldfollowthesamestrategyoneusesforidentifyingwhethersomeoneisacriminal tobeginwithThe samekindof costly signalswouldbe reshyquiredforcriminalstopersuadeoneanotherthattheywerethehonesttypeIncertaincasesthegametheyplayisindeedoneofsignalingtheirtypeHowever inmost circumstancescriminals tend to thinkofeachotherasbeingof justonetypenamelythedishonestoneandbelievethatgivenhalfachancetheywilltakeadvantageofeachotherTheonlyway inwhich they can comealmost toldquotrustrdquo eachother enough tocooperateisthereforenotbysignalingtheirtypebuteitherbyenforcshyingtheirpartnersrsquohonestywiththethreatofsomekindofretaliationormoregenerallybyputtingthemselvesandtheirpartnersinaconditionwherebyldquohonestyrdquo rather thancheating is theirbest courseof actionwhatevertheirtypeIshallexploresomeofthestrategiestheyadoptinchapters2and3
9 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
ingconditionagivensignalscanconvincearationalreceiverofasigshynalerrsquoscriminalityifgiventheexpectedbenefitsarationalmimicwhocouldgainbyposingasacriminalfinds s toocostlytoproduceortodisplayInotherwordsa convincing signal of a criminal type is that which only a true criminal can afford to produce and to sendThatdoesnotmeanthatsuchsignalingwillnecessarilybeverycostlyforarealcriminalInthecourseofhiscareerhemayhaveacquiredmuchrawmaterialthatcanbedisplayedatlittleextracostItsufficesthatthesignalbetoocostlyforthemimictoafford
SelectiveEnvironments
Agood indeedthebest signofacriminal typeconsistsofcourseofobserving someone committing a crimeThis is not likely to occurthoughforpeopledonotnormallywishtobeseenengaginginvillainshyousactsThis isaconstraint thatordinarybusinessmendonot faceasthey can showwhat they do to third partieswithout fear of the lawBy contrast criminals have to resort as much as possible to indirectmethods
Acommonstrategythatallowscriminalsinsearchofoneanothertoexchangesignalsconsistsoffrequentingplaceswherenoncriminalsarenot likely tobe foundwhich is likepatronizingaldquosinglesbarrdquowhensearchingforamateldquoTosearchforaccomplicesandtodisposeofillegalgoodsadultoffenderspatronisethesameplacesmakethesamekindsof transactionsandoftenreside in the sameareardquo14Theyhangout inbars gambling dens boxing gyms and social clubs full of other menduringnormalworkinghoursorlateatnightattimesthatiswhenacommonpersonisotherwiseoccupiedOrtheyliveinroughneighborshyhoodsforthesamereasonwellshytoshydocitizensmoveoutofthemmdashbothdreadmakingencountersofthewrongsortInhisresearchoncrimeinNewYorkCitySullivan(1989)foundthatmuchrecruitmentoccursinneighborhoodswherepeopleknowaboutoneanotherandcheckeachotheroutinthenaturalcourseoftheirdailyinteractionsEnvironmentsselected for their criminality those which ldquoregular guysrdquo find morecostlyorlessattractivetopatronizethancriminalsdomakeidentificashy
ByitselfthoughthisstrategyworksonlyuptoapointItsavescrimshyinalsfromdealingbymistakewithlawshyabidingcitizensHoweverifthecostofhangingaroundinsuchenvironmentsisnotveryhighforanonshycriminaltheymaybecomeverydangerousplacesforcriminalspreciselytheplaceswhereundercoveragentswillconvergewhenattemptingtoinfiltrate criminal networks Singles bars increase the probability ofmeeting single people but they do not eliminate the probability ofmeetingpatronswhowhilemarriedgotheremerelypretendingtobesingle In the underworld where the stakes of mistaken identity arehigherifsomeonejustshowsupinabarfullofcriminalsheisnotlikelyto go far without further credentialsTo be reassured criminals needsigns thecostofwhicha lawshyenforcement agentor a spywouldfindharder topayRather thanbeing reliable signs in themselves selectiveenvironments merely offer better opportunities to gather further evishydencedirectlyandindirectly
Referrals
ldquoAnother method [to establish someonersquos criminal credentials] is byfindingoutwhatpeoplethestrangerknowsrdquo15IfCknowsthatAisacriminalCmayintroduceAtoBOrBcansimplyseeCwithAandinferthatAisonetooAgangstercalledJacksoninhisautobiographywroteldquoonthestreetIknowhundredsandhundredsofcharactersbutIdonotknowtheirnamesSayyouareacharacterandIrsquomacharacterandIseeyouwithacharacterthatIknowIhavenowayofcheckingyourcreditratingoranythingelsesoI judge you by whom you associate withIfIknowthatthispersonisagoodpersonandnotapolecatnotastoolpigeonnotthemanrsquosmanthenIhavetogiveyouthecreditforbeingall rightrdquo16 Incertaincriminalcirclesldquoyoursquodbe surprised Itrsquos averycloseshyknitthingamonghustlersYoumeetsomeoneyoursquovenevermetbeforeinaplaceyoursquoveneverseenbeforeyoufindoutsomeonetheyknowTheymayevenhaveheardofyourdquo17Interestinglythisimshypliesthatcriminalshavetobeextravigilantaboutwhomtheyareseen
Onewaytoacquiregoodevidenceofsomeonersquoscriminalitywhichinshytersects with the referral method exploits law enforcement itself Intermsof howeffectively they canmix andmatchkindred spirits thehangouts thatcriminals freelychoosecannotcompetewith theplacesthey are forced to go by the agents who fight against crime there isnothing like prison to mix like with like Prisons promote crime inmanyobviousways18teachingcriminalsnewskillsandbrutalmodesofbehaviorbuttheyalsodosolessobviouslybyshoulderingthecostsofadvertisingandidentifyingwhoisacriminaltobeginwith
JustbeingaprisonerisaclearandsimplesignthatoneiscriminallyinclinedThehardpart is paying the priceof going there in thefirstplaceButitispreciselythatcostthatmakesaprisontermsuchagoodsignofbeingarealcriminalParadoxicallythebetterthecriminaljusticesystemisthesaferitistoassumethatthecompanyputbehindbarswillbe invariably villainousThough there are surely innocent prisonersmanyareguiltythemoresothebetterthesystemOnecanalsobereashysonably sure that phonies peoplewho talkbig about their dangerouscriminaltendenciesbutdonothingwillnotendupinprisonTheinshyterpersonalconflictsthatarerifewithinprisonsasweshallseeinchapshyter4 furtherensure that thephoniesarequickly identifiedAndeventhough undercover policemen have certainly been sent to prison forshortperiodstogaincriminalcredentialsthelongerthetimeprisonersspendinjailthecloserwegettoprisonbeingaperfectdiscriminatingsignmdashnoonechoosestospendtwentyyearsbehindbarsforthesakeofposingasavillainDoingtimeinprisoncanthusbebothastigmaandabadgedependingonwhoislookingatitAnexshyconvictwhowishestoreturntothepathoftherighteouscanfinddoingsoveryhardbeshycausehistimespentinprisonidentifieshimasacriminalldquoOnceyoursquore
12 c h a p t e r 1
markedinprisonyoursquoredoneforrdquosaysadelinquentboyrecountinghisownstory19Butonewhointendstopersistinhisoldwayswillfindhispath smoothed and can display his prison credentials to further hiscriminalcareer
OnemaynotgoasfarasarrangingajailsentenceforoneselfforthepurposeoffosteringnewassociationswithkindredspiritsButonceinprison there is an abundance of opportunity to make villainous acshyquaintanceswhowillbeusefulafteroneleaves
Say that there are fifty quite well established thieves in MalmoumlonlythirtyofthosehaveafenceThosewhodonrsquotaretheyoungeronesaroundeighteenortwentywhohavenrsquotbeenaroundenoughsotheyrsquollhavetoasktheirfriendsorselltothievesForsomeonewhohasbeeninsideasmuchasmeitrsquosnoproblem20
IncarcerationasamarkofreliabilityworksataremoveIftwoformerprisonersdidnotactuallymeetinjailtheycanstilldisplayevidenceofhavingbeenldquointhecanrdquotoadvertisetheircredentialsSoevenifgoingtoprisonwasnotintendedasaperverseformofreacutesumeacutebuildingtherevelationof theexperiencecanbe andoften is an intentional signalTheldquoreferralrdquomethodIdiscussedaboveexploitsprisoncontactstoomdashforifoneisembeddedinanetworkoneisinabetterpositionbothtoreferothersandtobereferredbythemThereisevenevidencethatunshywittinglyunionsandorganizationsthataresupposedtohelpexshyinmatesto reentermainstream society alsohelpunreformedcriminals in theirbusiness21Notleastthesecharitableorganizationsassistthembycertishyfying their status as genuine exshyprisoners thus innocently facilitatingencounterswithactivevillains
whetherandhowfartheenhancingofonersquoscriminalidentityoffsetstheattemptsatrehabilitationthereismuchanecdotalevidencefromcrimishynalsrsquo biographies of the enhancing effectrsquos existence It starts early inyoungshyoffendersrsquoinstitutionsInhisautobiographyJimmyBoyleaScotshytishgangsterreminiscesthatwhenhewassixteen
theApprovedSchoolsurelyplayedavitalpartinmycriminaldeshyvelopmentItgavemeconnectionsthatIwastofindusefulinmyadultdaysItgavemeanintroductiontoguysfromtownsandcitshyiesthroughoutScotlandandfrommanyareasinGlasgowmanyofwhom grew up to be the top thieves or fighters in their areasThere isnodoubtatall thatmostof themgained inacriminalsensefromtheirApprovedSchoolexperience23
HewasdoinghisbesthewritestoavoidbeingcaughtldquobuteverytimeIwentintoprisonIbroadenedmycriminalhorizonsbymakingmoreandmoreconnections indifferent areasrdquo24MalcolmBralywho spentnearly seventeenyears invariousUSprisons forburglarywroteldquoHewasbrokeasIwasandhesuggestedwetrysomethingtogetherItwasreasonableWho is more likely to be trustworthy than someone youhavejustmetinjailrdquo25
CriminalandrebelorganizationsregardaprisonrecordasasignofdistinctionTheRussiancriminalfraternityknownasvorymadehavingbeeninaprisoncampaformalrequirementofmembership26AccordshyingtoMarekKaminskiatleastonememberoftheundergroundSolshyidarity movement in Poland provoked the communist secret servicestoputher inprisonsoshecould improveherreputationldquoUnderthewellshyprogressingperestroika in1987 thePolishcommunistsessentiallystoppedincarceratingtheopposition(sothelsquoincarcerationrsquowasabrief48hours)theystartedtalkswithselectedoppositiongroupsandmanyunderground politicians thought that there would be some role forthem to playwithin the communist regime soonThus the expectedcostofincarcerationwaslowandtheexpectedbenefitswerehighrdquo27
The lengthof time spent in prison further provides anldquoobjectiverdquomeasureoftherespectoneisowedrelativetoothergangmembersThus
14 c h a p t e r 1
Christopher Seymour writes of taking a drive with Japanese yakuza (mobsters)ldquoIntheloosehierarchyoftheHarashygumiKenis themostsenior in the automobile He has already served time in adult prisonwhereastheothershaveonlybeenthroughjuveniledetentionrdquo28LikeshywiseMarekKaminskimdashwhowhenhewasa sociologysophomore inthe1980swasarrestedbythePolishcommunistsecretpolicetogetherwithelevenothermembersofanundergroundSolidarnosc publishinghouseandjailedforfivemonthsmdashreportsldquoSomeofthePolishgrypsmen [inmateswhoaremembersofaprisonfraternityseechapter4]claimthatinthecaseofaprisonerwithasentenceof20+yearshedoesnothavetojointhegrypsmenformallyandsufferthecostsoftheinitiationritualsHeiseligibleforenjoyingallthebenefitsofthecastemembershyshipbyvirtueofthesentencersquoslengthrdquo29FortheRussianmafiaaswellldquothelengthoftimespentinprisonwasasourceofprestigeandasignofdistinction among the criminals who aspired to become voryrdquo30 In atelephoneconversation secretly recordedby Italianpolice thewifeofIvanYakovlev (thenames have been changed) aRussianmobster arshyrestedinItalyin199731usesthelengthofherhusbandrsquosprisonsentencetoinduceoneofhisassociatestoshowduerespectAssignedtothetaskbyherhusband shewarns theRussianwifeof theaccompliceMarioFerrarildquoIvanisbiggerthan[yourhusband]hehasbeeninprisonfor15yearsrdquoFerrarididnotenjoythesameprisoncredentialsthoughhehadclashedwiththelawinthepastfordrugdealingHewasnowmisbeshyhavingbeingoftendrunkanddisheveledandaccordingtoIvanswifedidnotshowenoughrespecttoIvanInasubsequentconversationbeshytweenthetwowomenFerrarirsquoswifeapologizedforherhusbandrsquosbeshyhavior She clearly took the point and repeated word for word whatIvanrsquoswifepreviouslytoldherldquo[Myhusband]understoodthatitisnotIvanwhomustlookforhimbutthathecleanandwelldressedmustgotoIvaninthecarandaskhimwhatneedstobedonebecauseIvanisbiggerthanheishehasbeeninprisonfor15yearsrdquo32
monlyacceptedviewthatldquopunishingacriminalmoreseverelyreducesthatindividualrsquossubsequentprobabilityofrecidivismrdquo33Sinceprisonersareassignedtominimumshylowshyorhighshysecurityprisonsonthebasisoftheirscoreonascalefrom1to10pointsldquointendedtoreflect[their]needforsupervisionrdquo34ChenandShapirowereabletocomparetherearrestratesofexshyinmateswhohadbeenoneithersideofthecutoffboundarshyiesthathadledthemtobeincarceratedinprisonswithdifferentsecushyrity levelsldquoinessenceweargue thatwithin a small interval aroundacutofftheallocationofprisonerstodifferentsecuritylevelsamountstoarandomassignmentrdquo35Althoughtheresultsarebasedonasmallnumberofcases948theystillenabletheauthorstorejectstronglythehypothshyesisthatlowerlevelsofprisonsecurityleadtomorerecidivismafterreshyleaseinsteadtheyindicateinmanywaysthattheoppositeeffectobtainsThe authorsrsquo interpretationof this effect refers to lower laborshymarketopportunities for highershysecurity exshyinmates and to peer effectsmdashldquoinmatesmayacquireskillslearnofnewprospectsordevelopcriminalcontactsrdquo36moreofteninhighershythaninlowershysecurityprisonsTheirresultsarealsoperfectlycompatiblewithanotherinterpretationhavingbeeninprisonswithastricterregimestrengthensthecertifyingeffectoncriminalcredentialsandgivesexshyinmatesfromtheseprisonsrelativeto those fromprisonswith lower security levelsgreatercredibilityonthecriminallabormarket
the two pairs have solved the identification problem in the past Butwhatabouttheelementarycaseinwhichreferralsarenotavailableornotpersuasiveorsafeenoughmdashcantwoagentsthenfindadirectsolushytiontotheproblem
It is hard to observe someone committing a crime in the naturalcourseofeventsbutvillainscancertainlyaskapotentialpartnerorreshycruittogivethemevidenceofhavingcommittedcrimesandcandosowithout resorting to an intermediaryThis can work if the crimes inquestionleaveatracethatcanbeknownorpossessedonlybytherealperpetrator One cannot just say that one has committed a crimemdashaphonymayhavereadaboutitinthepaperandsimplybeclaimingtobetheperpetratorOnehastoshowthebootyasitwereasinthefollowingcasePoliceinfourteencountriesincludingtheUnitedStatesarrestednearlytwohundredsuspectedmembersofanInternetchildpornograshyphyringtheWonderlandClubTojointheringonehadtoshowthatonepossessedtenthousandphotographsandbepreparedtosharethemwith other membersThe photographs were screened by a computerprogramwhichcheckedwhethertheyweredifferentfromoneanotherand fromthosealreadyavailable fromother sources37Thisaction sigshynaledthatprospectivemembershadcommittedacrimeandwereserishyouslycommittedtotheactivityofcommoninterestandcouldnotthusbeundercoveragents(Ireturntothiscaseinchapter3)
UltimatelycriminalscanalsoaskapotentialpartnerorrecruittoenshygageinadisplaycrimemdashanactthatanoncriminalwouldneverdomdashandtocommitthecrimeundertheireyesorinsuchawayastoleaveanunmistakablesignofauthorshipThenatureoftheillegalactrequesteddependsonthetypeofcrimeinwhichtheagentsareinvolvedandthelawsthatgovernitDivinetheLosAngelesprostitutewhoachievedherfifteenminutesoffameforadministeringoralsextoBritishactorHughGrant in 1995 revealedherparticularkindof testBefore agreeing totradesheaskedGranttoexposehimselfThereasonshesaidisthatanundercoverpolicemanwouldnotdothatforhewouldbebreakingthelawDivinebelievedonewondershowaccuratelythatexposingoneselfwasasignalonlyrealcustomerscouldafford
The same reasoning inspires a test appliedbydrugdealers inNew
17 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
YorkSincethemidshy1990sldquoaspolicehave intensifiedtheirassault thedealershavealsoadoptedmoreperilous tacticsFiveor six timeseachmonthundercoverinvestigatorsarenowforcedtousecocaineorheroinatgunpointtoprovetodealersthattheycanbetrustedAtleasttwiceamonth anofficer is shotorotherwisewoundedduring a stagedpurshychasesaypolicecommanderswhospokeonconditionofanonymityrdquo38
These kinds of tests are common in organizationswhere loyalty isparamount Before initiation mafia novicesmdashespecially those not alshyreadymembersoffamilieswithamafiatraditionmdashareaskedtocommitamurder(sometimeswouldshybemembersmovefirstandcommitseriouscrimesbeforeanyoneaskedthemtodoso)39Themafiausuallydoesnotkill anyonepurely for the sakeof a testmdashit optimizes byldquowhackingrdquosomeonewhowasmeanttobewhackedanywayand atthesametimetrying out the determination and bona fides of a noviceTheAryanBrotherhoodinprisonadoptedthesametesttogainmembershipcanshydidatesldquohadtokillwhomevertheBrotherhoodtargetedrdquo40AkindredoutfitknownastheAryanWarriorsalsorequiredwouldshybememberstopassatestldquousuallyabloodyassaultorinsomeinstancesadrugripshyofffrom a person outside of the brotherhoodrdquo41 But there are cases inwhichheinous crimes are committed purely as tests In a hairshyraisingaccountoflifeinyouthgangsinColombiathewriterEfraimMedinaReyes claims that it is not uncommon for new gangmembers to beasked to murder innocent friends or members of their own familywhich pushes the test to the extreme42 Revolutionary and resistancegroups deemed to be illegal by the incumbent government have alsousedthesametestBeingaskedtocommitamurderwasforinstanceacommonpractice in theAlgerianFLNSometimes the leaderswouldpick victims more or less at random to see if prospective memberswouldobeyevenmeaninglessorders43
ThismethodexploitsthelawwhichrestrictsthelawshyabidingundershycoveragentsrsquooptionsandturnsittothecriminalsrsquoadvantageIfhowshyeverlawshyenforcementagenciesgivetheirundercoveroperativesgreaterdiscretion to act against the law for the sakeofpersuading thegrouptheyaretryingtoinfiltrateoftheirbonafidesthepowerofthesesignalsisweakened for theagentcannowaffordat least someof themThe
18 c h a p t e r 1
degreesoffreedomvaryfromtimetotimeandfromagencytoagencyPoliceinNewYorkarenowldquoinstructedtoavoidtakingthedrugsunless their lives are in dangerrdquoIfdealersreadtheNew York Timeswherethisinshyformationwaspublishedtheyknowthatforcingbuyerstoingestdrugsby threatening their lives isnowauseless test for itno longerdistinshyguishesgenuinebuyersfromundercoveragents
BeforediscussingthisproblemfurtherIwillpresentthecaseofFBIspecial agent Joseph Pistone aka Donnie Brasco who infiltrated theNewYorkmafiaandcameclosetobeinginitiatedIknowofnobettercase for illustratingall the typesofcostshydiscriminating signalsusedbycriminalsmdashand by those who try to fool them Donnie Brasco pershysuadedthemobstersofhiscriminalcredentialsbyemployingabreathshytakingrangeofsubtlesignalsandnarratedhisexperienceinabookmdasharguablythemostvividethnographyoftheUSmafiafromldquowithinrdquo44
Entering the mob world is needless to say very hardldquoAssociates ofwiseguysdonrsquotdealwithpeopletheydonrsquotknoworwhosomebodyelsedoesnrsquotvouchforrdquo45PriortoPistonersquosinfiltrationtheFBIlackedexpeshyrienceDuringJEdgarHooverrsquosreignatthebureauundercoverworkwasrarelyusedldquobecauseitcouldbeadirtyjobthatcouldenduptaintshyingtheagentsrdquo46AndalthoughithadbeenusedsinceldquosofarasweknewtheFBIhadneverplantedoneofitsownagentsinthemafiardquo47Yettheoperation itwas about to attemptwasextraordinarily shrewdPistoneneededtobuildawholebarrageofsignalswhichtakentogethercouldpersuadethemobstersthathewasarealbadguyAndthatiswhatheandhishandlerssetouttodomindingthatthelawconstrainedhisfreeshydomldquoTheFBIwouldnrsquotletmeactuallygooutonhijackingsandburshyglariesbecausethecrewwentarmedrdquoPistonewrites48
19 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
PistoneneededanamehedecideditwaseasiertosticktoDonnieBrasco the name he had used in a previous undercover operation inFloridaHeneededaplausiblebiographythatcouldbecheckedorbetshyterhardtocheckheposedasanorphanandabachelorHesaidhehadbeenraisedinanorphanageinPittsburghthatburneddowntherewereno records leftThe story needed to be simpleldquoThe fewer [lies] youhave to tell the feweryouhave torememberrdquohenotes49HesaidhehadspenttimeontheWestCoastandinFloridawhereinfacthehadbeenbeforeasldquoDonaldBrascordquointhepreviousoperationandhadesshytablishedsomecontactsHeneededaldquoprofessionrdquoandsettledonjewelrytheftsomethingonecandoaloneandthatdoesnotrequiretheuseofweaponsmdashsomething moreover that allowed him to use confiscatedstolen jewels to sell so he would not have to break the law to stealthem50
Hecouldcountonadvantagesthatwouldhavebeenhardtofakehadtheynotbeenpartofhis realbiographyHis Italianancestryprovidedhim with theldquorightrdquo ethnic background He had grown up in theldquorightrdquoneighborhoodandasayoungsterhungoutinldquojointsrdquopatronshyizedbywiseguysldquoYouhad tobe streetshysmartevencockysometimesEverygoodundercoveragentIhaveknowngrewuponthestreetlikeIdidandwasagoodstreetagentbeforebecominganundercoveragentOnthestreetyoulearnwhatrsquoswhatandwhorsquoswhoYoulearnhowtoreadsituationsandhandleyourselfYou cannot fake the ability It showsrdquo51
It is also interesting to know what he chose not to say or do Heavoided acting in a way that could raise suspicionldquoNo street guy isgoingtothrowmoneyallovertheplaceunlesshersquostryingtoattractatshytentionrdquoPistonereveals ldquoThenthequestionisWhyishetryingtoatshytractattentionrdquo52BydoingsoheeitherbecomesatargetinthatpeoplethinktheycanrobhimorraisessuspicionsthathemaybeacopDonshyniewasparsimonioustooinrevealingdetailsofhislifewhetherrealorphonyforldquoyouneverknowwhatpartofwhatyoudowillbecomepartofyourhistorywhenpeoplewanttocheckonyourdquo53
Ifthey[themobsters]werenrsquotscheminganddreamingtheyweretellingwarstoriesreminiscencesabouttheirtimeinvariousjailsandprisonsEverybodydidtimeinthecanItwaspartofthepriceofdoingbusinessTheyknewallaboutdifferent jailscellblocksguards I had enough phony background set up to establish mycredentialsasaseriouscriminaltoshowthatIwastoughenoughtodo time if Ihad towithout turningratBut I never claimed to have done any prison timebecause IdidnrsquotknowthoseplacesandthatcouldhavejustrippedmeupIfyoudothreetofiveyearsyouget to know the guardsmdashwhat guardrsquos on what tierYou get toknowtheinmatesguyswhoaredoingfifteentotwentyguyswhoarestillthereTheyknewthelingoandtheslangEverybodyreshymembersthoserelationshipsandthattime54
IndirectlyPistonersquos choice showswhat a robust signalhavingbeen inprison is It isnot something that canbeeasily fakedguyswhohavetrulybeentherewouldquicklyspotanimpostor
Donniewentonforacoupleofmonths
playing this game of being noticedwithout being noticed slideintothebadguyworldandbecomeacceptedwithoutdrawingatshytentionYoupushalittlehereandtherebutverygentlyBriefinshytroductions short conversations appearances one place and anshyotherhintsaboutwhatyoursquoreuptocasualmannerismsdemeanorand lingo that youknowyourway aroundmdashall these become atrail of credibility you leave behind youAbove all you cannothurryYoucannotseemeagertomeetcertainpeoplemakecertaincontactslearnaboutcertainscoresThe quickest way to get tagged as a cop is to try to move too fastYouhavetoshowthatyouhavethetime to play by the rules of the street and that includes lettingpeoplecheckyououtandcometoyou55
Hewouldphonethebar leavingmessages forhimself just toestablishthathehadconnectionsandconveythebeliefpeopleknewhepatronshyizedthebar57ldquoWhenIwentotherplacesIcouldsayrdquoPistonewritesldquolsquoIbeenhangingoutat thatplace for fourorfivemonthsrsquoAnd theycould check it outThe guys had been hanging around in this placewouldsaylsquoYeahDonBrascohasbeencominginhereforquiteawhileandheseemsallrightnevertriedtopullanythingonusrsquordquo58
Wealsoread ldquoYoucanrsquotgoinallthetimebyyourselfbecausetheythinkyoursquoreeitherafagoracopAnditrsquosgoodtovarycompanysotheydonrsquot see you with the same people all the time and wonder whatrsquosuprdquo59SoDonniewouldbringanoccasionalfemaleorChuckanotherundercover agentThanks to Chuck he was introduced toAlbertldquoahalfshyasswiseguyrdquoaconnectedshytobutnotamadememberof theCoshylombofamily
Donnie eventually became the proteacutegeacute of a made guy BenjaminldquoLeftyGunsrdquoRuggieroandspentsixyearswiththemafiosilivingtheirdaily lives and sharing their crooked dealingsmdashconstantly exposed totheriskofbeingdiscoveredandkilledInthecourseoftheoperationhewasofferedtheopportunitynotonlytohandlethebookmakingforthemob boss of Milwaukee Frank Balistrieri but also to get inside theskimmingoperationinLasVegasBalistrierisaidhehadagoodcrewbuttheywereldquoolderkindof set in theirways Icoulduse someyoungerguysthatIcouldtrusttotakeoveracoupleofmyclubsandotherbusishynessesYoungerguyswouldbeabletorelatetothewaysoftodayrsquosbusishynessworldrdquo62Leftyvouched forDonnieldquoI told [Balistrieri]rdquoDonnie
22 c h a p t e r 1
saysldquoyouaremybloodrdquo63ButacceptingwouldhavemadeitimpossibleforDonnietoseehisrealfamilysoheturneddowntheofferWhilethatdecisionangeredLeftyitalsoconferredanadvantageasitfurthersigshynaledDonniersquoscredibilityldquoOnethingIhadinmyfavorseenthroughanymobguyrsquoseyeswas thatno cop would ever turn that job downSo Iwouldbeabovesuspicioninthatregardrdquo64
Donniecameupwithmanyother signalsbelieved tobeof akindthat a cop could not afford He pretended to beat up someone whoowedmoney toLeftyHe roughedup a comedianwhohad annoyedLeftyattheThunderbirdaMiamirestaurant65Furthermoreldquotypicallywhatanundercovercopwilldo inabuyshybust situation is try tobuysomethingfromyouCops always buy never sellI was going to sellrdquoPistonereveals66mdashthankstothefactthattheFBIallowedhimdiscretioninthatregard One very special commodity he bought though Lefty RugshygierorsquosprotectionTheFBIdishedoutatotalof$40000forthispurposewhileDonniewasundercoverldquoTheywerepayinghimforhisservicesasalsquowiseguyrsquotoinsuretheyhadtheprotectionoftheBonannofamilyin the event another family tried to interfere with their businessrdquo67
WhilepaymentwasostensiblyaimedatcompensatingLeftyitwasalsoliterallyacostlysignalandintentionallydesignedtoappeartobesoldquoBygivinghimmoneyContiandRossi[twoundercoveragentswhocolshylaboratedwithDonnie] ledLefty tobelieve that theywerewilling tobecomeinvolvedwithhimandhe trusted them as bad guysrdquo68
Mafiosiwerenot taken inbecause theyweredumbratherPistonewasunbelievablysmartandresilientanditjustwasveryhardformobshysterstothinkthattakentogetherallthethingshedidanddidnotdowerenotnearshyperfectdiscriminatingsignalsTheFBIwaslatercriticizedforoperatingverynearorevenbeyondthe limitsof the lawBut thisrelative freedomfooledthemafiosibecause theyassumedthatanunshydercoveragentwouldnotpaythecostofbreakingthelawDivinecouldnothavebankedonherneatlittletestifagentsofthelawhadbeenalshylowedtoexposethemselvesThemobsterswerecheatednotjustinthesense thatDonnieBrascoby faking forging andpretending successshyfullymimickedarealbadguybutalsointhesensethathedidsomereal badactions
23 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
In a short biography ofBonanno familymembersmdashposted on theInternetforawhilethenremovedmdashLeftywasdescribedasldquothebiggestidiotinthehistoryofLaCosaNostraHisblindgreedandlackofinshystinctwerefelthardintheAmericanmafiardquoAndyetLeftywascarefulevenyearsafterDonniehadbeenacceptedasaconnectedguyDonniewasassistedbyotherundercoveragentsoneofwhomwasldquoRossirdquoTotestwhetherRossiwasanundercoveragentLeftydeliberatelyldquolostrdquoaplaneticketthatRossihadbookedonhisowncreditcardforLefty(thiswasacovertwayofpayingprotectiontoLefty)ldquoBypretendingtolosetheticketLeftywantedtoseehowRossi reactedIfhewasanagentLeftyreasonedhewouldgetnervousbecausehewouldprobablyhavetoaccount for the ticket tohisofficeplushewouldbeworried thatsomebodylsquointheunderworldbusinessrsquomightmeanwhilefindtheticketandcheckouttheAmericanExpressnumbertoseeifitwasagovernshymentnumberrdquo69
WhenitwasfinallyrevealedthatDonniewasanundercoveragentthemobsterswereshockedanddidnotbelieveittillDonnieactuallytestishyfied in court against them His operation managed to send many ofthemmostlymembersoftheBonannofamilytojail71
ThemobsterslearnedtheirlessonandincreasedthepriceofthetestsNow not just one butldquotwo mafiosi have to vouch for the proposedmemberrdquoldquoTheyhavetosaytheyhaveknowntheproposedmemberifnotsincechildhoodthenatleastforfifteentotwentyyearsrdquo72Accordshying to theFBI theyalso resumeda traditionalpractice thathadbeenabandonedldquoaproposedmembermustlsquomakehisbonesrsquoorkillsomeonebeforehecanbecomeamadeguyTheyhavedonesobecause no agent
24 c h a p t e r 1
would commit murder while posing as a bad guyrdquo73Murderisreallyapershyfectlydiscriminatingsignalofbeingabadguyasignalthatnoundershycover agentnot evenonebelonging to a rather lax lawshyenforcementagencycouldafford
Thisentryrequirementmdashwhichshowshowcriminalactscanbepershypetratednotmerelyfortheirimmediateinstrumentalvaluebutalsofortheir signaling valuemdashhad never been explicitly removed but it wasno longerusedwithgreat determination In truthDominickldquoSonnyBlackrdquoNapolitanowhoeventuallybecameDonniersquosmainmentorandplannedtoproposeDonnieformembershiphadaskedDonnietomurshydersomeoneldquoHegavemeacontractsothatIwouldhavethatcredenshytialwhenheputmynameuprdquoButtheopportunitytocarryitoutdidnotariseforAnthonyBrunoIndelicatotheintendedvictimwentsucshycessfullyintohidingDonnieshowedthathewasdoingallhecouldtotrackIndelicatodownanditwasnotthoughttobehisfaultwhenhefailedThusalthoughhedidnotcarryoutthekillinghestillmanagedtoshowhiswillingnesstodoitandafewmonthslaterSonnyputhisnameforwardformembershipAtthatpointtheFBIdecidedtostoptheoperationandDonnieresumedonceagainhisrealidentity
Undercoveragentsmdashwhohavetopersuadethegrouptheyaimtoinfilshytrateof theircriminalcredentialsmdasharea serious threat forunlikesolomimicstheycandrawontheresourcesofstateagenciesandcanaffordcomplexmimicryactswhichinvolveposingforgingcredentialstrainshyingandfundsStill itcanbenear impossibleto infiltrategroupsproshytected by an array of features that cannot be successfully imitatedmdashwhichinotherwordsperfectlydistinguishtherealfromthephonyFor
EvenaMuslimCIAofficerwithnativeshylanguageabilities(andtheAgencyaccordingtoseveralactiveshydutycaseofficershasveryfewoperativesfromMiddleEasternbackgrounds)coulddolittlemorein thisenvironment [PeshawarPakistan] thanablondblueshyeyedallshyAmericanCaseofficerscannotlongescapetheembassiesandconsulates in which they serveA US official overseasphotoshygraphedandregisteredwiththelocalintelligenceandsecuritysershyvicescanrsquottravelmuchparticularlyinapoliceshyrichcountrylikePakistanwithouttheldquohostrdquoservicesknowingaboutitAnofficerwho tries togonativepretending tobe a trueshybelieving radicalMuslim searching for brothers in the causewillmake a fool ofhimselfquickly
UndercoveroperationsareaproblematicformofanticrimeactivityforanotherreasonaswellThelogicofcostshydiscriminatingsignalsinclinesundercoveragentstogobeyondinnocentpretensionsandsupportinishytiativesof thesamekinda truecriminalor terroristwouldundertakeSincelawshyenforcementagenciesareunderpressuretokeeptheiragentssafetheypushfordiscretiontobegrantedtothemAndsometimestheundercoveragentsthemselvesunbeknownsttotheiremployerschoosetobreakthelawbecausetheyworryabouttheircredibilityintheeyesof the host group and the consequences if they are discoveredThememoirsofundercoveragentsandspiesarerepletewiththisdilemma
According to incomplete calculations there were about 6500agents provocateurs and other political investigations specialistsoperatinginvariouspoliticalpartiesandorganizationsintheRusshy
26 c h a p t e r 1
sianEmpireatthestartofthetwentiethcenturythepoliceandgendarmesoftensetprioritiesthemselvesattimesevenattheriskofthelivesofhighshyrankinggovernmentofficialsandmembersoftheimperialfamilyMattersconcerningthesecurityofthesecretagentswereoftoppriorityandmaintainingthestrongpositionsofagentswithintheterroristorganizationsof theSocialistshyRevolushytionarieswasconsideredmore important thanpreventingassassishynationsevenagainstofficialsofthegovernment75
AfamouscasewasthatofEvnoAzefanagentwhooperatedinrevolushytionary circles for aboutfifteen years From 1893on hewas a policeagentAsastudentinaGermanpolytechnicschoolhetooktheinitiashytiveofofferinghisservicestothepolicedepartmentat therateof50rublespermonth afterwhichhe attachedhimself to a foreigngroupcallingitselftheUnionofRussianSocialistshyRevolutionariesHeknewaboutthemajorityofterroristactsbeingplannedbytheSRsbuthedidnotalwaysreporttohisbossesaboutthemNeverthelessthepolicepaidhimwellforhisservices76
EpisodesofthiskindarenotrestrictedtopredemocraticsocietiesAnilluminatingcaseoccurredinCanadaAtitspeakin1993theHeritageFront was the largest and bestshyorganized neoshyNazi group in Canadaboastingacontactlistof1800namesGrantBristowcofounderandaleadingmemberofthiswhiteracistgroupturnedouttobeapaidinshyformantoftheCanadianSecurityIntelligenceServiceldquoBristoworchesshytrated aharassment campaign that terrorizedFront enemies harboredleadinginternationalracistsinhisownhomeinclearviolationofbothCSISrulesandtheImmigrationActandassistedintheFrontrsquosinfiltrashytionoftheReformPartyrdquo77ldquoCSISmoleGrantBristowwasanlsquoagentprovocateurrsquowhowithhisspymastersbrokeCanadianlawsandinternalCSISregulationsagroupofMPshaveconcludedBristowrsquosleadershyshiproleinthewhiteracistHeritageFrontthereportsuggestsmay have led to the very events that caused CSIS to keep him in place for several more yearsrdquo78 An inquiry by the Security Intelligence Review CommitteeintotheaffairplayeddowntheaccusationsbutitisclearfromthereportthattherewereseriousbreachesForinstanceontheissueofharassment
27 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
of antiracistmilitants and Jewish communitymembers thedocumentconcludesthatldquoanyinformantwhoenterstheHeritageFrontorasimishylargrouphastomaintainhiscredibilitywithhisassociatesotherwisehewouldnot remain a trustedmember for longThe questionwewerefacedwithwaswhethertheCSISsource[GrantBristow]hadremainedwithintheboundsofappropriatebehaviourwhiletryingtomaintainhiscredibilityTheanswerwearrivedatwasthatin certain circumstances he had not[emphasisintheoriginal]rdquo79
Eveniftheyareonlysupposedtocollectinformationoncriminalorsubversiveactivitiesspiesmayendupproducingmoreofsuchactivitieson theirown initiativeThey tend tobecomeagentsprovocateursnotnecessarilyfortheconspiratorialreasonswhyJosephConradrsquosprotagoshynistinThe Secret Agentdoes(VerlocwasinthepayofanunnamedforshyeignembassythatwantedtopersuadetheBritishtotakeatougherlineagainsttheanarchistsandusedhisdimshywittednephewtostageanldquoanarshychistrdquobombingattack)buttypicallyonlyoutoffearofnotbeingcredshyibleenoughandofriskingtheirlivesThecoststhatmaketheirsignalscredibleintheeyesoftheirtargetsareafterallldquoonlyrdquothoseofbreakinglegalconstraintsTheymayneverbecaughtgiventheintrinsicopacityofwhattheydoandifcaughttheyarenotsolikelytobepunishedcershytainlynotbydeathAndontheothersideoftheequationtheyhavetoconsider the personal costs of failing to persuadeWhen onersquos life isthreatened thecostsofbreakingthe lawmaysuddenlyappear smallerthanthoseofobeyingitThesetofthosewhoarereadytorisktheirlifesacrificetheirfamilyanddeceivedangerouscriminalsforlongperiodsoftimewhileatthesametimeremainingstrictlyalawshyabidingcitizenmustbeextremelysmall
ThisraisesaninterestingquandaryforthecriminalsorterroristswhoaretryingtotestthebonafidesofothersForbyincreasingtheseverityofthepunishmentmetedoutagainstundercoveragentswhoarediscovshyered they encourage the latter to afford costly signals that once disshyplayedmaymakeitimpossibleforthebadguystosaywhethertheposhytentialrecruitsareundercoveragentsinthefirstplace
undercover agentmayfind it preferable to refrain from swallowing itevenatthecostofrevealinghistruetypeforhedoesnotwanttobreakthelawBycontrasttherealcriminalwhowantstodealwiththedrugdealersmayprefertopaythecostofthephysicalillnesscausedbyswalshylowing forhe isentirelyateasewithbreaking the lawThekeyextracost that discriminates between the real criminal and the undercoveragentisthecostofbreakingthelawwhichthemimicfaceswhilethegenuinearticledoesnotAharsherpunishmenthowevercanreversetheequationandmakeitcheaperfortheundercoveragenttoswallowratherthannot swallowevenat thecostofbreaking the lawandthusmakehimbehaviorallyindistinguishablefromtherealcriminalWhenadminshyisteredunder the threatof theharsherpunishment the testno longerseparatesonetypefromtheotherByfailingtoappreciatethisquandaryandthreateningdeathagainstthosewhorefusetoswallowthedrugthedealers fail to realize that theyaredeactivating thevery sourceof thereliabilityoftheirtestforunderthatthreattheagentsarenowallowed(andwouldinanycasefeelinclined)toswallowthedrug
CONCLUSIONS
OncesomeoneintentoncrimeidentifiesapotentialpartnerasabonafidecriminalhehassolvedoneproblemonlytolandinanotherequallydifficultoneHenowhastoestablishwhetherhispartnerisnotjustacrookbutanhonorableoneAfterHughGrantexposedhimselfDivineknewthathewasnotanundercovercopforshebelievedthatcopsdonotdothatYetshestilldidnotknowwhatkindofacustomerhewasProstitutesareconstantlyonguardagainstrobbersorpervertswhoposeasordinarycustomers80AnyonewhoworksoutsidethelawismoreexshyposedthanordinarybusinessmentobecomingthepreyofothercrimishynalswhomimicbeingacriminalofthehonestsortAstreetshydrugdealerwhosuccessfullyadvertises tocustomersmayalsoattract robberswhopretend to be customers in order to get close to the dealers and robthem81Acriminalhastobeonguardagainstbothkindsofmimicslawshyenforcementagentsandcriminalsofthewrongsort
29 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
Ifhonestywerethoughttobeatraitofcertaincriminalsandnotothshyersinordertoestablishwhetherapotentialpartnerishonestonecouldfollowthesamestrategyoneusesforidentifyingwhethersomeoneisacriminal tobeginwithThe samekindof costly signalswouldbe reshyquiredforcriminalstopersuadeoneanotherthattheywerethehonesttypeIncertaincasesthegametheyplayisindeedoneofsignalingtheirtypeHowever inmost circumstancescriminals tend to thinkofeachotherasbeingof justonetypenamelythedishonestoneandbelievethatgivenhalfachancetheywilltakeadvantageofeachotherTheonlyway inwhich they can comealmost toldquotrustrdquo eachother enough tocooperateisthereforenotbysignalingtheirtypebuteitherbyenforcshyingtheirpartnersrsquohonestywiththethreatofsomekindofretaliationormoregenerallybyputtingthemselvesandtheirpartnersinaconditionwherebyldquohonestyrdquo rather thancheating is theirbest courseof actionwhatevertheirtypeIshallexploresomeofthestrategiestheyadoptinchapters2and3
ByitselfthoughthisstrategyworksonlyuptoapointItsavescrimshyinalsfromdealingbymistakewithlawshyabidingcitizensHoweverifthecostofhangingaroundinsuchenvironmentsisnotveryhighforanonshycriminaltheymaybecomeverydangerousplacesforcriminalspreciselytheplaceswhereundercoveragentswillconvergewhenattemptingtoinfiltrate criminal networks Singles bars increase the probability ofmeeting single people but they do not eliminate the probability ofmeetingpatronswhowhilemarriedgotheremerelypretendingtobesingle In the underworld where the stakes of mistaken identity arehigherifsomeonejustshowsupinabarfullofcriminalsheisnotlikelyto go far without further credentialsTo be reassured criminals needsigns thecostofwhicha lawshyenforcement agentor a spywouldfindharder topayRather thanbeing reliable signs in themselves selectiveenvironments merely offer better opportunities to gather further evishydencedirectlyandindirectly
Referrals
ldquoAnother method [to establish someonersquos criminal credentials] is byfindingoutwhatpeoplethestrangerknowsrdquo15IfCknowsthatAisacriminalCmayintroduceAtoBOrBcansimplyseeCwithAandinferthatAisonetooAgangstercalledJacksoninhisautobiographywroteldquoonthestreetIknowhundredsandhundredsofcharactersbutIdonotknowtheirnamesSayyouareacharacterandIrsquomacharacterandIseeyouwithacharacterthatIknowIhavenowayofcheckingyourcreditratingoranythingelsesoI judge you by whom you associate withIfIknowthatthispersonisagoodpersonandnotapolecatnotastoolpigeonnotthemanrsquosmanthenIhavetogiveyouthecreditforbeingall rightrdquo16 Incertaincriminalcirclesldquoyoursquodbe surprised Itrsquos averycloseshyknitthingamonghustlersYoumeetsomeoneyoursquovenevermetbeforeinaplaceyoursquoveneverseenbeforeyoufindoutsomeonetheyknowTheymayevenhaveheardofyourdquo17Interestinglythisimshypliesthatcriminalshavetobeextravigilantaboutwhomtheyareseen
Onewaytoacquiregoodevidenceofsomeonersquoscriminalitywhichinshytersects with the referral method exploits law enforcement itself Intermsof howeffectively they canmix andmatchkindred spirits thehangouts thatcriminals freelychoosecannotcompetewith theplacesthey are forced to go by the agents who fight against crime there isnothing like prison to mix like with like Prisons promote crime inmanyobviousways18teachingcriminalsnewskillsandbrutalmodesofbehaviorbuttheyalsodosolessobviouslybyshoulderingthecostsofadvertisingandidentifyingwhoisacriminaltobeginwith
JustbeingaprisonerisaclearandsimplesignthatoneiscriminallyinclinedThehardpart is paying the priceof going there in thefirstplaceButitispreciselythatcostthatmakesaprisontermsuchagoodsignofbeingarealcriminalParadoxicallythebetterthecriminaljusticesystemisthesaferitistoassumethatthecompanyputbehindbarswillbe invariably villainousThough there are surely innocent prisonersmanyareguiltythemoresothebetterthesystemOnecanalsobereashysonably sure that phonies peoplewho talkbig about their dangerouscriminaltendenciesbutdonothingwillnotendupinprisonTheinshyterpersonalconflictsthatarerifewithinprisonsasweshallseeinchapshyter4 furtherensure that thephoniesarequickly identifiedAndeventhough undercover policemen have certainly been sent to prison forshortperiodstogaincriminalcredentialsthelongerthetimeprisonersspendinjailthecloserwegettoprisonbeingaperfectdiscriminatingsignmdashnoonechoosestospendtwentyyearsbehindbarsforthesakeofposingasavillainDoingtimeinprisoncanthusbebothastigmaandabadgedependingonwhoislookingatitAnexshyconvictwhowishestoreturntothepathoftherighteouscanfinddoingsoveryhardbeshycausehistimespentinprisonidentifieshimasacriminalldquoOnceyoursquore
12 c h a p t e r 1
markedinprisonyoursquoredoneforrdquosaysadelinquentboyrecountinghisownstory19Butonewhointendstopersistinhisoldwayswillfindhispath smoothed and can display his prison credentials to further hiscriminalcareer
OnemaynotgoasfarasarrangingajailsentenceforoneselfforthepurposeoffosteringnewassociationswithkindredspiritsButonceinprison there is an abundance of opportunity to make villainous acshyquaintanceswhowillbeusefulafteroneleaves
Say that there are fifty quite well established thieves in MalmoumlonlythirtyofthosehaveafenceThosewhodonrsquotaretheyoungeronesaroundeighteenortwentywhohavenrsquotbeenaroundenoughsotheyrsquollhavetoasktheirfriendsorselltothievesForsomeonewhohasbeeninsideasmuchasmeitrsquosnoproblem20
IncarcerationasamarkofreliabilityworksataremoveIftwoformerprisonersdidnotactuallymeetinjailtheycanstilldisplayevidenceofhavingbeenldquointhecanrdquotoadvertisetheircredentialsSoevenifgoingtoprisonwasnotintendedasaperverseformofreacutesumeacutebuildingtherevelationof theexperiencecanbe andoften is an intentional signalTheldquoreferralrdquomethodIdiscussedaboveexploitsprisoncontactstoomdashforifoneisembeddedinanetworkoneisinabetterpositionbothtoreferothersandtobereferredbythemThereisevenevidencethatunshywittinglyunionsandorganizationsthataresupposedtohelpexshyinmatesto reentermainstream society alsohelpunreformedcriminals in theirbusiness21Notleastthesecharitableorganizationsassistthembycertishyfying their status as genuine exshyprisoners thus innocently facilitatingencounterswithactivevillains
whetherandhowfartheenhancingofonersquoscriminalidentityoffsetstheattemptsatrehabilitationthereismuchanecdotalevidencefromcrimishynalsrsquo biographies of the enhancing effectrsquos existence It starts early inyoungshyoffendersrsquoinstitutionsInhisautobiographyJimmyBoyleaScotshytishgangsterreminiscesthatwhenhewassixteen
theApprovedSchoolsurelyplayedavitalpartinmycriminaldeshyvelopmentItgavemeconnectionsthatIwastofindusefulinmyadultdaysItgavemeanintroductiontoguysfromtownsandcitshyiesthroughoutScotlandandfrommanyareasinGlasgowmanyofwhom grew up to be the top thieves or fighters in their areasThere isnodoubtatall thatmostof themgained inacriminalsensefromtheirApprovedSchoolexperience23
HewasdoinghisbesthewritestoavoidbeingcaughtldquobuteverytimeIwentintoprisonIbroadenedmycriminalhorizonsbymakingmoreandmoreconnections indifferent areasrdquo24MalcolmBralywho spentnearly seventeenyears invariousUSprisons forburglarywroteldquoHewasbrokeasIwasandhesuggestedwetrysomethingtogetherItwasreasonableWho is more likely to be trustworthy than someone youhavejustmetinjailrdquo25
CriminalandrebelorganizationsregardaprisonrecordasasignofdistinctionTheRussiancriminalfraternityknownasvorymadehavingbeeninaprisoncampaformalrequirementofmembership26AccordshyingtoMarekKaminskiatleastonememberoftheundergroundSolshyidarity movement in Poland provoked the communist secret servicestoputher inprisonsoshecould improveherreputationldquoUnderthewellshyprogressingperestroika in1987 thePolishcommunistsessentiallystoppedincarceratingtheopposition(sothelsquoincarcerationrsquowasabrief48hours)theystartedtalkswithselectedoppositiongroupsandmanyunderground politicians thought that there would be some role forthem to playwithin the communist regime soonThus the expectedcostofincarcerationwaslowandtheexpectedbenefitswerehighrdquo27
The lengthof time spent in prison further provides anldquoobjectiverdquomeasureoftherespectoneisowedrelativetoothergangmembersThus
14 c h a p t e r 1
Christopher Seymour writes of taking a drive with Japanese yakuza (mobsters)ldquoIntheloosehierarchyoftheHarashygumiKenis themostsenior in the automobile He has already served time in adult prisonwhereastheothershaveonlybeenthroughjuveniledetentionrdquo28LikeshywiseMarekKaminskimdashwhowhenhewasa sociologysophomore inthe1980swasarrestedbythePolishcommunistsecretpolicetogetherwithelevenothermembersofanundergroundSolidarnosc publishinghouseandjailedforfivemonthsmdashreportsldquoSomeofthePolishgrypsmen [inmateswhoaremembersofaprisonfraternityseechapter4]claimthatinthecaseofaprisonerwithasentenceof20+yearshedoesnothavetojointhegrypsmenformallyandsufferthecostsoftheinitiationritualsHeiseligibleforenjoyingallthebenefitsofthecastemembershyshipbyvirtueofthesentencersquoslengthrdquo29FortheRussianmafiaaswellldquothelengthoftimespentinprisonwasasourceofprestigeandasignofdistinction among the criminals who aspired to become voryrdquo30 In atelephoneconversation secretly recordedby Italianpolice thewifeofIvanYakovlev (thenames have been changed) aRussianmobster arshyrestedinItalyin199731usesthelengthofherhusbandrsquosprisonsentencetoinduceoneofhisassociatestoshowduerespectAssignedtothetaskbyherhusband shewarns theRussianwifeof theaccompliceMarioFerrarildquoIvanisbiggerthan[yourhusband]hehasbeeninprisonfor15yearsrdquoFerrarididnotenjoythesameprisoncredentialsthoughhehadclashedwiththelawinthepastfordrugdealingHewasnowmisbeshyhavingbeingoftendrunkanddisheveledandaccordingtoIvanswifedidnotshowenoughrespecttoIvanInasubsequentconversationbeshytweenthetwowomenFerrarirsquoswifeapologizedforherhusbandrsquosbeshyhavior She clearly took the point and repeated word for word whatIvanrsquoswifepreviouslytoldherldquo[Myhusband]understoodthatitisnotIvanwhomustlookforhimbutthathecleanandwelldressedmustgotoIvaninthecarandaskhimwhatneedstobedonebecauseIvanisbiggerthanheishehasbeeninprisonfor15yearsrdquo32
monlyacceptedviewthatldquopunishingacriminalmoreseverelyreducesthatindividualrsquossubsequentprobabilityofrecidivismrdquo33Sinceprisonersareassignedtominimumshylowshyorhighshysecurityprisonsonthebasisoftheirscoreonascalefrom1to10pointsldquointendedtoreflect[their]needforsupervisionrdquo34ChenandShapirowereabletocomparetherearrestratesofexshyinmateswhohadbeenoneithersideofthecutoffboundarshyiesthathadledthemtobeincarceratedinprisonswithdifferentsecushyrity levelsldquoinessenceweargue thatwithin a small interval aroundacutofftheallocationofprisonerstodifferentsecuritylevelsamountstoarandomassignmentrdquo35Althoughtheresultsarebasedonasmallnumberofcases948theystillenabletheauthorstorejectstronglythehypothshyesisthatlowerlevelsofprisonsecurityleadtomorerecidivismafterreshyleaseinsteadtheyindicateinmanywaysthattheoppositeeffectobtainsThe authorsrsquo interpretationof this effect refers to lower laborshymarketopportunities for highershysecurity exshyinmates and to peer effectsmdashldquoinmatesmayacquireskillslearnofnewprospectsordevelopcriminalcontactsrdquo36moreofteninhighershythaninlowershysecurityprisonsTheirresultsarealsoperfectlycompatiblewithanotherinterpretationhavingbeeninprisonswithastricterregimestrengthensthecertifyingeffectoncriminalcredentialsandgivesexshyinmatesfromtheseprisonsrelativeto those fromprisonswith lower security levelsgreatercredibilityonthecriminallabormarket
the two pairs have solved the identification problem in the past Butwhatabouttheelementarycaseinwhichreferralsarenotavailableornotpersuasiveorsafeenoughmdashcantwoagentsthenfindadirectsolushytiontotheproblem
It is hard to observe someone committing a crime in the naturalcourseofeventsbutvillainscancertainlyaskapotentialpartnerorreshycruittogivethemevidenceofhavingcommittedcrimesandcandosowithout resorting to an intermediaryThis can work if the crimes inquestionleaveatracethatcanbeknownorpossessedonlybytherealperpetrator One cannot just say that one has committed a crimemdashaphonymayhavereadaboutitinthepaperandsimplybeclaimingtobetheperpetratorOnehastoshowthebootyasitwereasinthefollowingcasePoliceinfourteencountriesincludingtheUnitedStatesarrestednearlytwohundredsuspectedmembersofanInternetchildpornograshyphyringtheWonderlandClubTojointheringonehadtoshowthatonepossessedtenthousandphotographsandbepreparedtosharethemwith other membersThe photographs were screened by a computerprogramwhichcheckedwhethertheyweredifferentfromoneanotherand fromthosealreadyavailable fromother sources37Thisaction sigshynaledthatprospectivemembershadcommittedacrimeandwereserishyouslycommittedtotheactivityofcommoninterestandcouldnotthusbeundercoveragents(Ireturntothiscaseinchapter3)
UltimatelycriminalscanalsoaskapotentialpartnerorrecruittoenshygageinadisplaycrimemdashanactthatanoncriminalwouldneverdomdashandtocommitthecrimeundertheireyesorinsuchawayastoleaveanunmistakablesignofauthorshipThenatureoftheillegalactrequesteddependsonthetypeofcrimeinwhichtheagentsareinvolvedandthelawsthatgovernitDivinetheLosAngelesprostitutewhoachievedherfifteenminutesoffameforadministeringoralsextoBritishactorHughGrant in 1995 revealedherparticularkindof testBefore agreeing totradesheaskedGranttoexposehimselfThereasonshesaidisthatanundercoverpolicemanwouldnotdothatforhewouldbebreakingthelawDivinebelievedonewondershowaccuratelythatexposingoneselfwasasignalonlyrealcustomerscouldafford
The same reasoning inspires a test appliedbydrugdealers inNew
17 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
YorkSincethemidshy1990sldquoaspolicehave intensifiedtheirassault thedealershavealsoadoptedmoreperilous tacticsFiveor six timeseachmonthundercoverinvestigatorsarenowforcedtousecocaineorheroinatgunpointtoprovetodealersthattheycanbetrustedAtleasttwiceamonth anofficer is shotorotherwisewoundedduring a stagedpurshychasesaypolicecommanderswhospokeonconditionofanonymityrdquo38
These kinds of tests are common in organizationswhere loyalty isparamount Before initiation mafia novicesmdashespecially those not alshyreadymembersoffamilieswithamafiatraditionmdashareaskedtocommitamurder(sometimeswouldshybemembersmovefirstandcommitseriouscrimesbeforeanyoneaskedthemtodoso)39Themafiausuallydoesnotkill anyonepurely for the sakeof a testmdashit optimizes byldquowhackingrdquosomeonewhowasmeanttobewhackedanywayand atthesametimetrying out the determination and bona fides of a noviceTheAryanBrotherhoodinprisonadoptedthesametesttogainmembershipcanshydidatesldquohadtokillwhomevertheBrotherhoodtargetedrdquo40AkindredoutfitknownastheAryanWarriorsalsorequiredwouldshybememberstopassatestldquousuallyabloodyassaultorinsomeinstancesadrugripshyofffrom a person outside of the brotherhoodrdquo41 But there are cases inwhichheinous crimes are committed purely as tests In a hairshyraisingaccountoflifeinyouthgangsinColombiathewriterEfraimMedinaReyes claims that it is not uncommon for new gangmembers to beasked to murder innocent friends or members of their own familywhich pushes the test to the extreme42 Revolutionary and resistancegroups deemed to be illegal by the incumbent government have alsousedthesametestBeingaskedtocommitamurderwasforinstanceacommonpractice in theAlgerianFLNSometimes the leaderswouldpick victims more or less at random to see if prospective memberswouldobeyevenmeaninglessorders43
ThismethodexploitsthelawwhichrestrictsthelawshyabidingundershycoveragentsrsquooptionsandturnsittothecriminalsrsquoadvantageIfhowshyeverlawshyenforcementagenciesgivetheirundercoveroperativesgreaterdiscretion to act against the law for the sakeofpersuading thegrouptheyaretryingtoinfiltrateoftheirbonafidesthepowerofthesesignalsisweakened for theagentcannowaffordat least someof themThe
18 c h a p t e r 1
degreesoffreedomvaryfromtimetotimeandfromagencytoagencyPoliceinNewYorkarenowldquoinstructedtoavoidtakingthedrugsunless their lives are in dangerrdquoIfdealersreadtheNew York Timeswherethisinshyformationwaspublishedtheyknowthatforcingbuyerstoingestdrugsby threatening their lives isnowauseless test for itno longerdistinshyguishesgenuinebuyersfromundercoveragents
BeforediscussingthisproblemfurtherIwillpresentthecaseofFBIspecial agent Joseph Pistone aka Donnie Brasco who infiltrated theNewYorkmafiaandcameclosetobeinginitiatedIknowofnobettercase for illustratingall the typesofcostshydiscriminating signalsusedbycriminalsmdashand by those who try to fool them Donnie Brasco pershysuadedthemobstersofhiscriminalcredentialsbyemployingabreathshytakingrangeofsubtlesignalsandnarratedhisexperienceinabookmdasharguablythemostvividethnographyoftheUSmafiafromldquowithinrdquo44
Entering the mob world is needless to say very hardldquoAssociates ofwiseguysdonrsquotdealwithpeopletheydonrsquotknoworwhosomebodyelsedoesnrsquotvouchforrdquo45PriortoPistonersquosinfiltrationtheFBIlackedexpeshyrienceDuringJEdgarHooverrsquosreignatthebureauundercoverworkwasrarelyusedldquobecauseitcouldbeadirtyjobthatcouldenduptaintshyingtheagentsrdquo46AndalthoughithadbeenusedsinceldquosofarasweknewtheFBIhadneverplantedoneofitsownagentsinthemafiardquo47Yettheoperation itwas about to attemptwasextraordinarily shrewdPistoneneededtobuildawholebarrageofsignalswhichtakentogethercouldpersuadethemobstersthathewasarealbadguyAndthatiswhatheandhishandlerssetouttodomindingthatthelawconstrainedhisfreeshydomldquoTheFBIwouldnrsquotletmeactuallygooutonhijackingsandburshyglariesbecausethecrewwentarmedrdquoPistonewrites48
19 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
PistoneneededanamehedecideditwaseasiertosticktoDonnieBrasco the name he had used in a previous undercover operation inFloridaHeneededaplausiblebiographythatcouldbecheckedorbetshyterhardtocheckheposedasanorphanandabachelorHesaidhehadbeenraisedinanorphanageinPittsburghthatburneddowntherewereno records leftThe story needed to be simpleldquoThe fewer [lies] youhave to tell the feweryouhave torememberrdquohenotes49HesaidhehadspenttimeontheWestCoastandinFloridawhereinfacthehadbeenbeforeasldquoDonaldBrascordquointhepreviousoperationandhadesshytablishedsomecontactsHeneededaldquoprofessionrdquoandsettledonjewelrytheftsomethingonecandoaloneandthatdoesnotrequiretheuseofweaponsmdashsomething moreover that allowed him to use confiscatedstolen jewels to sell so he would not have to break the law to stealthem50
Hecouldcountonadvantagesthatwouldhavebeenhardtofakehadtheynotbeenpartofhis realbiographyHis Italianancestryprovidedhim with theldquorightrdquo ethnic background He had grown up in theldquorightrdquoneighborhoodandasayoungsterhungoutinldquojointsrdquopatronshyizedbywiseguysldquoYouhad tobe streetshysmartevencockysometimesEverygoodundercoveragentIhaveknowngrewuponthestreetlikeIdidandwasagoodstreetagentbeforebecominganundercoveragentOnthestreetyoulearnwhatrsquoswhatandwhorsquoswhoYoulearnhowtoreadsituationsandhandleyourselfYou cannot fake the ability It showsrdquo51
It is also interesting to know what he chose not to say or do Heavoided acting in a way that could raise suspicionldquoNo street guy isgoingtothrowmoneyallovertheplaceunlesshersquostryingtoattractatshytentionrdquoPistonereveals ldquoThenthequestionisWhyishetryingtoatshytractattentionrdquo52BydoingsoheeitherbecomesatargetinthatpeoplethinktheycanrobhimorraisessuspicionsthathemaybeacopDonshyniewasparsimonioustooinrevealingdetailsofhislifewhetherrealorphonyforldquoyouneverknowwhatpartofwhatyoudowillbecomepartofyourhistorywhenpeoplewanttocheckonyourdquo53
Ifthey[themobsters]werenrsquotscheminganddreamingtheyweretellingwarstoriesreminiscencesabouttheirtimeinvariousjailsandprisonsEverybodydidtimeinthecanItwaspartofthepriceofdoingbusinessTheyknewallaboutdifferent jailscellblocksguards I had enough phony background set up to establish mycredentialsasaseriouscriminaltoshowthatIwastoughenoughtodo time if Ihad towithout turningratBut I never claimed to have done any prison timebecause IdidnrsquotknowthoseplacesandthatcouldhavejustrippedmeupIfyoudothreetofiveyearsyouget to know the guardsmdashwhat guardrsquos on what tierYou get toknowtheinmatesguyswhoaredoingfifteentotwentyguyswhoarestillthereTheyknewthelingoandtheslangEverybodyreshymembersthoserelationshipsandthattime54
IndirectlyPistonersquos choice showswhat a robust signalhavingbeen inprison is It isnot something that canbeeasily fakedguyswhohavetrulybeentherewouldquicklyspotanimpostor
Donniewentonforacoupleofmonths
playing this game of being noticedwithout being noticed slideintothebadguyworldandbecomeacceptedwithoutdrawingatshytentionYoupushalittlehereandtherebutverygentlyBriefinshytroductions short conversations appearances one place and anshyotherhintsaboutwhatyoursquoreuptocasualmannerismsdemeanorand lingo that youknowyourway aroundmdashall these become atrail of credibility you leave behind youAbove all you cannothurryYoucannotseemeagertomeetcertainpeoplemakecertaincontactslearnaboutcertainscoresThe quickest way to get tagged as a cop is to try to move too fastYouhavetoshowthatyouhavethetime to play by the rules of the street and that includes lettingpeoplecheckyououtandcometoyou55
Hewouldphonethebar leavingmessages forhimself just toestablishthathehadconnectionsandconveythebeliefpeopleknewhepatronshyizedthebar57ldquoWhenIwentotherplacesIcouldsayrdquoPistonewritesldquolsquoIbeenhangingoutat thatplace for fourorfivemonthsrsquoAnd theycould check it outThe guys had been hanging around in this placewouldsaylsquoYeahDonBrascohasbeencominginhereforquiteawhileandheseemsallrightnevertriedtopullanythingonusrsquordquo58
Wealsoread ldquoYoucanrsquotgoinallthetimebyyourselfbecausetheythinkyoursquoreeitherafagoracopAnditrsquosgoodtovarycompanysotheydonrsquot see you with the same people all the time and wonder whatrsquosuprdquo59SoDonniewouldbringanoccasionalfemaleorChuckanotherundercover agentThanks to Chuck he was introduced toAlbertldquoahalfshyasswiseguyrdquoaconnectedshytobutnotamadememberof theCoshylombofamily
Donnie eventually became the proteacutegeacute of a made guy BenjaminldquoLeftyGunsrdquoRuggieroandspentsixyearswiththemafiosilivingtheirdaily lives and sharing their crooked dealingsmdashconstantly exposed totheriskofbeingdiscoveredandkilledInthecourseoftheoperationhewasofferedtheopportunitynotonlytohandlethebookmakingforthemob boss of Milwaukee Frank Balistrieri but also to get inside theskimmingoperationinLasVegasBalistrierisaidhehadagoodcrewbuttheywereldquoolderkindof set in theirways Icoulduse someyoungerguysthatIcouldtrusttotakeoveracoupleofmyclubsandotherbusishynessesYoungerguyswouldbeabletorelatetothewaysoftodayrsquosbusishynessworldrdquo62Leftyvouched forDonnieldquoI told [Balistrieri]rdquoDonnie
22 c h a p t e r 1
saysldquoyouaremybloodrdquo63ButacceptingwouldhavemadeitimpossibleforDonnietoseehisrealfamilysoheturneddowntheofferWhilethatdecisionangeredLeftyitalsoconferredanadvantageasitfurthersigshynaledDonniersquoscredibilityldquoOnethingIhadinmyfavorseenthroughanymobguyrsquoseyeswas thatno cop would ever turn that job downSo Iwouldbeabovesuspicioninthatregardrdquo64
Donniecameupwithmanyother signalsbelieved tobeof akindthat a cop could not afford He pretended to beat up someone whoowedmoney toLeftyHe roughedup a comedianwhohad annoyedLeftyattheThunderbirdaMiamirestaurant65Furthermoreldquotypicallywhatanundercovercopwilldo inabuyshybust situation is try tobuysomethingfromyouCops always buy never sellI was going to sellrdquoPistonereveals66mdashthankstothefactthattheFBIallowedhimdiscretioninthatregard One very special commodity he bought though Lefty RugshygierorsquosprotectionTheFBIdishedoutatotalof$40000forthispurposewhileDonniewasundercoverldquoTheywerepayinghimforhisservicesasalsquowiseguyrsquotoinsuretheyhadtheprotectionoftheBonannofamilyin the event another family tried to interfere with their businessrdquo67
WhilepaymentwasostensiblyaimedatcompensatingLeftyitwasalsoliterallyacostlysignalandintentionallydesignedtoappeartobesoldquoBygivinghimmoneyContiandRossi[twoundercoveragentswhocolshylaboratedwithDonnie] ledLefty tobelieve that theywerewilling tobecomeinvolvedwithhimandhe trusted them as bad guysrdquo68
Mafiosiwerenot taken inbecause theyweredumbratherPistonewasunbelievablysmartandresilientanditjustwasveryhardformobshysterstothinkthattakentogetherallthethingshedidanddidnotdowerenotnearshyperfectdiscriminatingsignalsTheFBIwaslatercriticizedforoperatingverynearorevenbeyondthe limitsof the lawBut thisrelative freedomfooledthemafiosibecause theyassumedthatanunshydercoveragentwouldnotpaythecostofbreakingthelawDivinecouldnothavebankedonherneatlittletestifagentsofthelawhadbeenalshylowedtoexposethemselvesThemobsterswerecheatednotjustinthesense thatDonnieBrascoby faking forging andpretending successshyfullymimickedarealbadguybutalsointhesensethathedidsomereal badactions
23 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
In a short biography ofBonanno familymembersmdashposted on theInternetforawhilethenremovedmdashLeftywasdescribedasldquothebiggestidiotinthehistoryofLaCosaNostraHisblindgreedandlackofinshystinctwerefelthardintheAmericanmafiardquoAndyetLeftywascarefulevenyearsafterDonniehadbeenacceptedasaconnectedguyDonniewasassistedbyotherundercoveragentsoneofwhomwasldquoRossirdquoTotestwhetherRossiwasanundercoveragentLeftydeliberatelyldquolostrdquoaplaneticketthatRossihadbookedonhisowncreditcardforLefty(thiswasacovertwayofpayingprotectiontoLefty)ldquoBypretendingtolosetheticketLeftywantedtoseehowRossi reactedIfhewasanagentLeftyreasonedhewouldgetnervousbecausehewouldprobablyhavetoaccount for the ticket tohisofficeplushewouldbeworried thatsomebodylsquointheunderworldbusinessrsquomightmeanwhilefindtheticketandcheckouttheAmericanExpressnumbertoseeifitwasagovernshymentnumberrdquo69
WhenitwasfinallyrevealedthatDonniewasanundercoveragentthemobsterswereshockedanddidnotbelieveittillDonnieactuallytestishyfied in court against them His operation managed to send many ofthemmostlymembersoftheBonannofamilytojail71
ThemobsterslearnedtheirlessonandincreasedthepriceofthetestsNow not just one butldquotwo mafiosi have to vouch for the proposedmemberrdquoldquoTheyhavetosaytheyhaveknowntheproposedmemberifnotsincechildhoodthenatleastforfifteentotwentyyearsrdquo72Accordshying to theFBI theyalso resumeda traditionalpractice thathadbeenabandonedldquoaproposedmembermustlsquomakehisbonesrsquoorkillsomeonebeforehecanbecomeamadeguyTheyhavedonesobecause no agent
24 c h a p t e r 1
would commit murder while posing as a bad guyrdquo73Murderisreallyapershyfectlydiscriminatingsignalofbeingabadguyasignalthatnoundershycover agentnot evenonebelonging to a rather lax lawshyenforcementagencycouldafford
Thisentryrequirementmdashwhichshowshowcriminalactscanbepershypetratednotmerelyfortheirimmediateinstrumentalvaluebutalsofortheir signaling valuemdashhad never been explicitly removed but it wasno longerusedwithgreat determination In truthDominickldquoSonnyBlackrdquoNapolitanowhoeventuallybecameDonniersquosmainmentorandplannedtoproposeDonnieformembershiphadaskedDonnietomurshydersomeoneldquoHegavemeacontractsothatIwouldhavethatcredenshytialwhenheputmynameuprdquoButtheopportunitytocarryitoutdidnotariseforAnthonyBrunoIndelicatotheintendedvictimwentsucshycessfullyintohidingDonnieshowedthathewasdoingallhecouldtotrackIndelicatodownanditwasnotthoughttobehisfaultwhenhefailedThusalthoughhedidnotcarryoutthekillinghestillmanagedtoshowhiswillingnesstodoitandafewmonthslaterSonnyputhisnameforwardformembershipAtthatpointtheFBIdecidedtostoptheoperationandDonnieresumedonceagainhisrealidentity
Undercoveragentsmdashwhohavetopersuadethegrouptheyaimtoinfilshytrateof theircriminalcredentialsmdasharea serious threat forunlikesolomimicstheycandrawontheresourcesofstateagenciesandcanaffordcomplexmimicryactswhichinvolveposingforgingcredentialstrainshyingandfundsStill itcanbenear impossibleto infiltrategroupsproshytected by an array of features that cannot be successfully imitatedmdashwhichinotherwordsperfectlydistinguishtherealfromthephonyFor
EvenaMuslimCIAofficerwithnativeshylanguageabilities(andtheAgencyaccordingtoseveralactiveshydutycaseofficershasveryfewoperativesfromMiddleEasternbackgrounds)coulddolittlemorein thisenvironment [PeshawarPakistan] thanablondblueshyeyedallshyAmericanCaseofficerscannotlongescapetheembassiesandconsulates in which they serveA US official overseasphotoshygraphedandregisteredwiththelocalintelligenceandsecuritysershyvicescanrsquottravelmuchparticularlyinapoliceshyrichcountrylikePakistanwithouttheldquohostrdquoservicesknowingaboutitAnofficerwho tries togonativepretending tobe a trueshybelieving radicalMuslim searching for brothers in the causewillmake a fool ofhimselfquickly
UndercoveroperationsareaproblematicformofanticrimeactivityforanotherreasonaswellThelogicofcostshydiscriminatingsignalsinclinesundercoveragentstogobeyondinnocentpretensionsandsupportinishytiativesof thesamekinda truecriminalor terroristwouldundertakeSincelawshyenforcementagenciesareunderpressuretokeeptheiragentssafetheypushfordiscretiontobegrantedtothemAndsometimestheundercoveragentsthemselvesunbeknownsttotheiremployerschoosetobreakthelawbecausetheyworryabouttheircredibilityintheeyesof the host group and the consequences if they are discoveredThememoirsofundercoveragentsandspiesarerepletewiththisdilemma
According to incomplete calculations there were about 6500agents provocateurs and other political investigations specialistsoperatinginvariouspoliticalpartiesandorganizationsintheRusshy
26 c h a p t e r 1
sianEmpireatthestartofthetwentiethcenturythepoliceandgendarmesoftensetprioritiesthemselvesattimesevenattheriskofthelivesofhighshyrankinggovernmentofficialsandmembersoftheimperialfamilyMattersconcerningthesecurityofthesecretagentswereoftoppriorityandmaintainingthestrongpositionsofagentswithintheterroristorganizationsof theSocialistshyRevolushytionarieswasconsideredmore important thanpreventingassassishynationsevenagainstofficialsofthegovernment75
AfamouscasewasthatofEvnoAzefanagentwhooperatedinrevolushytionary circles for aboutfifteen years From 1893on hewas a policeagentAsastudentinaGermanpolytechnicschoolhetooktheinitiashytiveofofferinghisservicestothepolicedepartmentat therateof50rublespermonth afterwhichhe attachedhimself to a foreigngroupcallingitselftheUnionofRussianSocialistshyRevolutionariesHeknewaboutthemajorityofterroristactsbeingplannedbytheSRsbuthedidnotalwaysreporttohisbossesaboutthemNeverthelessthepolicepaidhimwellforhisservices76
EpisodesofthiskindarenotrestrictedtopredemocraticsocietiesAnilluminatingcaseoccurredinCanadaAtitspeakin1993theHeritageFront was the largest and bestshyorganized neoshyNazi group in Canadaboastingacontactlistof1800namesGrantBristowcofounderandaleadingmemberofthiswhiteracistgroupturnedouttobeapaidinshyformantoftheCanadianSecurityIntelligenceServiceldquoBristoworchesshytrated aharassment campaign that terrorizedFront enemies harboredleadinginternationalracistsinhisownhomeinclearviolationofbothCSISrulesandtheImmigrationActandassistedintheFrontrsquosinfiltrashytionoftheReformPartyrdquo77ldquoCSISmoleGrantBristowwasanlsquoagentprovocateurrsquowhowithhisspymastersbrokeCanadianlawsandinternalCSISregulationsagroupofMPshaveconcludedBristowrsquosleadershyshiproleinthewhiteracistHeritageFrontthereportsuggestsmay have led to the very events that caused CSIS to keep him in place for several more yearsrdquo78 An inquiry by the Security Intelligence Review CommitteeintotheaffairplayeddowntheaccusationsbutitisclearfromthereportthattherewereseriousbreachesForinstanceontheissueofharassment
27 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
of antiracistmilitants and Jewish communitymembers thedocumentconcludesthatldquoanyinformantwhoenterstheHeritageFrontorasimishylargrouphastomaintainhiscredibilitywithhisassociatesotherwisehewouldnot remain a trustedmember for longThe questionwewerefacedwithwaswhethertheCSISsource[GrantBristow]hadremainedwithintheboundsofappropriatebehaviourwhiletryingtomaintainhiscredibilityTheanswerwearrivedatwasthatin certain circumstances he had not[emphasisintheoriginal]rdquo79
Eveniftheyareonlysupposedtocollectinformationoncriminalorsubversiveactivitiesspiesmayendupproducingmoreofsuchactivitieson theirown initiativeThey tend tobecomeagentsprovocateursnotnecessarilyfortheconspiratorialreasonswhyJosephConradrsquosprotagoshynistinThe Secret Agentdoes(VerlocwasinthepayofanunnamedforshyeignembassythatwantedtopersuadetheBritishtotakeatougherlineagainsttheanarchistsandusedhisdimshywittednephewtostageanldquoanarshychistrdquobombingattack)buttypicallyonlyoutoffearofnotbeingcredshyibleenoughandofriskingtheirlivesThecoststhatmaketheirsignalscredibleintheeyesoftheirtargetsareafterallldquoonlyrdquothoseofbreakinglegalconstraintsTheymayneverbecaughtgiventheintrinsicopacityofwhattheydoandifcaughttheyarenotsolikelytobepunishedcershytainlynotbydeathAndontheothersideoftheequationtheyhavetoconsider the personal costs of failing to persuadeWhen onersquos life isthreatened thecostsofbreakingthe lawmaysuddenlyappear smallerthanthoseofobeyingitThesetofthosewhoarereadytorisktheirlifesacrificetheirfamilyanddeceivedangerouscriminalsforlongperiodsoftimewhileatthesametimeremainingstrictlyalawshyabidingcitizenmustbeextremelysmall
ThisraisesaninterestingquandaryforthecriminalsorterroristswhoaretryingtotestthebonafidesofothersForbyincreasingtheseverityofthepunishmentmetedoutagainstundercoveragentswhoarediscovshyered they encourage the latter to afford costly signals that once disshyplayedmaymakeitimpossibleforthebadguystosaywhethertheposhytentialrecruitsareundercoveragentsinthefirstplace
undercover agentmayfind it preferable to refrain from swallowing itevenatthecostofrevealinghistruetypeforhedoesnotwanttobreakthelawBycontrasttherealcriminalwhowantstodealwiththedrugdealersmayprefertopaythecostofthephysicalillnesscausedbyswalshylowing forhe isentirelyateasewithbreaking the lawThekeyextracost that discriminates between the real criminal and the undercoveragentisthecostofbreakingthelawwhichthemimicfaceswhilethegenuinearticledoesnotAharsherpunishmenthowevercanreversetheequationandmakeitcheaperfortheundercoveragenttoswallowratherthannot swallowevenat thecostofbreaking the lawandthusmakehimbehaviorallyindistinguishablefromtherealcriminalWhenadminshyisteredunder the threatof theharsherpunishment the testno longerseparatesonetypefromtheotherByfailingtoappreciatethisquandaryandthreateningdeathagainstthosewhorefusetoswallowthedrugthedealers fail to realize that theyaredeactivating thevery sourceof thereliabilityoftheirtestforunderthatthreattheagentsarenowallowed(andwouldinanycasefeelinclined)toswallowthedrug
CONCLUSIONS
OncesomeoneintentoncrimeidentifiesapotentialpartnerasabonafidecriminalhehassolvedoneproblemonlytolandinanotherequallydifficultoneHenowhastoestablishwhetherhispartnerisnotjustacrookbutanhonorableoneAfterHughGrantexposedhimselfDivineknewthathewasnotanundercovercopforshebelievedthatcopsdonotdothatYetshestilldidnotknowwhatkindofacustomerhewasProstitutesareconstantlyonguardagainstrobbersorpervertswhoposeasordinarycustomers80AnyonewhoworksoutsidethelawismoreexshyposedthanordinarybusinessmentobecomingthepreyofothercrimishynalswhomimicbeingacriminalofthehonestsortAstreetshydrugdealerwhosuccessfullyadvertises tocustomersmayalsoattract robberswhopretend to be customers in order to get close to the dealers and robthem81Acriminalhastobeonguardagainstbothkindsofmimicslawshyenforcementagentsandcriminalsofthewrongsort
29 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
Ifhonestywerethoughttobeatraitofcertaincriminalsandnotothshyersinordertoestablishwhetherapotentialpartnerishonestonecouldfollowthesamestrategyoneusesforidentifyingwhethersomeoneisacriminal tobeginwithThe samekindof costly signalswouldbe reshyquiredforcriminalstopersuadeoneanotherthattheywerethehonesttypeIncertaincasesthegametheyplayisindeedoneofsignalingtheirtypeHowever inmost circumstancescriminals tend to thinkofeachotherasbeingof justonetypenamelythedishonestoneandbelievethatgivenhalfachancetheywilltakeadvantageofeachotherTheonlyway inwhich they can comealmost toldquotrustrdquo eachother enough tocooperateisthereforenotbysignalingtheirtypebuteitherbyenforcshyingtheirpartnersrsquohonestywiththethreatofsomekindofretaliationormoregenerallybyputtingthemselvesandtheirpartnersinaconditionwherebyldquohonestyrdquo rather thancheating is theirbest courseof actionwhatevertheirtypeIshallexploresomeofthestrategiestheyadoptinchapters2and3
Onewaytoacquiregoodevidenceofsomeonersquoscriminalitywhichinshytersects with the referral method exploits law enforcement itself Intermsof howeffectively they canmix andmatchkindred spirits thehangouts thatcriminals freelychoosecannotcompetewith theplacesthey are forced to go by the agents who fight against crime there isnothing like prison to mix like with like Prisons promote crime inmanyobviousways18teachingcriminalsnewskillsandbrutalmodesofbehaviorbuttheyalsodosolessobviouslybyshoulderingthecostsofadvertisingandidentifyingwhoisacriminaltobeginwith
JustbeingaprisonerisaclearandsimplesignthatoneiscriminallyinclinedThehardpart is paying the priceof going there in thefirstplaceButitispreciselythatcostthatmakesaprisontermsuchagoodsignofbeingarealcriminalParadoxicallythebetterthecriminaljusticesystemisthesaferitistoassumethatthecompanyputbehindbarswillbe invariably villainousThough there are surely innocent prisonersmanyareguiltythemoresothebetterthesystemOnecanalsobereashysonably sure that phonies peoplewho talkbig about their dangerouscriminaltendenciesbutdonothingwillnotendupinprisonTheinshyterpersonalconflictsthatarerifewithinprisonsasweshallseeinchapshyter4 furtherensure that thephoniesarequickly identifiedAndeventhough undercover policemen have certainly been sent to prison forshortperiodstogaincriminalcredentialsthelongerthetimeprisonersspendinjailthecloserwegettoprisonbeingaperfectdiscriminatingsignmdashnoonechoosestospendtwentyyearsbehindbarsforthesakeofposingasavillainDoingtimeinprisoncanthusbebothastigmaandabadgedependingonwhoislookingatitAnexshyconvictwhowishestoreturntothepathoftherighteouscanfinddoingsoveryhardbeshycausehistimespentinprisonidentifieshimasacriminalldquoOnceyoursquore
12 c h a p t e r 1
markedinprisonyoursquoredoneforrdquosaysadelinquentboyrecountinghisownstory19Butonewhointendstopersistinhisoldwayswillfindhispath smoothed and can display his prison credentials to further hiscriminalcareer
OnemaynotgoasfarasarrangingajailsentenceforoneselfforthepurposeoffosteringnewassociationswithkindredspiritsButonceinprison there is an abundance of opportunity to make villainous acshyquaintanceswhowillbeusefulafteroneleaves
Say that there are fifty quite well established thieves in MalmoumlonlythirtyofthosehaveafenceThosewhodonrsquotaretheyoungeronesaroundeighteenortwentywhohavenrsquotbeenaroundenoughsotheyrsquollhavetoasktheirfriendsorselltothievesForsomeonewhohasbeeninsideasmuchasmeitrsquosnoproblem20
IncarcerationasamarkofreliabilityworksataremoveIftwoformerprisonersdidnotactuallymeetinjailtheycanstilldisplayevidenceofhavingbeenldquointhecanrdquotoadvertisetheircredentialsSoevenifgoingtoprisonwasnotintendedasaperverseformofreacutesumeacutebuildingtherevelationof theexperiencecanbe andoften is an intentional signalTheldquoreferralrdquomethodIdiscussedaboveexploitsprisoncontactstoomdashforifoneisembeddedinanetworkoneisinabetterpositionbothtoreferothersandtobereferredbythemThereisevenevidencethatunshywittinglyunionsandorganizationsthataresupposedtohelpexshyinmatesto reentermainstream society alsohelpunreformedcriminals in theirbusiness21Notleastthesecharitableorganizationsassistthembycertishyfying their status as genuine exshyprisoners thus innocently facilitatingencounterswithactivevillains
whetherandhowfartheenhancingofonersquoscriminalidentityoffsetstheattemptsatrehabilitationthereismuchanecdotalevidencefromcrimishynalsrsquo biographies of the enhancing effectrsquos existence It starts early inyoungshyoffendersrsquoinstitutionsInhisautobiographyJimmyBoyleaScotshytishgangsterreminiscesthatwhenhewassixteen
theApprovedSchoolsurelyplayedavitalpartinmycriminaldeshyvelopmentItgavemeconnectionsthatIwastofindusefulinmyadultdaysItgavemeanintroductiontoguysfromtownsandcitshyiesthroughoutScotlandandfrommanyareasinGlasgowmanyofwhom grew up to be the top thieves or fighters in their areasThere isnodoubtatall thatmostof themgained inacriminalsensefromtheirApprovedSchoolexperience23
HewasdoinghisbesthewritestoavoidbeingcaughtldquobuteverytimeIwentintoprisonIbroadenedmycriminalhorizonsbymakingmoreandmoreconnections indifferent areasrdquo24MalcolmBralywho spentnearly seventeenyears invariousUSprisons forburglarywroteldquoHewasbrokeasIwasandhesuggestedwetrysomethingtogetherItwasreasonableWho is more likely to be trustworthy than someone youhavejustmetinjailrdquo25
CriminalandrebelorganizationsregardaprisonrecordasasignofdistinctionTheRussiancriminalfraternityknownasvorymadehavingbeeninaprisoncampaformalrequirementofmembership26AccordshyingtoMarekKaminskiatleastonememberoftheundergroundSolshyidarity movement in Poland provoked the communist secret servicestoputher inprisonsoshecould improveherreputationldquoUnderthewellshyprogressingperestroika in1987 thePolishcommunistsessentiallystoppedincarceratingtheopposition(sothelsquoincarcerationrsquowasabrief48hours)theystartedtalkswithselectedoppositiongroupsandmanyunderground politicians thought that there would be some role forthem to playwithin the communist regime soonThus the expectedcostofincarcerationwaslowandtheexpectedbenefitswerehighrdquo27
The lengthof time spent in prison further provides anldquoobjectiverdquomeasureoftherespectoneisowedrelativetoothergangmembersThus
14 c h a p t e r 1
Christopher Seymour writes of taking a drive with Japanese yakuza (mobsters)ldquoIntheloosehierarchyoftheHarashygumiKenis themostsenior in the automobile He has already served time in adult prisonwhereastheothershaveonlybeenthroughjuveniledetentionrdquo28LikeshywiseMarekKaminskimdashwhowhenhewasa sociologysophomore inthe1980swasarrestedbythePolishcommunistsecretpolicetogetherwithelevenothermembersofanundergroundSolidarnosc publishinghouseandjailedforfivemonthsmdashreportsldquoSomeofthePolishgrypsmen [inmateswhoaremembersofaprisonfraternityseechapter4]claimthatinthecaseofaprisonerwithasentenceof20+yearshedoesnothavetojointhegrypsmenformallyandsufferthecostsoftheinitiationritualsHeiseligibleforenjoyingallthebenefitsofthecastemembershyshipbyvirtueofthesentencersquoslengthrdquo29FortheRussianmafiaaswellldquothelengthoftimespentinprisonwasasourceofprestigeandasignofdistinction among the criminals who aspired to become voryrdquo30 In atelephoneconversation secretly recordedby Italianpolice thewifeofIvanYakovlev (thenames have been changed) aRussianmobster arshyrestedinItalyin199731usesthelengthofherhusbandrsquosprisonsentencetoinduceoneofhisassociatestoshowduerespectAssignedtothetaskbyherhusband shewarns theRussianwifeof theaccompliceMarioFerrarildquoIvanisbiggerthan[yourhusband]hehasbeeninprisonfor15yearsrdquoFerrarididnotenjoythesameprisoncredentialsthoughhehadclashedwiththelawinthepastfordrugdealingHewasnowmisbeshyhavingbeingoftendrunkanddisheveledandaccordingtoIvanswifedidnotshowenoughrespecttoIvanInasubsequentconversationbeshytweenthetwowomenFerrarirsquoswifeapologizedforherhusbandrsquosbeshyhavior She clearly took the point and repeated word for word whatIvanrsquoswifepreviouslytoldherldquo[Myhusband]understoodthatitisnotIvanwhomustlookforhimbutthathecleanandwelldressedmustgotoIvaninthecarandaskhimwhatneedstobedonebecauseIvanisbiggerthanheishehasbeeninprisonfor15yearsrdquo32
monlyacceptedviewthatldquopunishingacriminalmoreseverelyreducesthatindividualrsquossubsequentprobabilityofrecidivismrdquo33Sinceprisonersareassignedtominimumshylowshyorhighshysecurityprisonsonthebasisoftheirscoreonascalefrom1to10pointsldquointendedtoreflect[their]needforsupervisionrdquo34ChenandShapirowereabletocomparetherearrestratesofexshyinmateswhohadbeenoneithersideofthecutoffboundarshyiesthathadledthemtobeincarceratedinprisonswithdifferentsecushyrity levelsldquoinessenceweargue thatwithin a small interval aroundacutofftheallocationofprisonerstodifferentsecuritylevelsamountstoarandomassignmentrdquo35Althoughtheresultsarebasedonasmallnumberofcases948theystillenabletheauthorstorejectstronglythehypothshyesisthatlowerlevelsofprisonsecurityleadtomorerecidivismafterreshyleaseinsteadtheyindicateinmanywaysthattheoppositeeffectobtainsThe authorsrsquo interpretationof this effect refers to lower laborshymarketopportunities for highershysecurity exshyinmates and to peer effectsmdashldquoinmatesmayacquireskillslearnofnewprospectsordevelopcriminalcontactsrdquo36moreofteninhighershythaninlowershysecurityprisonsTheirresultsarealsoperfectlycompatiblewithanotherinterpretationhavingbeeninprisonswithastricterregimestrengthensthecertifyingeffectoncriminalcredentialsandgivesexshyinmatesfromtheseprisonsrelativeto those fromprisonswith lower security levelsgreatercredibilityonthecriminallabormarket
the two pairs have solved the identification problem in the past Butwhatabouttheelementarycaseinwhichreferralsarenotavailableornotpersuasiveorsafeenoughmdashcantwoagentsthenfindadirectsolushytiontotheproblem
It is hard to observe someone committing a crime in the naturalcourseofeventsbutvillainscancertainlyaskapotentialpartnerorreshycruittogivethemevidenceofhavingcommittedcrimesandcandosowithout resorting to an intermediaryThis can work if the crimes inquestionleaveatracethatcanbeknownorpossessedonlybytherealperpetrator One cannot just say that one has committed a crimemdashaphonymayhavereadaboutitinthepaperandsimplybeclaimingtobetheperpetratorOnehastoshowthebootyasitwereasinthefollowingcasePoliceinfourteencountriesincludingtheUnitedStatesarrestednearlytwohundredsuspectedmembersofanInternetchildpornograshyphyringtheWonderlandClubTojointheringonehadtoshowthatonepossessedtenthousandphotographsandbepreparedtosharethemwith other membersThe photographs were screened by a computerprogramwhichcheckedwhethertheyweredifferentfromoneanotherand fromthosealreadyavailable fromother sources37Thisaction sigshynaledthatprospectivemembershadcommittedacrimeandwereserishyouslycommittedtotheactivityofcommoninterestandcouldnotthusbeundercoveragents(Ireturntothiscaseinchapter3)
UltimatelycriminalscanalsoaskapotentialpartnerorrecruittoenshygageinadisplaycrimemdashanactthatanoncriminalwouldneverdomdashandtocommitthecrimeundertheireyesorinsuchawayastoleaveanunmistakablesignofauthorshipThenatureoftheillegalactrequesteddependsonthetypeofcrimeinwhichtheagentsareinvolvedandthelawsthatgovernitDivinetheLosAngelesprostitutewhoachievedherfifteenminutesoffameforadministeringoralsextoBritishactorHughGrant in 1995 revealedherparticularkindof testBefore agreeing totradesheaskedGranttoexposehimselfThereasonshesaidisthatanundercoverpolicemanwouldnotdothatforhewouldbebreakingthelawDivinebelievedonewondershowaccuratelythatexposingoneselfwasasignalonlyrealcustomerscouldafford
The same reasoning inspires a test appliedbydrugdealers inNew
17 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
YorkSincethemidshy1990sldquoaspolicehave intensifiedtheirassault thedealershavealsoadoptedmoreperilous tacticsFiveor six timeseachmonthundercoverinvestigatorsarenowforcedtousecocaineorheroinatgunpointtoprovetodealersthattheycanbetrustedAtleasttwiceamonth anofficer is shotorotherwisewoundedduring a stagedpurshychasesaypolicecommanderswhospokeonconditionofanonymityrdquo38
These kinds of tests are common in organizationswhere loyalty isparamount Before initiation mafia novicesmdashespecially those not alshyreadymembersoffamilieswithamafiatraditionmdashareaskedtocommitamurder(sometimeswouldshybemembersmovefirstandcommitseriouscrimesbeforeanyoneaskedthemtodoso)39Themafiausuallydoesnotkill anyonepurely for the sakeof a testmdashit optimizes byldquowhackingrdquosomeonewhowasmeanttobewhackedanywayand atthesametimetrying out the determination and bona fides of a noviceTheAryanBrotherhoodinprisonadoptedthesametesttogainmembershipcanshydidatesldquohadtokillwhomevertheBrotherhoodtargetedrdquo40AkindredoutfitknownastheAryanWarriorsalsorequiredwouldshybememberstopassatestldquousuallyabloodyassaultorinsomeinstancesadrugripshyofffrom a person outside of the brotherhoodrdquo41 But there are cases inwhichheinous crimes are committed purely as tests In a hairshyraisingaccountoflifeinyouthgangsinColombiathewriterEfraimMedinaReyes claims that it is not uncommon for new gangmembers to beasked to murder innocent friends or members of their own familywhich pushes the test to the extreme42 Revolutionary and resistancegroups deemed to be illegal by the incumbent government have alsousedthesametestBeingaskedtocommitamurderwasforinstanceacommonpractice in theAlgerianFLNSometimes the leaderswouldpick victims more or less at random to see if prospective memberswouldobeyevenmeaninglessorders43
ThismethodexploitsthelawwhichrestrictsthelawshyabidingundershycoveragentsrsquooptionsandturnsittothecriminalsrsquoadvantageIfhowshyeverlawshyenforcementagenciesgivetheirundercoveroperativesgreaterdiscretion to act against the law for the sakeofpersuading thegrouptheyaretryingtoinfiltrateoftheirbonafidesthepowerofthesesignalsisweakened for theagentcannowaffordat least someof themThe
18 c h a p t e r 1
degreesoffreedomvaryfromtimetotimeandfromagencytoagencyPoliceinNewYorkarenowldquoinstructedtoavoidtakingthedrugsunless their lives are in dangerrdquoIfdealersreadtheNew York Timeswherethisinshyformationwaspublishedtheyknowthatforcingbuyerstoingestdrugsby threatening their lives isnowauseless test for itno longerdistinshyguishesgenuinebuyersfromundercoveragents
BeforediscussingthisproblemfurtherIwillpresentthecaseofFBIspecial agent Joseph Pistone aka Donnie Brasco who infiltrated theNewYorkmafiaandcameclosetobeinginitiatedIknowofnobettercase for illustratingall the typesofcostshydiscriminating signalsusedbycriminalsmdashand by those who try to fool them Donnie Brasco pershysuadedthemobstersofhiscriminalcredentialsbyemployingabreathshytakingrangeofsubtlesignalsandnarratedhisexperienceinabookmdasharguablythemostvividethnographyoftheUSmafiafromldquowithinrdquo44
Entering the mob world is needless to say very hardldquoAssociates ofwiseguysdonrsquotdealwithpeopletheydonrsquotknoworwhosomebodyelsedoesnrsquotvouchforrdquo45PriortoPistonersquosinfiltrationtheFBIlackedexpeshyrienceDuringJEdgarHooverrsquosreignatthebureauundercoverworkwasrarelyusedldquobecauseitcouldbeadirtyjobthatcouldenduptaintshyingtheagentsrdquo46AndalthoughithadbeenusedsinceldquosofarasweknewtheFBIhadneverplantedoneofitsownagentsinthemafiardquo47Yettheoperation itwas about to attemptwasextraordinarily shrewdPistoneneededtobuildawholebarrageofsignalswhichtakentogethercouldpersuadethemobstersthathewasarealbadguyAndthatiswhatheandhishandlerssetouttodomindingthatthelawconstrainedhisfreeshydomldquoTheFBIwouldnrsquotletmeactuallygooutonhijackingsandburshyglariesbecausethecrewwentarmedrdquoPistonewrites48
19 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
PistoneneededanamehedecideditwaseasiertosticktoDonnieBrasco the name he had used in a previous undercover operation inFloridaHeneededaplausiblebiographythatcouldbecheckedorbetshyterhardtocheckheposedasanorphanandabachelorHesaidhehadbeenraisedinanorphanageinPittsburghthatburneddowntherewereno records leftThe story needed to be simpleldquoThe fewer [lies] youhave to tell the feweryouhave torememberrdquohenotes49HesaidhehadspenttimeontheWestCoastandinFloridawhereinfacthehadbeenbeforeasldquoDonaldBrascordquointhepreviousoperationandhadesshytablishedsomecontactsHeneededaldquoprofessionrdquoandsettledonjewelrytheftsomethingonecandoaloneandthatdoesnotrequiretheuseofweaponsmdashsomething moreover that allowed him to use confiscatedstolen jewels to sell so he would not have to break the law to stealthem50
Hecouldcountonadvantagesthatwouldhavebeenhardtofakehadtheynotbeenpartofhis realbiographyHis Italianancestryprovidedhim with theldquorightrdquo ethnic background He had grown up in theldquorightrdquoneighborhoodandasayoungsterhungoutinldquojointsrdquopatronshyizedbywiseguysldquoYouhad tobe streetshysmartevencockysometimesEverygoodundercoveragentIhaveknowngrewuponthestreetlikeIdidandwasagoodstreetagentbeforebecominganundercoveragentOnthestreetyoulearnwhatrsquoswhatandwhorsquoswhoYoulearnhowtoreadsituationsandhandleyourselfYou cannot fake the ability It showsrdquo51
It is also interesting to know what he chose not to say or do Heavoided acting in a way that could raise suspicionldquoNo street guy isgoingtothrowmoneyallovertheplaceunlesshersquostryingtoattractatshytentionrdquoPistonereveals ldquoThenthequestionisWhyishetryingtoatshytractattentionrdquo52BydoingsoheeitherbecomesatargetinthatpeoplethinktheycanrobhimorraisessuspicionsthathemaybeacopDonshyniewasparsimonioustooinrevealingdetailsofhislifewhetherrealorphonyforldquoyouneverknowwhatpartofwhatyoudowillbecomepartofyourhistorywhenpeoplewanttocheckonyourdquo53
Ifthey[themobsters]werenrsquotscheminganddreamingtheyweretellingwarstoriesreminiscencesabouttheirtimeinvariousjailsandprisonsEverybodydidtimeinthecanItwaspartofthepriceofdoingbusinessTheyknewallaboutdifferent jailscellblocksguards I had enough phony background set up to establish mycredentialsasaseriouscriminaltoshowthatIwastoughenoughtodo time if Ihad towithout turningratBut I never claimed to have done any prison timebecause IdidnrsquotknowthoseplacesandthatcouldhavejustrippedmeupIfyoudothreetofiveyearsyouget to know the guardsmdashwhat guardrsquos on what tierYou get toknowtheinmatesguyswhoaredoingfifteentotwentyguyswhoarestillthereTheyknewthelingoandtheslangEverybodyreshymembersthoserelationshipsandthattime54
IndirectlyPistonersquos choice showswhat a robust signalhavingbeen inprison is It isnot something that canbeeasily fakedguyswhohavetrulybeentherewouldquicklyspotanimpostor
Donniewentonforacoupleofmonths
playing this game of being noticedwithout being noticed slideintothebadguyworldandbecomeacceptedwithoutdrawingatshytentionYoupushalittlehereandtherebutverygentlyBriefinshytroductions short conversations appearances one place and anshyotherhintsaboutwhatyoursquoreuptocasualmannerismsdemeanorand lingo that youknowyourway aroundmdashall these become atrail of credibility you leave behind youAbove all you cannothurryYoucannotseemeagertomeetcertainpeoplemakecertaincontactslearnaboutcertainscoresThe quickest way to get tagged as a cop is to try to move too fastYouhavetoshowthatyouhavethetime to play by the rules of the street and that includes lettingpeoplecheckyououtandcometoyou55
Hewouldphonethebar leavingmessages forhimself just toestablishthathehadconnectionsandconveythebeliefpeopleknewhepatronshyizedthebar57ldquoWhenIwentotherplacesIcouldsayrdquoPistonewritesldquolsquoIbeenhangingoutat thatplace for fourorfivemonthsrsquoAnd theycould check it outThe guys had been hanging around in this placewouldsaylsquoYeahDonBrascohasbeencominginhereforquiteawhileandheseemsallrightnevertriedtopullanythingonusrsquordquo58
Wealsoread ldquoYoucanrsquotgoinallthetimebyyourselfbecausetheythinkyoursquoreeitherafagoracopAnditrsquosgoodtovarycompanysotheydonrsquot see you with the same people all the time and wonder whatrsquosuprdquo59SoDonniewouldbringanoccasionalfemaleorChuckanotherundercover agentThanks to Chuck he was introduced toAlbertldquoahalfshyasswiseguyrdquoaconnectedshytobutnotamadememberof theCoshylombofamily
Donnie eventually became the proteacutegeacute of a made guy BenjaminldquoLeftyGunsrdquoRuggieroandspentsixyearswiththemafiosilivingtheirdaily lives and sharing their crooked dealingsmdashconstantly exposed totheriskofbeingdiscoveredandkilledInthecourseoftheoperationhewasofferedtheopportunitynotonlytohandlethebookmakingforthemob boss of Milwaukee Frank Balistrieri but also to get inside theskimmingoperationinLasVegasBalistrierisaidhehadagoodcrewbuttheywereldquoolderkindof set in theirways Icoulduse someyoungerguysthatIcouldtrusttotakeoveracoupleofmyclubsandotherbusishynessesYoungerguyswouldbeabletorelatetothewaysoftodayrsquosbusishynessworldrdquo62Leftyvouched forDonnieldquoI told [Balistrieri]rdquoDonnie
22 c h a p t e r 1
saysldquoyouaremybloodrdquo63ButacceptingwouldhavemadeitimpossibleforDonnietoseehisrealfamilysoheturneddowntheofferWhilethatdecisionangeredLeftyitalsoconferredanadvantageasitfurthersigshynaledDonniersquoscredibilityldquoOnethingIhadinmyfavorseenthroughanymobguyrsquoseyeswas thatno cop would ever turn that job downSo Iwouldbeabovesuspicioninthatregardrdquo64
Donniecameupwithmanyother signalsbelieved tobeof akindthat a cop could not afford He pretended to beat up someone whoowedmoney toLeftyHe roughedup a comedianwhohad annoyedLeftyattheThunderbirdaMiamirestaurant65Furthermoreldquotypicallywhatanundercovercopwilldo inabuyshybust situation is try tobuysomethingfromyouCops always buy never sellI was going to sellrdquoPistonereveals66mdashthankstothefactthattheFBIallowedhimdiscretioninthatregard One very special commodity he bought though Lefty RugshygierorsquosprotectionTheFBIdishedoutatotalof$40000forthispurposewhileDonniewasundercoverldquoTheywerepayinghimforhisservicesasalsquowiseguyrsquotoinsuretheyhadtheprotectionoftheBonannofamilyin the event another family tried to interfere with their businessrdquo67
WhilepaymentwasostensiblyaimedatcompensatingLeftyitwasalsoliterallyacostlysignalandintentionallydesignedtoappeartobesoldquoBygivinghimmoneyContiandRossi[twoundercoveragentswhocolshylaboratedwithDonnie] ledLefty tobelieve that theywerewilling tobecomeinvolvedwithhimandhe trusted them as bad guysrdquo68
Mafiosiwerenot taken inbecause theyweredumbratherPistonewasunbelievablysmartandresilientanditjustwasveryhardformobshysterstothinkthattakentogetherallthethingshedidanddidnotdowerenotnearshyperfectdiscriminatingsignalsTheFBIwaslatercriticizedforoperatingverynearorevenbeyondthe limitsof the lawBut thisrelative freedomfooledthemafiosibecause theyassumedthatanunshydercoveragentwouldnotpaythecostofbreakingthelawDivinecouldnothavebankedonherneatlittletestifagentsofthelawhadbeenalshylowedtoexposethemselvesThemobsterswerecheatednotjustinthesense thatDonnieBrascoby faking forging andpretending successshyfullymimickedarealbadguybutalsointhesensethathedidsomereal badactions
23 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
In a short biography ofBonanno familymembersmdashposted on theInternetforawhilethenremovedmdashLeftywasdescribedasldquothebiggestidiotinthehistoryofLaCosaNostraHisblindgreedandlackofinshystinctwerefelthardintheAmericanmafiardquoAndyetLeftywascarefulevenyearsafterDonniehadbeenacceptedasaconnectedguyDonniewasassistedbyotherundercoveragentsoneofwhomwasldquoRossirdquoTotestwhetherRossiwasanundercoveragentLeftydeliberatelyldquolostrdquoaplaneticketthatRossihadbookedonhisowncreditcardforLefty(thiswasacovertwayofpayingprotectiontoLefty)ldquoBypretendingtolosetheticketLeftywantedtoseehowRossi reactedIfhewasanagentLeftyreasonedhewouldgetnervousbecausehewouldprobablyhavetoaccount for the ticket tohisofficeplushewouldbeworried thatsomebodylsquointheunderworldbusinessrsquomightmeanwhilefindtheticketandcheckouttheAmericanExpressnumbertoseeifitwasagovernshymentnumberrdquo69
WhenitwasfinallyrevealedthatDonniewasanundercoveragentthemobsterswereshockedanddidnotbelieveittillDonnieactuallytestishyfied in court against them His operation managed to send many ofthemmostlymembersoftheBonannofamilytojail71
ThemobsterslearnedtheirlessonandincreasedthepriceofthetestsNow not just one butldquotwo mafiosi have to vouch for the proposedmemberrdquoldquoTheyhavetosaytheyhaveknowntheproposedmemberifnotsincechildhoodthenatleastforfifteentotwentyyearsrdquo72Accordshying to theFBI theyalso resumeda traditionalpractice thathadbeenabandonedldquoaproposedmembermustlsquomakehisbonesrsquoorkillsomeonebeforehecanbecomeamadeguyTheyhavedonesobecause no agent
24 c h a p t e r 1
would commit murder while posing as a bad guyrdquo73Murderisreallyapershyfectlydiscriminatingsignalofbeingabadguyasignalthatnoundershycover agentnot evenonebelonging to a rather lax lawshyenforcementagencycouldafford
Thisentryrequirementmdashwhichshowshowcriminalactscanbepershypetratednotmerelyfortheirimmediateinstrumentalvaluebutalsofortheir signaling valuemdashhad never been explicitly removed but it wasno longerusedwithgreat determination In truthDominickldquoSonnyBlackrdquoNapolitanowhoeventuallybecameDonniersquosmainmentorandplannedtoproposeDonnieformembershiphadaskedDonnietomurshydersomeoneldquoHegavemeacontractsothatIwouldhavethatcredenshytialwhenheputmynameuprdquoButtheopportunitytocarryitoutdidnotariseforAnthonyBrunoIndelicatotheintendedvictimwentsucshycessfullyintohidingDonnieshowedthathewasdoingallhecouldtotrackIndelicatodownanditwasnotthoughttobehisfaultwhenhefailedThusalthoughhedidnotcarryoutthekillinghestillmanagedtoshowhiswillingnesstodoitandafewmonthslaterSonnyputhisnameforwardformembershipAtthatpointtheFBIdecidedtostoptheoperationandDonnieresumedonceagainhisrealidentity
Undercoveragentsmdashwhohavetopersuadethegrouptheyaimtoinfilshytrateof theircriminalcredentialsmdasharea serious threat forunlikesolomimicstheycandrawontheresourcesofstateagenciesandcanaffordcomplexmimicryactswhichinvolveposingforgingcredentialstrainshyingandfundsStill itcanbenear impossibleto infiltrategroupsproshytected by an array of features that cannot be successfully imitatedmdashwhichinotherwordsperfectlydistinguishtherealfromthephonyFor
EvenaMuslimCIAofficerwithnativeshylanguageabilities(andtheAgencyaccordingtoseveralactiveshydutycaseofficershasveryfewoperativesfromMiddleEasternbackgrounds)coulddolittlemorein thisenvironment [PeshawarPakistan] thanablondblueshyeyedallshyAmericanCaseofficerscannotlongescapetheembassiesandconsulates in which they serveA US official overseasphotoshygraphedandregisteredwiththelocalintelligenceandsecuritysershyvicescanrsquottravelmuchparticularlyinapoliceshyrichcountrylikePakistanwithouttheldquohostrdquoservicesknowingaboutitAnofficerwho tries togonativepretending tobe a trueshybelieving radicalMuslim searching for brothers in the causewillmake a fool ofhimselfquickly
UndercoveroperationsareaproblematicformofanticrimeactivityforanotherreasonaswellThelogicofcostshydiscriminatingsignalsinclinesundercoveragentstogobeyondinnocentpretensionsandsupportinishytiativesof thesamekinda truecriminalor terroristwouldundertakeSincelawshyenforcementagenciesareunderpressuretokeeptheiragentssafetheypushfordiscretiontobegrantedtothemAndsometimestheundercoveragentsthemselvesunbeknownsttotheiremployerschoosetobreakthelawbecausetheyworryabouttheircredibilityintheeyesof the host group and the consequences if they are discoveredThememoirsofundercoveragentsandspiesarerepletewiththisdilemma
According to incomplete calculations there were about 6500agents provocateurs and other political investigations specialistsoperatinginvariouspoliticalpartiesandorganizationsintheRusshy
26 c h a p t e r 1
sianEmpireatthestartofthetwentiethcenturythepoliceandgendarmesoftensetprioritiesthemselvesattimesevenattheriskofthelivesofhighshyrankinggovernmentofficialsandmembersoftheimperialfamilyMattersconcerningthesecurityofthesecretagentswereoftoppriorityandmaintainingthestrongpositionsofagentswithintheterroristorganizationsof theSocialistshyRevolushytionarieswasconsideredmore important thanpreventingassassishynationsevenagainstofficialsofthegovernment75
AfamouscasewasthatofEvnoAzefanagentwhooperatedinrevolushytionary circles for aboutfifteen years From 1893on hewas a policeagentAsastudentinaGermanpolytechnicschoolhetooktheinitiashytiveofofferinghisservicestothepolicedepartmentat therateof50rublespermonth afterwhichhe attachedhimself to a foreigngroupcallingitselftheUnionofRussianSocialistshyRevolutionariesHeknewaboutthemajorityofterroristactsbeingplannedbytheSRsbuthedidnotalwaysreporttohisbossesaboutthemNeverthelessthepolicepaidhimwellforhisservices76
EpisodesofthiskindarenotrestrictedtopredemocraticsocietiesAnilluminatingcaseoccurredinCanadaAtitspeakin1993theHeritageFront was the largest and bestshyorganized neoshyNazi group in Canadaboastingacontactlistof1800namesGrantBristowcofounderandaleadingmemberofthiswhiteracistgroupturnedouttobeapaidinshyformantoftheCanadianSecurityIntelligenceServiceldquoBristoworchesshytrated aharassment campaign that terrorizedFront enemies harboredleadinginternationalracistsinhisownhomeinclearviolationofbothCSISrulesandtheImmigrationActandassistedintheFrontrsquosinfiltrashytionoftheReformPartyrdquo77ldquoCSISmoleGrantBristowwasanlsquoagentprovocateurrsquowhowithhisspymastersbrokeCanadianlawsandinternalCSISregulationsagroupofMPshaveconcludedBristowrsquosleadershyshiproleinthewhiteracistHeritageFrontthereportsuggestsmay have led to the very events that caused CSIS to keep him in place for several more yearsrdquo78 An inquiry by the Security Intelligence Review CommitteeintotheaffairplayeddowntheaccusationsbutitisclearfromthereportthattherewereseriousbreachesForinstanceontheissueofharassment
27 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
of antiracistmilitants and Jewish communitymembers thedocumentconcludesthatldquoanyinformantwhoenterstheHeritageFrontorasimishylargrouphastomaintainhiscredibilitywithhisassociatesotherwisehewouldnot remain a trustedmember for longThe questionwewerefacedwithwaswhethertheCSISsource[GrantBristow]hadremainedwithintheboundsofappropriatebehaviourwhiletryingtomaintainhiscredibilityTheanswerwearrivedatwasthatin certain circumstances he had not[emphasisintheoriginal]rdquo79
Eveniftheyareonlysupposedtocollectinformationoncriminalorsubversiveactivitiesspiesmayendupproducingmoreofsuchactivitieson theirown initiativeThey tend tobecomeagentsprovocateursnotnecessarilyfortheconspiratorialreasonswhyJosephConradrsquosprotagoshynistinThe Secret Agentdoes(VerlocwasinthepayofanunnamedforshyeignembassythatwantedtopersuadetheBritishtotakeatougherlineagainsttheanarchistsandusedhisdimshywittednephewtostageanldquoanarshychistrdquobombingattack)buttypicallyonlyoutoffearofnotbeingcredshyibleenoughandofriskingtheirlivesThecoststhatmaketheirsignalscredibleintheeyesoftheirtargetsareafterallldquoonlyrdquothoseofbreakinglegalconstraintsTheymayneverbecaughtgiventheintrinsicopacityofwhattheydoandifcaughttheyarenotsolikelytobepunishedcershytainlynotbydeathAndontheothersideoftheequationtheyhavetoconsider the personal costs of failing to persuadeWhen onersquos life isthreatened thecostsofbreakingthe lawmaysuddenlyappear smallerthanthoseofobeyingitThesetofthosewhoarereadytorisktheirlifesacrificetheirfamilyanddeceivedangerouscriminalsforlongperiodsoftimewhileatthesametimeremainingstrictlyalawshyabidingcitizenmustbeextremelysmall
ThisraisesaninterestingquandaryforthecriminalsorterroristswhoaretryingtotestthebonafidesofothersForbyincreasingtheseverityofthepunishmentmetedoutagainstundercoveragentswhoarediscovshyered they encourage the latter to afford costly signals that once disshyplayedmaymakeitimpossibleforthebadguystosaywhethertheposhytentialrecruitsareundercoveragentsinthefirstplace
undercover agentmayfind it preferable to refrain from swallowing itevenatthecostofrevealinghistruetypeforhedoesnotwanttobreakthelawBycontrasttherealcriminalwhowantstodealwiththedrugdealersmayprefertopaythecostofthephysicalillnesscausedbyswalshylowing forhe isentirelyateasewithbreaking the lawThekeyextracost that discriminates between the real criminal and the undercoveragentisthecostofbreakingthelawwhichthemimicfaceswhilethegenuinearticledoesnotAharsherpunishmenthowevercanreversetheequationandmakeitcheaperfortheundercoveragenttoswallowratherthannot swallowevenat thecostofbreaking the lawandthusmakehimbehaviorallyindistinguishablefromtherealcriminalWhenadminshyisteredunder the threatof theharsherpunishment the testno longerseparatesonetypefromtheotherByfailingtoappreciatethisquandaryandthreateningdeathagainstthosewhorefusetoswallowthedrugthedealers fail to realize that theyaredeactivating thevery sourceof thereliabilityoftheirtestforunderthatthreattheagentsarenowallowed(andwouldinanycasefeelinclined)toswallowthedrug
CONCLUSIONS
OncesomeoneintentoncrimeidentifiesapotentialpartnerasabonafidecriminalhehassolvedoneproblemonlytolandinanotherequallydifficultoneHenowhastoestablishwhetherhispartnerisnotjustacrookbutanhonorableoneAfterHughGrantexposedhimselfDivineknewthathewasnotanundercovercopforshebelievedthatcopsdonotdothatYetshestilldidnotknowwhatkindofacustomerhewasProstitutesareconstantlyonguardagainstrobbersorpervertswhoposeasordinarycustomers80AnyonewhoworksoutsidethelawismoreexshyposedthanordinarybusinessmentobecomingthepreyofothercrimishynalswhomimicbeingacriminalofthehonestsortAstreetshydrugdealerwhosuccessfullyadvertises tocustomersmayalsoattract robberswhopretend to be customers in order to get close to the dealers and robthem81Acriminalhastobeonguardagainstbothkindsofmimicslawshyenforcementagentsandcriminalsofthewrongsort
29 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
Ifhonestywerethoughttobeatraitofcertaincriminalsandnotothshyersinordertoestablishwhetherapotentialpartnerishonestonecouldfollowthesamestrategyoneusesforidentifyingwhethersomeoneisacriminal tobeginwithThe samekindof costly signalswouldbe reshyquiredforcriminalstopersuadeoneanotherthattheywerethehonesttypeIncertaincasesthegametheyplayisindeedoneofsignalingtheirtypeHowever inmost circumstancescriminals tend to thinkofeachotherasbeingof justonetypenamelythedishonestoneandbelievethatgivenhalfachancetheywilltakeadvantageofeachotherTheonlyway inwhich they can comealmost toldquotrustrdquo eachother enough tocooperateisthereforenotbysignalingtheirtypebuteitherbyenforcshyingtheirpartnersrsquohonestywiththethreatofsomekindofretaliationormoregenerallybyputtingthemselvesandtheirpartnersinaconditionwherebyldquohonestyrdquo rather thancheating is theirbest courseof actionwhatevertheirtypeIshallexploresomeofthestrategiestheyadoptinchapters2and3
12 c h a p t e r 1
markedinprisonyoursquoredoneforrdquosaysadelinquentboyrecountinghisownstory19Butonewhointendstopersistinhisoldwayswillfindhispath smoothed and can display his prison credentials to further hiscriminalcareer
OnemaynotgoasfarasarrangingajailsentenceforoneselfforthepurposeoffosteringnewassociationswithkindredspiritsButonceinprison there is an abundance of opportunity to make villainous acshyquaintanceswhowillbeusefulafteroneleaves
Say that there are fifty quite well established thieves in MalmoumlonlythirtyofthosehaveafenceThosewhodonrsquotaretheyoungeronesaroundeighteenortwentywhohavenrsquotbeenaroundenoughsotheyrsquollhavetoasktheirfriendsorselltothievesForsomeonewhohasbeeninsideasmuchasmeitrsquosnoproblem20
IncarcerationasamarkofreliabilityworksataremoveIftwoformerprisonersdidnotactuallymeetinjailtheycanstilldisplayevidenceofhavingbeenldquointhecanrdquotoadvertisetheircredentialsSoevenifgoingtoprisonwasnotintendedasaperverseformofreacutesumeacutebuildingtherevelationof theexperiencecanbe andoften is an intentional signalTheldquoreferralrdquomethodIdiscussedaboveexploitsprisoncontactstoomdashforifoneisembeddedinanetworkoneisinabetterpositionbothtoreferothersandtobereferredbythemThereisevenevidencethatunshywittinglyunionsandorganizationsthataresupposedtohelpexshyinmatesto reentermainstream society alsohelpunreformedcriminals in theirbusiness21Notleastthesecharitableorganizationsassistthembycertishyfying their status as genuine exshyprisoners thus innocently facilitatingencounterswithactivevillains
whetherandhowfartheenhancingofonersquoscriminalidentityoffsetstheattemptsatrehabilitationthereismuchanecdotalevidencefromcrimishynalsrsquo biographies of the enhancing effectrsquos existence It starts early inyoungshyoffendersrsquoinstitutionsInhisautobiographyJimmyBoyleaScotshytishgangsterreminiscesthatwhenhewassixteen
theApprovedSchoolsurelyplayedavitalpartinmycriminaldeshyvelopmentItgavemeconnectionsthatIwastofindusefulinmyadultdaysItgavemeanintroductiontoguysfromtownsandcitshyiesthroughoutScotlandandfrommanyareasinGlasgowmanyofwhom grew up to be the top thieves or fighters in their areasThere isnodoubtatall thatmostof themgained inacriminalsensefromtheirApprovedSchoolexperience23
HewasdoinghisbesthewritestoavoidbeingcaughtldquobuteverytimeIwentintoprisonIbroadenedmycriminalhorizonsbymakingmoreandmoreconnections indifferent areasrdquo24MalcolmBralywho spentnearly seventeenyears invariousUSprisons forburglarywroteldquoHewasbrokeasIwasandhesuggestedwetrysomethingtogetherItwasreasonableWho is more likely to be trustworthy than someone youhavejustmetinjailrdquo25
CriminalandrebelorganizationsregardaprisonrecordasasignofdistinctionTheRussiancriminalfraternityknownasvorymadehavingbeeninaprisoncampaformalrequirementofmembership26AccordshyingtoMarekKaminskiatleastonememberoftheundergroundSolshyidarity movement in Poland provoked the communist secret servicestoputher inprisonsoshecould improveherreputationldquoUnderthewellshyprogressingperestroika in1987 thePolishcommunistsessentiallystoppedincarceratingtheopposition(sothelsquoincarcerationrsquowasabrief48hours)theystartedtalkswithselectedoppositiongroupsandmanyunderground politicians thought that there would be some role forthem to playwithin the communist regime soonThus the expectedcostofincarcerationwaslowandtheexpectedbenefitswerehighrdquo27
The lengthof time spent in prison further provides anldquoobjectiverdquomeasureoftherespectoneisowedrelativetoothergangmembersThus
14 c h a p t e r 1
Christopher Seymour writes of taking a drive with Japanese yakuza (mobsters)ldquoIntheloosehierarchyoftheHarashygumiKenis themostsenior in the automobile He has already served time in adult prisonwhereastheothershaveonlybeenthroughjuveniledetentionrdquo28LikeshywiseMarekKaminskimdashwhowhenhewasa sociologysophomore inthe1980swasarrestedbythePolishcommunistsecretpolicetogetherwithelevenothermembersofanundergroundSolidarnosc publishinghouseandjailedforfivemonthsmdashreportsldquoSomeofthePolishgrypsmen [inmateswhoaremembersofaprisonfraternityseechapter4]claimthatinthecaseofaprisonerwithasentenceof20+yearshedoesnothavetojointhegrypsmenformallyandsufferthecostsoftheinitiationritualsHeiseligibleforenjoyingallthebenefitsofthecastemembershyshipbyvirtueofthesentencersquoslengthrdquo29FortheRussianmafiaaswellldquothelengthoftimespentinprisonwasasourceofprestigeandasignofdistinction among the criminals who aspired to become voryrdquo30 In atelephoneconversation secretly recordedby Italianpolice thewifeofIvanYakovlev (thenames have been changed) aRussianmobster arshyrestedinItalyin199731usesthelengthofherhusbandrsquosprisonsentencetoinduceoneofhisassociatestoshowduerespectAssignedtothetaskbyherhusband shewarns theRussianwifeof theaccompliceMarioFerrarildquoIvanisbiggerthan[yourhusband]hehasbeeninprisonfor15yearsrdquoFerrarididnotenjoythesameprisoncredentialsthoughhehadclashedwiththelawinthepastfordrugdealingHewasnowmisbeshyhavingbeingoftendrunkanddisheveledandaccordingtoIvanswifedidnotshowenoughrespecttoIvanInasubsequentconversationbeshytweenthetwowomenFerrarirsquoswifeapologizedforherhusbandrsquosbeshyhavior She clearly took the point and repeated word for word whatIvanrsquoswifepreviouslytoldherldquo[Myhusband]understoodthatitisnotIvanwhomustlookforhimbutthathecleanandwelldressedmustgotoIvaninthecarandaskhimwhatneedstobedonebecauseIvanisbiggerthanheishehasbeeninprisonfor15yearsrdquo32
monlyacceptedviewthatldquopunishingacriminalmoreseverelyreducesthatindividualrsquossubsequentprobabilityofrecidivismrdquo33Sinceprisonersareassignedtominimumshylowshyorhighshysecurityprisonsonthebasisoftheirscoreonascalefrom1to10pointsldquointendedtoreflect[their]needforsupervisionrdquo34ChenandShapirowereabletocomparetherearrestratesofexshyinmateswhohadbeenoneithersideofthecutoffboundarshyiesthathadledthemtobeincarceratedinprisonswithdifferentsecushyrity levelsldquoinessenceweargue thatwithin a small interval aroundacutofftheallocationofprisonerstodifferentsecuritylevelsamountstoarandomassignmentrdquo35Althoughtheresultsarebasedonasmallnumberofcases948theystillenabletheauthorstorejectstronglythehypothshyesisthatlowerlevelsofprisonsecurityleadtomorerecidivismafterreshyleaseinsteadtheyindicateinmanywaysthattheoppositeeffectobtainsThe authorsrsquo interpretationof this effect refers to lower laborshymarketopportunities for highershysecurity exshyinmates and to peer effectsmdashldquoinmatesmayacquireskillslearnofnewprospectsordevelopcriminalcontactsrdquo36moreofteninhighershythaninlowershysecurityprisonsTheirresultsarealsoperfectlycompatiblewithanotherinterpretationhavingbeeninprisonswithastricterregimestrengthensthecertifyingeffectoncriminalcredentialsandgivesexshyinmatesfromtheseprisonsrelativeto those fromprisonswith lower security levelsgreatercredibilityonthecriminallabormarket
the two pairs have solved the identification problem in the past Butwhatabouttheelementarycaseinwhichreferralsarenotavailableornotpersuasiveorsafeenoughmdashcantwoagentsthenfindadirectsolushytiontotheproblem
It is hard to observe someone committing a crime in the naturalcourseofeventsbutvillainscancertainlyaskapotentialpartnerorreshycruittogivethemevidenceofhavingcommittedcrimesandcandosowithout resorting to an intermediaryThis can work if the crimes inquestionleaveatracethatcanbeknownorpossessedonlybytherealperpetrator One cannot just say that one has committed a crimemdashaphonymayhavereadaboutitinthepaperandsimplybeclaimingtobetheperpetratorOnehastoshowthebootyasitwereasinthefollowingcasePoliceinfourteencountriesincludingtheUnitedStatesarrestednearlytwohundredsuspectedmembersofanInternetchildpornograshyphyringtheWonderlandClubTojointheringonehadtoshowthatonepossessedtenthousandphotographsandbepreparedtosharethemwith other membersThe photographs were screened by a computerprogramwhichcheckedwhethertheyweredifferentfromoneanotherand fromthosealreadyavailable fromother sources37Thisaction sigshynaledthatprospectivemembershadcommittedacrimeandwereserishyouslycommittedtotheactivityofcommoninterestandcouldnotthusbeundercoveragents(Ireturntothiscaseinchapter3)
UltimatelycriminalscanalsoaskapotentialpartnerorrecruittoenshygageinadisplaycrimemdashanactthatanoncriminalwouldneverdomdashandtocommitthecrimeundertheireyesorinsuchawayastoleaveanunmistakablesignofauthorshipThenatureoftheillegalactrequesteddependsonthetypeofcrimeinwhichtheagentsareinvolvedandthelawsthatgovernitDivinetheLosAngelesprostitutewhoachievedherfifteenminutesoffameforadministeringoralsextoBritishactorHughGrant in 1995 revealedherparticularkindof testBefore agreeing totradesheaskedGranttoexposehimselfThereasonshesaidisthatanundercoverpolicemanwouldnotdothatforhewouldbebreakingthelawDivinebelievedonewondershowaccuratelythatexposingoneselfwasasignalonlyrealcustomerscouldafford
The same reasoning inspires a test appliedbydrugdealers inNew
17 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
YorkSincethemidshy1990sldquoaspolicehave intensifiedtheirassault thedealershavealsoadoptedmoreperilous tacticsFiveor six timeseachmonthundercoverinvestigatorsarenowforcedtousecocaineorheroinatgunpointtoprovetodealersthattheycanbetrustedAtleasttwiceamonth anofficer is shotorotherwisewoundedduring a stagedpurshychasesaypolicecommanderswhospokeonconditionofanonymityrdquo38
These kinds of tests are common in organizationswhere loyalty isparamount Before initiation mafia novicesmdashespecially those not alshyreadymembersoffamilieswithamafiatraditionmdashareaskedtocommitamurder(sometimeswouldshybemembersmovefirstandcommitseriouscrimesbeforeanyoneaskedthemtodoso)39Themafiausuallydoesnotkill anyonepurely for the sakeof a testmdashit optimizes byldquowhackingrdquosomeonewhowasmeanttobewhackedanywayand atthesametimetrying out the determination and bona fides of a noviceTheAryanBrotherhoodinprisonadoptedthesametesttogainmembershipcanshydidatesldquohadtokillwhomevertheBrotherhoodtargetedrdquo40AkindredoutfitknownastheAryanWarriorsalsorequiredwouldshybememberstopassatestldquousuallyabloodyassaultorinsomeinstancesadrugripshyofffrom a person outside of the brotherhoodrdquo41 But there are cases inwhichheinous crimes are committed purely as tests In a hairshyraisingaccountoflifeinyouthgangsinColombiathewriterEfraimMedinaReyes claims that it is not uncommon for new gangmembers to beasked to murder innocent friends or members of their own familywhich pushes the test to the extreme42 Revolutionary and resistancegroups deemed to be illegal by the incumbent government have alsousedthesametestBeingaskedtocommitamurderwasforinstanceacommonpractice in theAlgerianFLNSometimes the leaderswouldpick victims more or less at random to see if prospective memberswouldobeyevenmeaninglessorders43
ThismethodexploitsthelawwhichrestrictsthelawshyabidingundershycoveragentsrsquooptionsandturnsittothecriminalsrsquoadvantageIfhowshyeverlawshyenforcementagenciesgivetheirundercoveroperativesgreaterdiscretion to act against the law for the sakeofpersuading thegrouptheyaretryingtoinfiltrateoftheirbonafidesthepowerofthesesignalsisweakened for theagentcannowaffordat least someof themThe
18 c h a p t e r 1
degreesoffreedomvaryfromtimetotimeandfromagencytoagencyPoliceinNewYorkarenowldquoinstructedtoavoidtakingthedrugsunless their lives are in dangerrdquoIfdealersreadtheNew York Timeswherethisinshyformationwaspublishedtheyknowthatforcingbuyerstoingestdrugsby threatening their lives isnowauseless test for itno longerdistinshyguishesgenuinebuyersfromundercoveragents
BeforediscussingthisproblemfurtherIwillpresentthecaseofFBIspecial agent Joseph Pistone aka Donnie Brasco who infiltrated theNewYorkmafiaandcameclosetobeinginitiatedIknowofnobettercase for illustratingall the typesofcostshydiscriminating signalsusedbycriminalsmdashand by those who try to fool them Donnie Brasco pershysuadedthemobstersofhiscriminalcredentialsbyemployingabreathshytakingrangeofsubtlesignalsandnarratedhisexperienceinabookmdasharguablythemostvividethnographyoftheUSmafiafromldquowithinrdquo44
Entering the mob world is needless to say very hardldquoAssociates ofwiseguysdonrsquotdealwithpeopletheydonrsquotknoworwhosomebodyelsedoesnrsquotvouchforrdquo45PriortoPistonersquosinfiltrationtheFBIlackedexpeshyrienceDuringJEdgarHooverrsquosreignatthebureauundercoverworkwasrarelyusedldquobecauseitcouldbeadirtyjobthatcouldenduptaintshyingtheagentsrdquo46AndalthoughithadbeenusedsinceldquosofarasweknewtheFBIhadneverplantedoneofitsownagentsinthemafiardquo47Yettheoperation itwas about to attemptwasextraordinarily shrewdPistoneneededtobuildawholebarrageofsignalswhichtakentogethercouldpersuadethemobstersthathewasarealbadguyAndthatiswhatheandhishandlerssetouttodomindingthatthelawconstrainedhisfreeshydomldquoTheFBIwouldnrsquotletmeactuallygooutonhijackingsandburshyglariesbecausethecrewwentarmedrdquoPistonewrites48
19 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
PistoneneededanamehedecideditwaseasiertosticktoDonnieBrasco the name he had used in a previous undercover operation inFloridaHeneededaplausiblebiographythatcouldbecheckedorbetshyterhardtocheckheposedasanorphanandabachelorHesaidhehadbeenraisedinanorphanageinPittsburghthatburneddowntherewereno records leftThe story needed to be simpleldquoThe fewer [lies] youhave to tell the feweryouhave torememberrdquohenotes49HesaidhehadspenttimeontheWestCoastandinFloridawhereinfacthehadbeenbeforeasldquoDonaldBrascordquointhepreviousoperationandhadesshytablishedsomecontactsHeneededaldquoprofessionrdquoandsettledonjewelrytheftsomethingonecandoaloneandthatdoesnotrequiretheuseofweaponsmdashsomething moreover that allowed him to use confiscatedstolen jewels to sell so he would not have to break the law to stealthem50
Hecouldcountonadvantagesthatwouldhavebeenhardtofakehadtheynotbeenpartofhis realbiographyHis Italianancestryprovidedhim with theldquorightrdquo ethnic background He had grown up in theldquorightrdquoneighborhoodandasayoungsterhungoutinldquojointsrdquopatronshyizedbywiseguysldquoYouhad tobe streetshysmartevencockysometimesEverygoodundercoveragentIhaveknowngrewuponthestreetlikeIdidandwasagoodstreetagentbeforebecominganundercoveragentOnthestreetyoulearnwhatrsquoswhatandwhorsquoswhoYoulearnhowtoreadsituationsandhandleyourselfYou cannot fake the ability It showsrdquo51
It is also interesting to know what he chose not to say or do Heavoided acting in a way that could raise suspicionldquoNo street guy isgoingtothrowmoneyallovertheplaceunlesshersquostryingtoattractatshytentionrdquoPistonereveals ldquoThenthequestionisWhyishetryingtoatshytractattentionrdquo52BydoingsoheeitherbecomesatargetinthatpeoplethinktheycanrobhimorraisessuspicionsthathemaybeacopDonshyniewasparsimonioustooinrevealingdetailsofhislifewhetherrealorphonyforldquoyouneverknowwhatpartofwhatyoudowillbecomepartofyourhistorywhenpeoplewanttocheckonyourdquo53
Ifthey[themobsters]werenrsquotscheminganddreamingtheyweretellingwarstoriesreminiscencesabouttheirtimeinvariousjailsandprisonsEverybodydidtimeinthecanItwaspartofthepriceofdoingbusinessTheyknewallaboutdifferent jailscellblocksguards I had enough phony background set up to establish mycredentialsasaseriouscriminaltoshowthatIwastoughenoughtodo time if Ihad towithout turningratBut I never claimed to have done any prison timebecause IdidnrsquotknowthoseplacesandthatcouldhavejustrippedmeupIfyoudothreetofiveyearsyouget to know the guardsmdashwhat guardrsquos on what tierYou get toknowtheinmatesguyswhoaredoingfifteentotwentyguyswhoarestillthereTheyknewthelingoandtheslangEverybodyreshymembersthoserelationshipsandthattime54
IndirectlyPistonersquos choice showswhat a robust signalhavingbeen inprison is It isnot something that canbeeasily fakedguyswhohavetrulybeentherewouldquicklyspotanimpostor
Donniewentonforacoupleofmonths
playing this game of being noticedwithout being noticed slideintothebadguyworldandbecomeacceptedwithoutdrawingatshytentionYoupushalittlehereandtherebutverygentlyBriefinshytroductions short conversations appearances one place and anshyotherhintsaboutwhatyoursquoreuptocasualmannerismsdemeanorand lingo that youknowyourway aroundmdashall these become atrail of credibility you leave behind youAbove all you cannothurryYoucannotseemeagertomeetcertainpeoplemakecertaincontactslearnaboutcertainscoresThe quickest way to get tagged as a cop is to try to move too fastYouhavetoshowthatyouhavethetime to play by the rules of the street and that includes lettingpeoplecheckyououtandcometoyou55
Hewouldphonethebar leavingmessages forhimself just toestablishthathehadconnectionsandconveythebeliefpeopleknewhepatronshyizedthebar57ldquoWhenIwentotherplacesIcouldsayrdquoPistonewritesldquolsquoIbeenhangingoutat thatplace for fourorfivemonthsrsquoAnd theycould check it outThe guys had been hanging around in this placewouldsaylsquoYeahDonBrascohasbeencominginhereforquiteawhileandheseemsallrightnevertriedtopullanythingonusrsquordquo58
Wealsoread ldquoYoucanrsquotgoinallthetimebyyourselfbecausetheythinkyoursquoreeitherafagoracopAnditrsquosgoodtovarycompanysotheydonrsquot see you with the same people all the time and wonder whatrsquosuprdquo59SoDonniewouldbringanoccasionalfemaleorChuckanotherundercover agentThanks to Chuck he was introduced toAlbertldquoahalfshyasswiseguyrdquoaconnectedshytobutnotamadememberof theCoshylombofamily
Donnie eventually became the proteacutegeacute of a made guy BenjaminldquoLeftyGunsrdquoRuggieroandspentsixyearswiththemafiosilivingtheirdaily lives and sharing their crooked dealingsmdashconstantly exposed totheriskofbeingdiscoveredandkilledInthecourseoftheoperationhewasofferedtheopportunitynotonlytohandlethebookmakingforthemob boss of Milwaukee Frank Balistrieri but also to get inside theskimmingoperationinLasVegasBalistrierisaidhehadagoodcrewbuttheywereldquoolderkindof set in theirways Icoulduse someyoungerguysthatIcouldtrusttotakeoveracoupleofmyclubsandotherbusishynessesYoungerguyswouldbeabletorelatetothewaysoftodayrsquosbusishynessworldrdquo62Leftyvouched forDonnieldquoI told [Balistrieri]rdquoDonnie
22 c h a p t e r 1
saysldquoyouaremybloodrdquo63ButacceptingwouldhavemadeitimpossibleforDonnietoseehisrealfamilysoheturneddowntheofferWhilethatdecisionangeredLeftyitalsoconferredanadvantageasitfurthersigshynaledDonniersquoscredibilityldquoOnethingIhadinmyfavorseenthroughanymobguyrsquoseyeswas thatno cop would ever turn that job downSo Iwouldbeabovesuspicioninthatregardrdquo64
Donniecameupwithmanyother signalsbelieved tobeof akindthat a cop could not afford He pretended to beat up someone whoowedmoney toLeftyHe roughedup a comedianwhohad annoyedLeftyattheThunderbirdaMiamirestaurant65Furthermoreldquotypicallywhatanundercovercopwilldo inabuyshybust situation is try tobuysomethingfromyouCops always buy never sellI was going to sellrdquoPistonereveals66mdashthankstothefactthattheFBIallowedhimdiscretioninthatregard One very special commodity he bought though Lefty RugshygierorsquosprotectionTheFBIdishedoutatotalof$40000forthispurposewhileDonniewasundercoverldquoTheywerepayinghimforhisservicesasalsquowiseguyrsquotoinsuretheyhadtheprotectionoftheBonannofamilyin the event another family tried to interfere with their businessrdquo67
WhilepaymentwasostensiblyaimedatcompensatingLeftyitwasalsoliterallyacostlysignalandintentionallydesignedtoappeartobesoldquoBygivinghimmoneyContiandRossi[twoundercoveragentswhocolshylaboratedwithDonnie] ledLefty tobelieve that theywerewilling tobecomeinvolvedwithhimandhe trusted them as bad guysrdquo68
Mafiosiwerenot taken inbecause theyweredumbratherPistonewasunbelievablysmartandresilientanditjustwasveryhardformobshysterstothinkthattakentogetherallthethingshedidanddidnotdowerenotnearshyperfectdiscriminatingsignalsTheFBIwaslatercriticizedforoperatingverynearorevenbeyondthe limitsof the lawBut thisrelative freedomfooledthemafiosibecause theyassumedthatanunshydercoveragentwouldnotpaythecostofbreakingthelawDivinecouldnothavebankedonherneatlittletestifagentsofthelawhadbeenalshylowedtoexposethemselvesThemobsterswerecheatednotjustinthesense thatDonnieBrascoby faking forging andpretending successshyfullymimickedarealbadguybutalsointhesensethathedidsomereal badactions
23 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
In a short biography ofBonanno familymembersmdashposted on theInternetforawhilethenremovedmdashLeftywasdescribedasldquothebiggestidiotinthehistoryofLaCosaNostraHisblindgreedandlackofinshystinctwerefelthardintheAmericanmafiardquoAndyetLeftywascarefulevenyearsafterDonniehadbeenacceptedasaconnectedguyDonniewasassistedbyotherundercoveragentsoneofwhomwasldquoRossirdquoTotestwhetherRossiwasanundercoveragentLeftydeliberatelyldquolostrdquoaplaneticketthatRossihadbookedonhisowncreditcardforLefty(thiswasacovertwayofpayingprotectiontoLefty)ldquoBypretendingtolosetheticketLeftywantedtoseehowRossi reactedIfhewasanagentLeftyreasonedhewouldgetnervousbecausehewouldprobablyhavetoaccount for the ticket tohisofficeplushewouldbeworried thatsomebodylsquointheunderworldbusinessrsquomightmeanwhilefindtheticketandcheckouttheAmericanExpressnumbertoseeifitwasagovernshymentnumberrdquo69
WhenitwasfinallyrevealedthatDonniewasanundercoveragentthemobsterswereshockedanddidnotbelieveittillDonnieactuallytestishyfied in court against them His operation managed to send many ofthemmostlymembersoftheBonannofamilytojail71
ThemobsterslearnedtheirlessonandincreasedthepriceofthetestsNow not just one butldquotwo mafiosi have to vouch for the proposedmemberrdquoldquoTheyhavetosaytheyhaveknowntheproposedmemberifnotsincechildhoodthenatleastforfifteentotwentyyearsrdquo72Accordshying to theFBI theyalso resumeda traditionalpractice thathadbeenabandonedldquoaproposedmembermustlsquomakehisbonesrsquoorkillsomeonebeforehecanbecomeamadeguyTheyhavedonesobecause no agent
24 c h a p t e r 1
would commit murder while posing as a bad guyrdquo73Murderisreallyapershyfectlydiscriminatingsignalofbeingabadguyasignalthatnoundershycover agentnot evenonebelonging to a rather lax lawshyenforcementagencycouldafford
Thisentryrequirementmdashwhichshowshowcriminalactscanbepershypetratednotmerelyfortheirimmediateinstrumentalvaluebutalsofortheir signaling valuemdashhad never been explicitly removed but it wasno longerusedwithgreat determination In truthDominickldquoSonnyBlackrdquoNapolitanowhoeventuallybecameDonniersquosmainmentorandplannedtoproposeDonnieformembershiphadaskedDonnietomurshydersomeoneldquoHegavemeacontractsothatIwouldhavethatcredenshytialwhenheputmynameuprdquoButtheopportunitytocarryitoutdidnotariseforAnthonyBrunoIndelicatotheintendedvictimwentsucshycessfullyintohidingDonnieshowedthathewasdoingallhecouldtotrackIndelicatodownanditwasnotthoughttobehisfaultwhenhefailedThusalthoughhedidnotcarryoutthekillinghestillmanagedtoshowhiswillingnesstodoitandafewmonthslaterSonnyputhisnameforwardformembershipAtthatpointtheFBIdecidedtostoptheoperationandDonnieresumedonceagainhisrealidentity
Undercoveragentsmdashwhohavetopersuadethegrouptheyaimtoinfilshytrateof theircriminalcredentialsmdasharea serious threat forunlikesolomimicstheycandrawontheresourcesofstateagenciesandcanaffordcomplexmimicryactswhichinvolveposingforgingcredentialstrainshyingandfundsStill itcanbenear impossibleto infiltrategroupsproshytected by an array of features that cannot be successfully imitatedmdashwhichinotherwordsperfectlydistinguishtherealfromthephonyFor
EvenaMuslimCIAofficerwithnativeshylanguageabilities(andtheAgencyaccordingtoseveralactiveshydutycaseofficershasveryfewoperativesfromMiddleEasternbackgrounds)coulddolittlemorein thisenvironment [PeshawarPakistan] thanablondblueshyeyedallshyAmericanCaseofficerscannotlongescapetheembassiesandconsulates in which they serveA US official overseasphotoshygraphedandregisteredwiththelocalintelligenceandsecuritysershyvicescanrsquottravelmuchparticularlyinapoliceshyrichcountrylikePakistanwithouttheldquohostrdquoservicesknowingaboutitAnofficerwho tries togonativepretending tobe a trueshybelieving radicalMuslim searching for brothers in the causewillmake a fool ofhimselfquickly
UndercoveroperationsareaproblematicformofanticrimeactivityforanotherreasonaswellThelogicofcostshydiscriminatingsignalsinclinesundercoveragentstogobeyondinnocentpretensionsandsupportinishytiativesof thesamekinda truecriminalor terroristwouldundertakeSincelawshyenforcementagenciesareunderpressuretokeeptheiragentssafetheypushfordiscretiontobegrantedtothemAndsometimestheundercoveragentsthemselvesunbeknownsttotheiremployerschoosetobreakthelawbecausetheyworryabouttheircredibilityintheeyesof the host group and the consequences if they are discoveredThememoirsofundercoveragentsandspiesarerepletewiththisdilemma
According to incomplete calculations there were about 6500agents provocateurs and other political investigations specialistsoperatinginvariouspoliticalpartiesandorganizationsintheRusshy
26 c h a p t e r 1
sianEmpireatthestartofthetwentiethcenturythepoliceandgendarmesoftensetprioritiesthemselvesattimesevenattheriskofthelivesofhighshyrankinggovernmentofficialsandmembersoftheimperialfamilyMattersconcerningthesecurityofthesecretagentswereoftoppriorityandmaintainingthestrongpositionsofagentswithintheterroristorganizationsof theSocialistshyRevolushytionarieswasconsideredmore important thanpreventingassassishynationsevenagainstofficialsofthegovernment75
AfamouscasewasthatofEvnoAzefanagentwhooperatedinrevolushytionary circles for aboutfifteen years From 1893on hewas a policeagentAsastudentinaGermanpolytechnicschoolhetooktheinitiashytiveofofferinghisservicestothepolicedepartmentat therateof50rublespermonth afterwhichhe attachedhimself to a foreigngroupcallingitselftheUnionofRussianSocialistshyRevolutionariesHeknewaboutthemajorityofterroristactsbeingplannedbytheSRsbuthedidnotalwaysreporttohisbossesaboutthemNeverthelessthepolicepaidhimwellforhisservices76
EpisodesofthiskindarenotrestrictedtopredemocraticsocietiesAnilluminatingcaseoccurredinCanadaAtitspeakin1993theHeritageFront was the largest and bestshyorganized neoshyNazi group in Canadaboastingacontactlistof1800namesGrantBristowcofounderandaleadingmemberofthiswhiteracistgroupturnedouttobeapaidinshyformantoftheCanadianSecurityIntelligenceServiceldquoBristoworchesshytrated aharassment campaign that terrorizedFront enemies harboredleadinginternationalracistsinhisownhomeinclearviolationofbothCSISrulesandtheImmigrationActandassistedintheFrontrsquosinfiltrashytionoftheReformPartyrdquo77ldquoCSISmoleGrantBristowwasanlsquoagentprovocateurrsquowhowithhisspymastersbrokeCanadianlawsandinternalCSISregulationsagroupofMPshaveconcludedBristowrsquosleadershyshiproleinthewhiteracistHeritageFrontthereportsuggestsmay have led to the very events that caused CSIS to keep him in place for several more yearsrdquo78 An inquiry by the Security Intelligence Review CommitteeintotheaffairplayeddowntheaccusationsbutitisclearfromthereportthattherewereseriousbreachesForinstanceontheissueofharassment
27 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
of antiracistmilitants and Jewish communitymembers thedocumentconcludesthatldquoanyinformantwhoenterstheHeritageFrontorasimishylargrouphastomaintainhiscredibilitywithhisassociatesotherwisehewouldnot remain a trustedmember for longThe questionwewerefacedwithwaswhethertheCSISsource[GrantBristow]hadremainedwithintheboundsofappropriatebehaviourwhiletryingtomaintainhiscredibilityTheanswerwearrivedatwasthatin certain circumstances he had not[emphasisintheoriginal]rdquo79
Eveniftheyareonlysupposedtocollectinformationoncriminalorsubversiveactivitiesspiesmayendupproducingmoreofsuchactivitieson theirown initiativeThey tend tobecomeagentsprovocateursnotnecessarilyfortheconspiratorialreasonswhyJosephConradrsquosprotagoshynistinThe Secret Agentdoes(VerlocwasinthepayofanunnamedforshyeignembassythatwantedtopersuadetheBritishtotakeatougherlineagainsttheanarchistsandusedhisdimshywittednephewtostageanldquoanarshychistrdquobombingattack)buttypicallyonlyoutoffearofnotbeingcredshyibleenoughandofriskingtheirlivesThecoststhatmaketheirsignalscredibleintheeyesoftheirtargetsareafterallldquoonlyrdquothoseofbreakinglegalconstraintsTheymayneverbecaughtgiventheintrinsicopacityofwhattheydoandifcaughttheyarenotsolikelytobepunishedcershytainlynotbydeathAndontheothersideoftheequationtheyhavetoconsider the personal costs of failing to persuadeWhen onersquos life isthreatened thecostsofbreakingthe lawmaysuddenlyappear smallerthanthoseofobeyingitThesetofthosewhoarereadytorisktheirlifesacrificetheirfamilyanddeceivedangerouscriminalsforlongperiodsoftimewhileatthesametimeremainingstrictlyalawshyabidingcitizenmustbeextremelysmall
ThisraisesaninterestingquandaryforthecriminalsorterroristswhoaretryingtotestthebonafidesofothersForbyincreasingtheseverityofthepunishmentmetedoutagainstundercoveragentswhoarediscovshyered they encourage the latter to afford costly signals that once disshyplayedmaymakeitimpossibleforthebadguystosaywhethertheposhytentialrecruitsareundercoveragentsinthefirstplace
undercover agentmayfind it preferable to refrain from swallowing itevenatthecostofrevealinghistruetypeforhedoesnotwanttobreakthelawBycontrasttherealcriminalwhowantstodealwiththedrugdealersmayprefertopaythecostofthephysicalillnesscausedbyswalshylowing forhe isentirelyateasewithbreaking the lawThekeyextracost that discriminates between the real criminal and the undercoveragentisthecostofbreakingthelawwhichthemimicfaceswhilethegenuinearticledoesnotAharsherpunishmenthowevercanreversetheequationandmakeitcheaperfortheundercoveragenttoswallowratherthannot swallowevenat thecostofbreaking the lawandthusmakehimbehaviorallyindistinguishablefromtherealcriminalWhenadminshyisteredunder the threatof theharsherpunishment the testno longerseparatesonetypefromtheotherByfailingtoappreciatethisquandaryandthreateningdeathagainstthosewhorefusetoswallowthedrugthedealers fail to realize that theyaredeactivating thevery sourceof thereliabilityoftheirtestforunderthatthreattheagentsarenowallowed(andwouldinanycasefeelinclined)toswallowthedrug
CONCLUSIONS
OncesomeoneintentoncrimeidentifiesapotentialpartnerasabonafidecriminalhehassolvedoneproblemonlytolandinanotherequallydifficultoneHenowhastoestablishwhetherhispartnerisnotjustacrookbutanhonorableoneAfterHughGrantexposedhimselfDivineknewthathewasnotanundercovercopforshebelievedthatcopsdonotdothatYetshestilldidnotknowwhatkindofacustomerhewasProstitutesareconstantlyonguardagainstrobbersorpervertswhoposeasordinarycustomers80AnyonewhoworksoutsidethelawismoreexshyposedthanordinarybusinessmentobecomingthepreyofothercrimishynalswhomimicbeingacriminalofthehonestsortAstreetshydrugdealerwhosuccessfullyadvertises tocustomersmayalsoattract robberswhopretend to be customers in order to get close to the dealers and robthem81Acriminalhastobeonguardagainstbothkindsofmimicslawshyenforcementagentsandcriminalsofthewrongsort
29 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
Ifhonestywerethoughttobeatraitofcertaincriminalsandnotothshyersinordertoestablishwhetherapotentialpartnerishonestonecouldfollowthesamestrategyoneusesforidentifyingwhethersomeoneisacriminal tobeginwithThe samekindof costly signalswouldbe reshyquiredforcriminalstopersuadeoneanotherthattheywerethehonesttypeIncertaincasesthegametheyplayisindeedoneofsignalingtheirtypeHowever inmost circumstancescriminals tend to thinkofeachotherasbeingof justonetypenamelythedishonestoneandbelievethatgivenhalfachancetheywilltakeadvantageofeachotherTheonlyway inwhich they can comealmost toldquotrustrdquo eachother enough tocooperateisthereforenotbysignalingtheirtypebuteitherbyenforcshyingtheirpartnersrsquohonestywiththethreatofsomekindofretaliationormoregenerallybyputtingthemselvesandtheirpartnersinaconditionwherebyldquohonestyrdquo rather thancheating is theirbest courseof actionwhatevertheirtypeIshallexploresomeofthestrategiestheyadoptinchapters2and3
13 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
whetherandhowfartheenhancingofonersquoscriminalidentityoffsetstheattemptsatrehabilitationthereismuchanecdotalevidencefromcrimishynalsrsquo biographies of the enhancing effectrsquos existence It starts early inyoungshyoffendersrsquoinstitutionsInhisautobiographyJimmyBoyleaScotshytishgangsterreminiscesthatwhenhewassixteen
theApprovedSchoolsurelyplayedavitalpartinmycriminaldeshyvelopmentItgavemeconnectionsthatIwastofindusefulinmyadultdaysItgavemeanintroductiontoguysfromtownsandcitshyiesthroughoutScotlandandfrommanyareasinGlasgowmanyofwhom grew up to be the top thieves or fighters in their areasThere isnodoubtatall thatmostof themgained inacriminalsensefromtheirApprovedSchoolexperience23
HewasdoinghisbesthewritestoavoidbeingcaughtldquobuteverytimeIwentintoprisonIbroadenedmycriminalhorizonsbymakingmoreandmoreconnections indifferent areasrdquo24MalcolmBralywho spentnearly seventeenyears invariousUSprisons forburglarywroteldquoHewasbrokeasIwasandhesuggestedwetrysomethingtogetherItwasreasonableWho is more likely to be trustworthy than someone youhavejustmetinjailrdquo25
CriminalandrebelorganizationsregardaprisonrecordasasignofdistinctionTheRussiancriminalfraternityknownasvorymadehavingbeeninaprisoncampaformalrequirementofmembership26AccordshyingtoMarekKaminskiatleastonememberoftheundergroundSolshyidarity movement in Poland provoked the communist secret servicestoputher inprisonsoshecould improveherreputationldquoUnderthewellshyprogressingperestroika in1987 thePolishcommunistsessentiallystoppedincarceratingtheopposition(sothelsquoincarcerationrsquowasabrief48hours)theystartedtalkswithselectedoppositiongroupsandmanyunderground politicians thought that there would be some role forthem to playwithin the communist regime soonThus the expectedcostofincarcerationwaslowandtheexpectedbenefitswerehighrdquo27
The lengthof time spent in prison further provides anldquoobjectiverdquomeasureoftherespectoneisowedrelativetoothergangmembersThus
14 c h a p t e r 1
Christopher Seymour writes of taking a drive with Japanese yakuza (mobsters)ldquoIntheloosehierarchyoftheHarashygumiKenis themostsenior in the automobile He has already served time in adult prisonwhereastheothershaveonlybeenthroughjuveniledetentionrdquo28LikeshywiseMarekKaminskimdashwhowhenhewasa sociologysophomore inthe1980swasarrestedbythePolishcommunistsecretpolicetogetherwithelevenothermembersofanundergroundSolidarnosc publishinghouseandjailedforfivemonthsmdashreportsldquoSomeofthePolishgrypsmen [inmateswhoaremembersofaprisonfraternityseechapter4]claimthatinthecaseofaprisonerwithasentenceof20+yearshedoesnothavetojointhegrypsmenformallyandsufferthecostsoftheinitiationritualsHeiseligibleforenjoyingallthebenefitsofthecastemembershyshipbyvirtueofthesentencersquoslengthrdquo29FortheRussianmafiaaswellldquothelengthoftimespentinprisonwasasourceofprestigeandasignofdistinction among the criminals who aspired to become voryrdquo30 In atelephoneconversation secretly recordedby Italianpolice thewifeofIvanYakovlev (thenames have been changed) aRussianmobster arshyrestedinItalyin199731usesthelengthofherhusbandrsquosprisonsentencetoinduceoneofhisassociatestoshowduerespectAssignedtothetaskbyherhusband shewarns theRussianwifeof theaccompliceMarioFerrarildquoIvanisbiggerthan[yourhusband]hehasbeeninprisonfor15yearsrdquoFerrarididnotenjoythesameprisoncredentialsthoughhehadclashedwiththelawinthepastfordrugdealingHewasnowmisbeshyhavingbeingoftendrunkanddisheveledandaccordingtoIvanswifedidnotshowenoughrespecttoIvanInasubsequentconversationbeshytweenthetwowomenFerrarirsquoswifeapologizedforherhusbandrsquosbeshyhavior She clearly took the point and repeated word for word whatIvanrsquoswifepreviouslytoldherldquo[Myhusband]understoodthatitisnotIvanwhomustlookforhimbutthathecleanandwelldressedmustgotoIvaninthecarandaskhimwhatneedstobedonebecauseIvanisbiggerthanheishehasbeeninprisonfor15yearsrdquo32
monlyacceptedviewthatldquopunishingacriminalmoreseverelyreducesthatindividualrsquossubsequentprobabilityofrecidivismrdquo33Sinceprisonersareassignedtominimumshylowshyorhighshysecurityprisonsonthebasisoftheirscoreonascalefrom1to10pointsldquointendedtoreflect[their]needforsupervisionrdquo34ChenandShapirowereabletocomparetherearrestratesofexshyinmateswhohadbeenoneithersideofthecutoffboundarshyiesthathadledthemtobeincarceratedinprisonswithdifferentsecushyrity levelsldquoinessenceweargue thatwithin a small interval aroundacutofftheallocationofprisonerstodifferentsecuritylevelsamountstoarandomassignmentrdquo35Althoughtheresultsarebasedonasmallnumberofcases948theystillenabletheauthorstorejectstronglythehypothshyesisthatlowerlevelsofprisonsecurityleadtomorerecidivismafterreshyleaseinsteadtheyindicateinmanywaysthattheoppositeeffectobtainsThe authorsrsquo interpretationof this effect refers to lower laborshymarketopportunities for highershysecurity exshyinmates and to peer effectsmdashldquoinmatesmayacquireskillslearnofnewprospectsordevelopcriminalcontactsrdquo36moreofteninhighershythaninlowershysecurityprisonsTheirresultsarealsoperfectlycompatiblewithanotherinterpretationhavingbeeninprisonswithastricterregimestrengthensthecertifyingeffectoncriminalcredentialsandgivesexshyinmatesfromtheseprisonsrelativeto those fromprisonswith lower security levelsgreatercredibilityonthecriminallabormarket
the two pairs have solved the identification problem in the past Butwhatabouttheelementarycaseinwhichreferralsarenotavailableornotpersuasiveorsafeenoughmdashcantwoagentsthenfindadirectsolushytiontotheproblem
It is hard to observe someone committing a crime in the naturalcourseofeventsbutvillainscancertainlyaskapotentialpartnerorreshycruittogivethemevidenceofhavingcommittedcrimesandcandosowithout resorting to an intermediaryThis can work if the crimes inquestionleaveatracethatcanbeknownorpossessedonlybytherealperpetrator One cannot just say that one has committed a crimemdashaphonymayhavereadaboutitinthepaperandsimplybeclaimingtobetheperpetratorOnehastoshowthebootyasitwereasinthefollowingcasePoliceinfourteencountriesincludingtheUnitedStatesarrestednearlytwohundredsuspectedmembersofanInternetchildpornograshyphyringtheWonderlandClubTojointheringonehadtoshowthatonepossessedtenthousandphotographsandbepreparedtosharethemwith other membersThe photographs were screened by a computerprogramwhichcheckedwhethertheyweredifferentfromoneanotherand fromthosealreadyavailable fromother sources37Thisaction sigshynaledthatprospectivemembershadcommittedacrimeandwereserishyouslycommittedtotheactivityofcommoninterestandcouldnotthusbeundercoveragents(Ireturntothiscaseinchapter3)
UltimatelycriminalscanalsoaskapotentialpartnerorrecruittoenshygageinadisplaycrimemdashanactthatanoncriminalwouldneverdomdashandtocommitthecrimeundertheireyesorinsuchawayastoleaveanunmistakablesignofauthorshipThenatureoftheillegalactrequesteddependsonthetypeofcrimeinwhichtheagentsareinvolvedandthelawsthatgovernitDivinetheLosAngelesprostitutewhoachievedherfifteenminutesoffameforadministeringoralsextoBritishactorHughGrant in 1995 revealedherparticularkindof testBefore agreeing totradesheaskedGranttoexposehimselfThereasonshesaidisthatanundercoverpolicemanwouldnotdothatforhewouldbebreakingthelawDivinebelievedonewondershowaccuratelythatexposingoneselfwasasignalonlyrealcustomerscouldafford
The same reasoning inspires a test appliedbydrugdealers inNew
17 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
YorkSincethemidshy1990sldquoaspolicehave intensifiedtheirassault thedealershavealsoadoptedmoreperilous tacticsFiveor six timeseachmonthundercoverinvestigatorsarenowforcedtousecocaineorheroinatgunpointtoprovetodealersthattheycanbetrustedAtleasttwiceamonth anofficer is shotorotherwisewoundedduring a stagedpurshychasesaypolicecommanderswhospokeonconditionofanonymityrdquo38
These kinds of tests are common in organizationswhere loyalty isparamount Before initiation mafia novicesmdashespecially those not alshyreadymembersoffamilieswithamafiatraditionmdashareaskedtocommitamurder(sometimeswouldshybemembersmovefirstandcommitseriouscrimesbeforeanyoneaskedthemtodoso)39Themafiausuallydoesnotkill anyonepurely for the sakeof a testmdashit optimizes byldquowhackingrdquosomeonewhowasmeanttobewhackedanywayand atthesametimetrying out the determination and bona fides of a noviceTheAryanBrotherhoodinprisonadoptedthesametesttogainmembershipcanshydidatesldquohadtokillwhomevertheBrotherhoodtargetedrdquo40AkindredoutfitknownastheAryanWarriorsalsorequiredwouldshybememberstopassatestldquousuallyabloodyassaultorinsomeinstancesadrugripshyofffrom a person outside of the brotherhoodrdquo41 But there are cases inwhichheinous crimes are committed purely as tests In a hairshyraisingaccountoflifeinyouthgangsinColombiathewriterEfraimMedinaReyes claims that it is not uncommon for new gangmembers to beasked to murder innocent friends or members of their own familywhich pushes the test to the extreme42 Revolutionary and resistancegroups deemed to be illegal by the incumbent government have alsousedthesametestBeingaskedtocommitamurderwasforinstanceacommonpractice in theAlgerianFLNSometimes the leaderswouldpick victims more or less at random to see if prospective memberswouldobeyevenmeaninglessorders43
ThismethodexploitsthelawwhichrestrictsthelawshyabidingundershycoveragentsrsquooptionsandturnsittothecriminalsrsquoadvantageIfhowshyeverlawshyenforcementagenciesgivetheirundercoveroperativesgreaterdiscretion to act against the law for the sakeofpersuading thegrouptheyaretryingtoinfiltrateoftheirbonafidesthepowerofthesesignalsisweakened for theagentcannowaffordat least someof themThe
18 c h a p t e r 1
degreesoffreedomvaryfromtimetotimeandfromagencytoagencyPoliceinNewYorkarenowldquoinstructedtoavoidtakingthedrugsunless their lives are in dangerrdquoIfdealersreadtheNew York Timeswherethisinshyformationwaspublishedtheyknowthatforcingbuyerstoingestdrugsby threatening their lives isnowauseless test for itno longerdistinshyguishesgenuinebuyersfromundercoveragents
BeforediscussingthisproblemfurtherIwillpresentthecaseofFBIspecial agent Joseph Pistone aka Donnie Brasco who infiltrated theNewYorkmafiaandcameclosetobeinginitiatedIknowofnobettercase for illustratingall the typesofcostshydiscriminating signalsusedbycriminalsmdashand by those who try to fool them Donnie Brasco pershysuadedthemobstersofhiscriminalcredentialsbyemployingabreathshytakingrangeofsubtlesignalsandnarratedhisexperienceinabookmdasharguablythemostvividethnographyoftheUSmafiafromldquowithinrdquo44
Entering the mob world is needless to say very hardldquoAssociates ofwiseguysdonrsquotdealwithpeopletheydonrsquotknoworwhosomebodyelsedoesnrsquotvouchforrdquo45PriortoPistonersquosinfiltrationtheFBIlackedexpeshyrienceDuringJEdgarHooverrsquosreignatthebureauundercoverworkwasrarelyusedldquobecauseitcouldbeadirtyjobthatcouldenduptaintshyingtheagentsrdquo46AndalthoughithadbeenusedsinceldquosofarasweknewtheFBIhadneverplantedoneofitsownagentsinthemafiardquo47Yettheoperation itwas about to attemptwasextraordinarily shrewdPistoneneededtobuildawholebarrageofsignalswhichtakentogethercouldpersuadethemobstersthathewasarealbadguyAndthatiswhatheandhishandlerssetouttodomindingthatthelawconstrainedhisfreeshydomldquoTheFBIwouldnrsquotletmeactuallygooutonhijackingsandburshyglariesbecausethecrewwentarmedrdquoPistonewrites48
19 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
PistoneneededanamehedecideditwaseasiertosticktoDonnieBrasco the name he had used in a previous undercover operation inFloridaHeneededaplausiblebiographythatcouldbecheckedorbetshyterhardtocheckheposedasanorphanandabachelorHesaidhehadbeenraisedinanorphanageinPittsburghthatburneddowntherewereno records leftThe story needed to be simpleldquoThe fewer [lies] youhave to tell the feweryouhave torememberrdquohenotes49HesaidhehadspenttimeontheWestCoastandinFloridawhereinfacthehadbeenbeforeasldquoDonaldBrascordquointhepreviousoperationandhadesshytablishedsomecontactsHeneededaldquoprofessionrdquoandsettledonjewelrytheftsomethingonecandoaloneandthatdoesnotrequiretheuseofweaponsmdashsomething moreover that allowed him to use confiscatedstolen jewels to sell so he would not have to break the law to stealthem50
Hecouldcountonadvantagesthatwouldhavebeenhardtofakehadtheynotbeenpartofhis realbiographyHis Italianancestryprovidedhim with theldquorightrdquo ethnic background He had grown up in theldquorightrdquoneighborhoodandasayoungsterhungoutinldquojointsrdquopatronshyizedbywiseguysldquoYouhad tobe streetshysmartevencockysometimesEverygoodundercoveragentIhaveknowngrewuponthestreetlikeIdidandwasagoodstreetagentbeforebecominganundercoveragentOnthestreetyoulearnwhatrsquoswhatandwhorsquoswhoYoulearnhowtoreadsituationsandhandleyourselfYou cannot fake the ability It showsrdquo51
It is also interesting to know what he chose not to say or do Heavoided acting in a way that could raise suspicionldquoNo street guy isgoingtothrowmoneyallovertheplaceunlesshersquostryingtoattractatshytentionrdquoPistonereveals ldquoThenthequestionisWhyishetryingtoatshytractattentionrdquo52BydoingsoheeitherbecomesatargetinthatpeoplethinktheycanrobhimorraisessuspicionsthathemaybeacopDonshyniewasparsimonioustooinrevealingdetailsofhislifewhetherrealorphonyforldquoyouneverknowwhatpartofwhatyoudowillbecomepartofyourhistorywhenpeoplewanttocheckonyourdquo53
Ifthey[themobsters]werenrsquotscheminganddreamingtheyweretellingwarstoriesreminiscencesabouttheirtimeinvariousjailsandprisonsEverybodydidtimeinthecanItwaspartofthepriceofdoingbusinessTheyknewallaboutdifferent jailscellblocksguards I had enough phony background set up to establish mycredentialsasaseriouscriminaltoshowthatIwastoughenoughtodo time if Ihad towithout turningratBut I never claimed to have done any prison timebecause IdidnrsquotknowthoseplacesandthatcouldhavejustrippedmeupIfyoudothreetofiveyearsyouget to know the guardsmdashwhat guardrsquos on what tierYou get toknowtheinmatesguyswhoaredoingfifteentotwentyguyswhoarestillthereTheyknewthelingoandtheslangEverybodyreshymembersthoserelationshipsandthattime54
IndirectlyPistonersquos choice showswhat a robust signalhavingbeen inprison is It isnot something that canbeeasily fakedguyswhohavetrulybeentherewouldquicklyspotanimpostor
Donniewentonforacoupleofmonths
playing this game of being noticedwithout being noticed slideintothebadguyworldandbecomeacceptedwithoutdrawingatshytentionYoupushalittlehereandtherebutverygentlyBriefinshytroductions short conversations appearances one place and anshyotherhintsaboutwhatyoursquoreuptocasualmannerismsdemeanorand lingo that youknowyourway aroundmdashall these become atrail of credibility you leave behind youAbove all you cannothurryYoucannotseemeagertomeetcertainpeoplemakecertaincontactslearnaboutcertainscoresThe quickest way to get tagged as a cop is to try to move too fastYouhavetoshowthatyouhavethetime to play by the rules of the street and that includes lettingpeoplecheckyououtandcometoyou55
Hewouldphonethebar leavingmessages forhimself just toestablishthathehadconnectionsandconveythebeliefpeopleknewhepatronshyizedthebar57ldquoWhenIwentotherplacesIcouldsayrdquoPistonewritesldquolsquoIbeenhangingoutat thatplace for fourorfivemonthsrsquoAnd theycould check it outThe guys had been hanging around in this placewouldsaylsquoYeahDonBrascohasbeencominginhereforquiteawhileandheseemsallrightnevertriedtopullanythingonusrsquordquo58
Wealsoread ldquoYoucanrsquotgoinallthetimebyyourselfbecausetheythinkyoursquoreeitherafagoracopAnditrsquosgoodtovarycompanysotheydonrsquot see you with the same people all the time and wonder whatrsquosuprdquo59SoDonniewouldbringanoccasionalfemaleorChuckanotherundercover agentThanks to Chuck he was introduced toAlbertldquoahalfshyasswiseguyrdquoaconnectedshytobutnotamadememberof theCoshylombofamily
Donnie eventually became the proteacutegeacute of a made guy BenjaminldquoLeftyGunsrdquoRuggieroandspentsixyearswiththemafiosilivingtheirdaily lives and sharing their crooked dealingsmdashconstantly exposed totheriskofbeingdiscoveredandkilledInthecourseoftheoperationhewasofferedtheopportunitynotonlytohandlethebookmakingforthemob boss of Milwaukee Frank Balistrieri but also to get inside theskimmingoperationinLasVegasBalistrierisaidhehadagoodcrewbuttheywereldquoolderkindof set in theirways Icoulduse someyoungerguysthatIcouldtrusttotakeoveracoupleofmyclubsandotherbusishynessesYoungerguyswouldbeabletorelatetothewaysoftodayrsquosbusishynessworldrdquo62Leftyvouched forDonnieldquoI told [Balistrieri]rdquoDonnie
22 c h a p t e r 1
saysldquoyouaremybloodrdquo63ButacceptingwouldhavemadeitimpossibleforDonnietoseehisrealfamilysoheturneddowntheofferWhilethatdecisionangeredLeftyitalsoconferredanadvantageasitfurthersigshynaledDonniersquoscredibilityldquoOnethingIhadinmyfavorseenthroughanymobguyrsquoseyeswas thatno cop would ever turn that job downSo Iwouldbeabovesuspicioninthatregardrdquo64
Donniecameupwithmanyother signalsbelieved tobeof akindthat a cop could not afford He pretended to beat up someone whoowedmoney toLeftyHe roughedup a comedianwhohad annoyedLeftyattheThunderbirdaMiamirestaurant65Furthermoreldquotypicallywhatanundercovercopwilldo inabuyshybust situation is try tobuysomethingfromyouCops always buy never sellI was going to sellrdquoPistonereveals66mdashthankstothefactthattheFBIallowedhimdiscretioninthatregard One very special commodity he bought though Lefty RugshygierorsquosprotectionTheFBIdishedoutatotalof$40000forthispurposewhileDonniewasundercoverldquoTheywerepayinghimforhisservicesasalsquowiseguyrsquotoinsuretheyhadtheprotectionoftheBonannofamilyin the event another family tried to interfere with their businessrdquo67
WhilepaymentwasostensiblyaimedatcompensatingLeftyitwasalsoliterallyacostlysignalandintentionallydesignedtoappeartobesoldquoBygivinghimmoneyContiandRossi[twoundercoveragentswhocolshylaboratedwithDonnie] ledLefty tobelieve that theywerewilling tobecomeinvolvedwithhimandhe trusted them as bad guysrdquo68
Mafiosiwerenot taken inbecause theyweredumbratherPistonewasunbelievablysmartandresilientanditjustwasveryhardformobshysterstothinkthattakentogetherallthethingshedidanddidnotdowerenotnearshyperfectdiscriminatingsignalsTheFBIwaslatercriticizedforoperatingverynearorevenbeyondthe limitsof the lawBut thisrelative freedomfooledthemafiosibecause theyassumedthatanunshydercoveragentwouldnotpaythecostofbreakingthelawDivinecouldnothavebankedonherneatlittletestifagentsofthelawhadbeenalshylowedtoexposethemselvesThemobsterswerecheatednotjustinthesense thatDonnieBrascoby faking forging andpretending successshyfullymimickedarealbadguybutalsointhesensethathedidsomereal badactions
23 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
In a short biography ofBonanno familymembersmdashposted on theInternetforawhilethenremovedmdashLeftywasdescribedasldquothebiggestidiotinthehistoryofLaCosaNostraHisblindgreedandlackofinshystinctwerefelthardintheAmericanmafiardquoAndyetLeftywascarefulevenyearsafterDonniehadbeenacceptedasaconnectedguyDonniewasassistedbyotherundercoveragentsoneofwhomwasldquoRossirdquoTotestwhetherRossiwasanundercoveragentLeftydeliberatelyldquolostrdquoaplaneticketthatRossihadbookedonhisowncreditcardforLefty(thiswasacovertwayofpayingprotectiontoLefty)ldquoBypretendingtolosetheticketLeftywantedtoseehowRossi reactedIfhewasanagentLeftyreasonedhewouldgetnervousbecausehewouldprobablyhavetoaccount for the ticket tohisofficeplushewouldbeworried thatsomebodylsquointheunderworldbusinessrsquomightmeanwhilefindtheticketandcheckouttheAmericanExpressnumbertoseeifitwasagovernshymentnumberrdquo69
WhenitwasfinallyrevealedthatDonniewasanundercoveragentthemobsterswereshockedanddidnotbelieveittillDonnieactuallytestishyfied in court against them His operation managed to send many ofthemmostlymembersoftheBonannofamilytojail71
ThemobsterslearnedtheirlessonandincreasedthepriceofthetestsNow not just one butldquotwo mafiosi have to vouch for the proposedmemberrdquoldquoTheyhavetosaytheyhaveknowntheproposedmemberifnotsincechildhoodthenatleastforfifteentotwentyyearsrdquo72Accordshying to theFBI theyalso resumeda traditionalpractice thathadbeenabandonedldquoaproposedmembermustlsquomakehisbonesrsquoorkillsomeonebeforehecanbecomeamadeguyTheyhavedonesobecause no agent
24 c h a p t e r 1
would commit murder while posing as a bad guyrdquo73Murderisreallyapershyfectlydiscriminatingsignalofbeingabadguyasignalthatnoundershycover agentnot evenonebelonging to a rather lax lawshyenforcementagencycouldafford
Thisentryrequirementmdashwhichshowshowcriminalactscanbepershypetratednotmerelyfortheirimmediateinstrumentalvaluebutalsofortheir signaling valuemdashhad never been explicitly removed but it wasno longerusedwithgreat determination In truthDominickldquoSonnyBlackrdquoNapolitanowhoeventuallybecameDonniersquosmainmentorandplannedtoproposeDonnieformembershiphadaskedDonnietomurshydersomeoneldquoHegavemeacontractsothatIwouldhavethatcredenshytialwhenheputmynameuprdquoButtheopportunitytocarryitoutdidnotariseforAnthonyBrunoIndelicatotheintendedvictimwentsucshycessfullyintohidingDonnieshowedthathewasdoingallhecouldtotrackIndelicatodownanditwasnotthoughttobehisfaultwhenhefailedThusalthoughhedidnotcarryoutthekillinghestillmanagedtoshowhiswillingnesstodoitandafewmonthslaterSonnyputhisnameforwardformembershipAtthatpointtheFBIdecidedtostoptheoperationandDonnieresumedonceagainhisrealidentity
Undercoveragentsmdashwhohavetopersuadethegrouptheyaimtoinfilshytrateof theircriminalcredentialsmdasharea serious threat forunlikesolomimicstheycandrawontheresourcesofstateagenciesandcanaffordcomplexmimicryactswhichinvolveposingforgingcredentialstrainshyingandfundsStill itcanbenear impossibleto infiltrategroupsproshytected by an array of features that cannot be successfully imitatedmdashwhichinotherwordsperfectlydistinguishtherealfromthephonyFor
EvenaMuslimCIAofficerwithnativeshylanguageabilities(andtheAgencyaccordingtoseveralactiveshydutycaseofficershasveryfewoperativesfromMiddleEasternbackgrounds)coulddolittlemorein thisenvironment [PeshawarPakistan] thanablondblueshyeyedallshyAmericanCaseofficerscannotlongescapetheembassiesandconsulates in which they serveA US official overseasphotoshygraphedandregisteredwiththelocalintelligenceandsecuritysershyvicescanrsquottravelmuchparticularlyinapoliceshyrichcountrylikePakistanwithouttheldquohostrdquoservicesknowingaboutitAnofficerwho tries togonativepretending tobe a trueshybelieving radicalMuslim searching for brothers in the causewillmake a fool ofhimselfquickly
UndercoveroperationsareaproblematicformofanticrimeactivityforanotherreasonaswellThelogicofcostshydiscriminatingsignalsinclinesundercoveragentstogobeyondinnocentpretensionsandsupportinishytiativesof thesamekinda truecriminalor terroristwouldundertakeSincelawshyenforcementagenciesareunderpressuretokeeptheiragentssafetheypushfordiscretiontobegrantedtothemAndsometimestheundercoveragentsthemselvesunbeknownsttotheiremployerschoosetobreakthelawbecausetheyworryabouttheircredibilityintheeyesof the host group and the consequences if they are discoveredThememoirsofundercoveragentsandspiesarerepletewiththisdilemma
According to incomplete calculations there were about 6500agents provocateurs and other political investigations specialistsoperatinginvariouspoliticalpartiesandorganizationsintheRusshy
26 c h a p t e r 1
sianEmpireatthestartofthetwentiethcenturythepoliceandgendarmesoftensetprioritiesthemselvesattimesevenattheriskofthelivesofhighshyrankinggovernmentofficialsandmembersoftheimperialfamilyMattersconcerningthesecurityofthesecretagentswereoftoppriorityandmaintainingthestrongpositionsofagentswithintheterroristorganizationsof theSocialistshyRevolushytionarieswasconsideredmore important thanpreventingassassishynationsevenagainstofficialsofthegovernment75
AfamouscasewasthatofEvnoAzefanagentwhooperatedinrevolushytionary circles for aboutfifteen years From 1893on hewas a policeagentAsastudentinaGermanpolytechnicschoolhetooktheinitiashytiveofofferinghisservicestothepolicedepartmentat therateof50rublespermonth afterwhichhe attachedhimself to a foreigngroupcallingitselftheUnionofRussianSocialistshyRevolutionariesHeknewaboutthemajorityofterroristactsbeingplannedbytheSRsbuthedidnotalwaysreporttohisbossesaboutthemNeverthelessthepolicepaidhimwellforhisservices76
EpisodesofthiskindarenotrestrictedtopredemocraticsocietiesAnilluminatingcaseoccurredinCanadaAtitspeakin1993theHeritageFront was the largest and bestshyorganized neoshyNazi group in Canadaboastingacontactlistof1800namesGrantBristowcofounderandaleadingmemberofthiswhiteracistgroupturnedouttobeapaidinshyformantoftheCanadianSecurityIntelligenceServiceldquoBristoworchesshytrated aharassment campaign that terrorizedFront enemies harboredleadinginternationalracistsinhisownhomeinclearviolationofbothCSISrulesandtheImmigrationActandassistedintheFrontrsquosinfiltrashytionoftheReformPartyrdquo77ldquoCSISmoleGrantBristowwasanlsquoagentprovocateurrsquowhowithhisspymastersbrokeCanadianlawsandinternalCSISregulationsagroupofMPshaveconcludedBristowrsquosleadershyshiproleinthewhiteracistHeritageFrontthereportsuggestsmay have led to the very events that caused CSIS to keep him in place for several more yearsrdquo78 An inquiry by the Security Intelligence Review CommitteeintotheaffairplayeddowntheaccusationsbutitisclearfromthereportthattherewereseriousbreachesForinstanceontheissueofharassment
27 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
of antiracistmilitants and Jewish communitymembers thedocumentconcludesthatldquoanyinformantwhoenterstheHeritageFrontorasimishylargrouphastomaintainhiscredibilitywithhisassociatesotherwisehewouldnot remain a trustedmember for longThe questionwewerefacedwithwaswhethertheCSISsource[GrantBristow]hadremainedwithintheboundsofappropriatebehaviourwhiletryingtomaintainhiscredibilityTheanswerwearrivedatwasthatin certain circumstances he had not[emphasisintheoriginal]rdquo79
Eveniftheyareonlysupposedtocollectinformationoncriminalorsubversiveactivitiesspiesmayendupproducingmoreofsuchactivitieson theirown initiativeThey tend tobecomeagentsprovocateursnotnecessarilyfortheconspiratorialreasonswhyJosephConradrsquosprotagoshynistinThe Secret Agentdoes(VerlocwasinthepayofanunnamedforshyeignembassythatwantedtopersuadetheBritishtotakeatougherlineagainsttheanarchistsandusedhisdimshywittednephewtostageanldquoanarshychistrdquobombingattack)buttypicallyonlyoutoffearofnotbeingcredshyibleenoughandofriskingtheirlivesThecoststhatmaketheirsignalscredibleintheeyesoftheirtargetsareafterallldquoonlyrdquothoseofbreakinglegalconstraintsTheymayneverbecaughtgiventheintrinsicopacityofwhattheydoandifcaughttheyarenotsolikelytobepunishedcershytainlynotbydeathAndontheothersideoftheequationtheyhavetoconsider the personal costs of failing to persuadeWhen onersquos life isthreatened thecostsofbreakingthe lawmaysuddenlyappear smallerthanthoseofobeyingitThesetofthosewhoarereadytorisktheirlifesacrificetheirfamilyanddeceivedangerouscriminalsforlongperiodsoftimewhileatthesametimeremainingstrictlyalawshyabidingcitizenmustbeextremelysmall
ThisraisesaninterestingquandaryforthecriminalsorterroristswhoaretryingtotestthebonafidesofothersForbyincreasingtheseverityofthepunishmentmetedoutagainstundercoveragentswhoarediscovshyered they encourage the latter to afford costly signals that once disshyplayedmaymakeitimpossibleforthebadguystosaywhethertheposhytentialrecruitsareundercoveragentsinthefirstplace
undercover agentmayfind it preferable to refrain from swallowing itevenatthecostofrevealinghistruetypeforhedoesnotwanttobreakthelawBycontrasttherealcriminalwhowantstodealwiththedrugdealersmayprefertopaythecostofthephysicalillnesscausedbyswalshylowing forhe isentirelyateasewithbreaking the lawThekeyextracost that discriminates between the real criminal and the undercoveragentisthecostofbreakingthelawwhichthemimicfaceswhilethegenuinearticledoesnotAharsherpunishmenthowevercanreversetheequationandmakeitcheaperfortheundercoveragenttoswallowratherthannot swallowevenat thecostofbreaking the lawandthusmakehimbehaviorallyindistinguishablefromtherealcriminalWhenadminshyisteredunder the threatof theharsherpunishment the testno longerseparatesonetypefromtheotherByfailingtoappreciatethisquandaryandthreateningdeathagainstthosewhorefusetoswallowthedrugthedealers fail to realize that theyaredeactivating thevery sourceof thereliabilityoftheirtestforunderthatthreattheagentsarenowallowed(andwouldinanycasefeelinclined)toswallowthedrug
CONCLUSIONS
OncesomeoneintentoncrimeidentifiesapotentialpartnerasabonafidecriminalhehassolvedoneproblemonlytolandinanotherequallydifficultoneHenowhastoestablishwhetherhispartnerisnotjustacrookbutanhonorableoneAfterHughGrantexposedhimselfDivineknewthathewasnotanundercovercopforshebelievedthatcopsdonotdothatYetshestilldidnotknowwhatkindofacustomerhewasProstitutesareconstantlyonguardagainstrobbersorpervertswhoposeasordinarycustomers80AnyonewhoworksoutsidethelawismoreexshyposedthanordinarybusinessmentobecomingthepreyofothercrimishynalswhomimicbeingacriminalofthehonestsortAstreetshydrugdealerwhosuccessfullyadvertises tocustomersmayalsoattract robberswhopretend to be customers in order to get close to the dealers and robthem81Acriminalhastobeonguardagainstbothkindsofmimicslawshyenforcementagentsandcriminalsofthewrongsort
29 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
Ifhonestywerethoughttobeatraitofcertaincriminalsandnotothshyersinordertoestablishwhetherapotentialpartnerishonestonecouldfollowthesamestrategyoneusesforidentifyingwhethersomeoneisacriminal tobeginwithThe samekindof costly signalswouldbe reshyquiredforcriminalstopersuadeoneanotherthattheywerethehonesttypeIncertaincasesthegametheyplayisindeedoneofsignalingtheirtypeHowever inmost circumstancescriminals tend to thinkofeachotherasbeingof justonetypenamelythedishonestoneandbelievethatgivenhalfachancetheywilltakeadvantageofeachotherTheonlyway inwhich they can comealmost toldquotrustrdquo eachother enough tocooperateisthereforenotbysignalingtheirtypebuteitherbyenforcshyingtheirpartnersrsquohonestywiththethreatofsomekindofretaliationormoregenerallybyputtingthemselvesandtheirpartnersinaconditionwherebyldquohonestyrdquo rather thancheating is theirbest courseof actionwhatevertheirtypeIshallexploresomeofthestrategiestheyadoptinchapters2and3
14 c h a p t e r 1
Christopher Seymour writes of taking a drive with Japanese yakuza (mobsters)ldquoIntheloosehierarchyoftheHarashygumiKenis themostsenior in the automobile He has already served time in adult prisonwhereastheothershaveonlybeenthroughjuveniledetentionrdquo28LikeshywiseMarekKaminskimdashwhowhenhewasa sociologysophomore inthe1980swasarrestedbythePolishcommunistsecretpolicetogetherwithelevenothermembersofanundergroundSolidarnosc publishinghouseandjailedforfivemonthsmdashreportsldquoSomeofthePolishgrypsmen [inmateswhoaremembersofaprisonfraternityseechapter4]claimthatinthecaseofaprisonerwithasentenceof20+yearshedoesnothavetojointhegrypsmenformallyandsufferthecostsoftheinitiationritualsHeiseligibleforenjoyingallthebenefitsofthecastemembershyshipbyvirtueofthesentencersquoslengthrdquo29FortheRussianmafiaaswellldquothelengthoftimespentinprisonwasasourceofprestigeandasignofdistinction among the criminals who aspired to become voryrdquo30 In atelephoneconversation secretly recordedby Italianpolice thewifeofIvanYakovlev (thenames have been changed) aRussianmobster arshyrestedinItalyin199731usesthelengthofherhusbandrsquosprisonsentencetoinduceoneofhisassociatestoshowduerespectAssignedtothetaskbyherhusband shewarns theRussianwifeof theaccompliceMarioFerrarildquoIvanisbiggerthan[yourhusband]hehasbeeninprisonfor15yearsrdquoFerrarididnotenjoythesameprisoncredentialsthoughhehadclashedwiththelawinthepastfordrugdealingHewasnowmisbeshyhavingbeingoftendrunkanddisheveledandaccordingtoIvanswifedidnotshowenoughrespecttoIvanInasubsequentconversationbeshytweenthetwowomenFerrarirsquoswifeapologizedforherhusbandrsquosbeshyhavior She clearly took the point and repeated word for word whatIvanrsquoswifepreviouslytoldherldquo[Myhusband]understoodthatitisnotIvanwhomustlookforhimbutthathecleanandwelldressedmustgotoIvaninthecarandaskhimwhatneedstobedonebecauseIvanisbiggerthanheishehasbeeninprisonfor15yearsrdquo32
monlyacceptedviewthatldquopunishingacriminalmoreseverelyreducesthatindividualrsquossubsequentprobabilityofrecidivismrdquo33Sinceprisonersareassignedtominimumshylowshyorhighshysecurityprisonsonthebasisoftheirscoreonascalefrom1to10pointsldquointendedtoreflect[their]needforsupervisionrdquo34ChenandShapirowereabletocomparetherearrestratesofexshyinmateswhohadbeenoneithersideofthecutoffboundarshyiesthathadledthemtobeincarceratedinprisonswithdifferentsecushyrity levelsldquoinessenceweargue thatwithin a small interval aroundacutofftheallocationofprisonerstodifferentsecuritylevelsamountstoarandomassignmentrdquo35Althoughtheresultsarebasedonasmallnumberofcases948theystillenabletheauthorstorejectstronglythehypothshyesisthatlowerlevelsofprisonsecurityleadtomorerecidivismafterreshyleaseinsteadtheyindicateinmanywaysthattheoppositeeffectobtainsThe authorsrsquo interpretationof this effect refers to lower laborshymarketopportunities for highershysecurity exshyinmates and to peer effectsmdashldquoinmatesmayacquireskillslearnofnewprospectsordevelopcriminalcontactsrdquo36moreofteninhighershythaninlowershysecurityprisonsTheirresultsarealsoperfectlycompatiblewithanotherinterpretationhavingbeeninprisonswithastricterregimestrengthensthecertifyingeffectoncriminalcredentialsandgivesexshyinmatesfromtheseprisonsrelativeto those fromprisonswith lower security levelsgreatercredibilityonthecriminallabormarket
the two pairs have solved the identification problem in the past Butwhatabouttheelementarycaseinwhichreferralsarenotavailableornotpersuasiveorsafeenoughmdashcantwoagentsthenfindadirectsolushytiontotheproblem
It is hard to observe someone committing a crime in the naturalcourseofeventsbutvillainscancertainlyaskapotentialpartnerorreshycruittogivethemevidenceofhavingcommittedcrimesandcandosowithout resorting to an intermediaryThis can work if the crimes inquestionleaveatracethatcanbeknownorpossessedonlybytherealperpetrator One cannot just say that one has committed a crimemdashaphonymayhavereadaboutitinthepaperandsimplybeclaimingtobetheperpetratorOnehastoshowthebootyasitwereasinthefollowingcasePoliceinfourteencountriesincludingtheUnitedStatesarrestednearlytwohundredsuspectedmembersofanInternetchildpornograshyphyringtheWonderlandClubTojointheringonehadtoshowthatonepossessedtenthousandphotographsandbepreparedtosharethemwith other membersThe photographs were screened by a computerprogramwhichcheckedwhethertheyweredifferentfromoneanotherand fromthosealreadyavailable fromother sources37Thisaction sigshynaledthatprospectivemembershadcommittedacrimeandwereserishyouslycommittedtotheactivityofcommoninterestandcouldnotthusbeundercoveragents(Ireturntothiscaseinchapter3)
UltimatelycriminalscanalsoaskapotentialpartnerorrecruittoenshygageinadisplaycrimemdashanactthatanoncriminalwouldneverdomdashandtocommitthecrimeundertheireyesorinsuchawayastoleaveanunmistakablesignofauthorshipThenatureoftheillegalactrequesteddependsonthetypeofcrimeinwhichtheagentsareinvolvedandthelawsthatgovernitDivinetheLosAngelesprostitutewhoachievedherfifteenminutesoffameforadministeringoralsextoBritishactorHughGrant in 1995 revealedherparticularkindof testBefore agreeing totradesheaskedGranttoexposehimselfThereasonshesaidisthatanundercoverpolicemanwouldnotdothatforhewouldbebreakingthelawDivinebelievedonewondershowaccuratelythatexposingoneselfwasasignalonlyrealcustomerscouldafford
The same reasoning inspires a test appliedbydrugdealers inNew
17 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
YorkSincethemidshy1990sldquoaspolicehave intensifiedtheirassault thedealershavealsoadoptedmoreperilous tacticsFiveor six timeseachmonthundercoverinvestigatorsarenowforcedtousecocaineorheroinatgunpointtoprovetodealersthattheycanbetrustedAtleasttwiceamonth anofficer is shotorotherwisewoundedduring a stagedpurshychasesaypolicecommanderswhospokeonconditionofanonymityrdquo38
These kinds of tests are common in organizationswhere loyalty isparamount Before initiation mafia novicesmdashespecially those not alshyreadymembersoffamilieswithamafiatraditionmdashareaskedtocommitamurder(sometimeswouldshybemembersmovefirstandcommitseriouscrimesbeforeanyoneaskedthemtodoso)39Themafiausuallydoesnotkill anyonepurely for the sakeof a testmdashit optimizes byldquowhackingrdquosomeonewhowasmeanttobewhackedanywayand atthesametimetrying out the determination and bona fides of a noviceTheAryanBrotherhoodinprisonadoptedthesametesttogainmembershipcanshydidatesldquohadtokillwhomevertheBrotherhoodtargetedrdquo40AkindredoutfitknownastheAryanWarriorsalsorequiredwouldshybememberstopassatestldquousuallyabloodyassaultorinsomeinstancesadrugripshyofffrom a person outside of the brotherhoodrdquo41 But there are cases inwhichheinous crimes are committed purely as tests In a hairshyraisingaccountoflifeinyouthgangsinColombiathewriterEfraimMedinaReyes claims that it is not uncommon for new gangmembers to beasked to murder innocent friends or members of their own familywhich pushes the test to the extreme42 Revolutionary and resistancegroups deemed to be illegal by the incumbent government have alsousedthesametestBeingaskedtocommitamurderwasforinstanceacommonpractice in theAlgerianFLNSometimes the leaderswouldpick victims more or less at random to see if prospective memberswouldobeyevenmeaninglessorders43
ThismethodexploitsthelawwhichrestrictsthelawshyabidingundershycoveragentsrsquooptionsandturnsittothecriminalsrsquoadvantageIfhowshyeverlawshyenforcementagenciesgivetheirundercoveroperativesgreaterdiscretion to act against the law for the sakeofpersuading thegrouptheyaretryingtoinfiltrateoftheirbonafidesthepowerofthesesignalsisweakened for theagentcannowaffordat least someof themThe
18 c h a p t e r 1
degreesoffreedomvaryfromtimetotimeandfromagencytoagencyPoliceinNewYorkarenowldquoinstructedtoavoidtakingthedrugsunless their lives are in dangerrdquoIfdealersreadtheNew York Timeswherethisinshyformationwaspublishedtheyknowthatforcingbuyerstoingestdrugsby threatening their lives isnowauseless test for itno longerdistinshyguishesgenuinebuyersfromundercoveragents
BeforediscussingthisproblemfurtherIwillpresentthecaseofFBIspecial agent Joseph Pistone aka Donnie Brasco who infiltrated theNewYorkmafiaandcameclosetobeinginitiatedIknowofnobettercase for illustratingall the typesofcostshydiscriminating signalsusedbycriminalsmdashand by those who try to fool them Donnie Brasco pershysuadedthemobstersofhiscriminalcredentialsbyemployingabreathshytakingrangeofsubtlesignalsandnarratedhisexperienceinabookmdasharguablythemostvividethnographyoftheUSmafiafromldquowithinrdquo44
Entering the mob world is needless to say very hardldquoAssociates ofwiseguysdonrsquotdealwithpeopletheydonrsquotknoworwhosomebodyelsedoesnrsquotvouchforrdquo45PriortoPistonersquosinfiltrationtheFBIlackedexpeshyrienceDuringJEdgarHooverrsquosreignatthebureauundercoverworkwasrarelyusedldquobecauseitcouldbeadirtyjobthatcouldenduptaintshyingtheagentsrdquo46AndalthoughithadbeenusedsinceldquosofarasweknewtheFBIhadneverplantedoneofitsownagentsinthemafiardquo47Yettheoperation itwas about to attemptwasextraordinarily shrewdPistoneneededtobuildawholebarrageofsignalswhichtakentogethercouldpersuadethemobstersthathewasarealbadguyAndthatiswhatheandhishandlerssetouttodomindingthatthelawconstrainedhisfreeshydomldquoTheFBIwouldnrsquotletmeactuallygooutonhijackingsandburshyglariesbecausethecrewwentarmedrdquoPistonewrites48
19 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
PistoneneededanamehedecideditwaseasiertosticktoDonnieBrasco the name he had used in a previous undercover operation inFloridaHeneededaplausiblebiographythatcouldbecheckedorbetshyterhardtocheckheposedasanorphanandabachelorHesaidhehadbeenraisedinanorphanageinPittsburghthatburneddowntherewereno records leftThe story needed to be simpleldquoThe fewer [lies] youhave to tell the feweryouhave torememberrdquohenotes49HesaidhehadspenttimeontheWestCoastandinFloridawhereinfacthehadbeenbeforeasldquoDonaldBrascordquointhepreviousoperationandhadesshytablishedsomecontactsHeneededaldquoprofessionrdquoandsettledonjewelrytheftsomethingonecandoaloneandthatdoesnotrequiretheuseofweaponsmdashsomething moreover that allowed him to use confiscatedstolen jewels to sell so he would not have to break the law to stealthem50
Hecouldcountonadvantagesthatwouldhavebeenhardtofakehadtheynotbeenpartofhis realbiographyHis Italianancestryprovidedhim with theldquorightrdquo ethnic background He had grown up in theldquorightrdquoneighborhoodandasayoungsterhungoutinldquojointsrdquopatronshyizedbywiseguysldquoYouhad tobe streetshysmartevencockysometimesEverygoodundercoveragentIhaveknowngrewuponthestreetlikeIdidandwasagoodstreetagentbeforebecominganundercoveragentOnthestreetyoulearnwhatrsquoswhatandwhorsquoswhoYoulearnhowtoreadsituationsandhandleyourselfYou cannot fake the ability It showsrdquo51
It is also interesting to know what he chose not to say or do Heavoided acting in a way that could raise suspicionldquoNo street guy isgoingtothrowmoneyallovertheplaceunlesshersquostryingtoattractatshytentionrdquoPistonereveals ldquoThenthequestionisWhyishetryingtoatshytractattentionrdquo52BydoingsoheeitherbecomesatargetinthatpeoplethinktheycanrobhimorraisessuspicionsthathemaybeacopDonshyniewasparsimonioustooinrevealingdetailsofhislifewhetherrealorphonyforldquoyouneverknowwhatpartofwhatyoudowillbecomepartofyourhistorywhenpeoplewanttocheckonyourdquo53
Ifthey[themobsters]werenrsquotscheminganddreamingtheyweretellingwarstoriesreminiscencesabouttheirtimeinvariousjailsandprisonsEverybodydidtimeinthecanItwaspartofthepriceofdoingbusinessTheyknewallaboutdifferent jailscellblocksguards I had enough phony background set up to establish mycredentialsasaseriouscriminaltoshowthatIwastoughenoughtodo time if Ihad towithout turningratBut I never claimed to have done any prison timebecause IdidnrsquotknowthoseplacesandthatcouldhavejustrippedmeupIfyoudothreetofiveyearsyouget to know the guardsmdashwhat guardrsquos on what tierYou get toknowtheinmatesguyswhoaredoingfifteentotwentyguyswhoarestillthereTheyknewthelingoandtheslangEverybodyreshymembersthoserelationshipsandthattime54
IndirectlyPistonersquos choice showswhat a robust signalhavingbeen inprison is It isnot something that canbeeasily fakedguyswhohavetrulybeentherewouldquicklyspotanimpostor
Donniewentonforacoupleofmonths
playing this game of being noticedwithout being noticed slideintothebadguyworldandbecomeacceptedwithoutdrawingatshytentionYoupushalittlehereandtherebutverygentlyBriefinshytroductions short conversations appearances one place and anshyotherhintsaboutwhatyoursquoreuptocasualmannerismsdemeanorand lingo that youknowyourway aroundmdashall these become atrail of credibility you leave behind youAbove all you cannothurryYoucannotseemeagertomeetcertainpeoplemakecertaincontactslearnaboutcertainscoresThe quickest way to get tagged as a cop is to try to move too fastYouhavetoshowthatyouhavethetime to play by the rules of the street and that includes lettingpeoplecheckyououtandcometoyou55
Hewouldphonethebar leavingmessages forhimself just toestablishthathehadconnectionsandconveythebeliefpeopleknewhepatronshyizedthebar57ldquoWhenIwentotherplacesIcouldsayrdquoPistonewritesldquolsquoIbeenhangingoutat thatplace for fourorfivemonthsrsquoAnd theycould check it outThe guys had been hanging around in this placewouldsaylsquoYeahDonBrascohasbeencominginhereforquiteawhileandheseemsallrightnevertriedtopullanythingonusrsquordquo58
Wealsoread ldquoYoucanrsquotgoinallthetimebyyourselfbecausetheythinkyoursquoreeitherafagoracopAnditrsquosgoodtovarycompanysotheydonrsquot see you with the same people all the time and wonder whatrsquosuprdquo59SoDonniewouldbringanoccasionalfemaleorChuckanotherundercover agentThanks to Chuck he was introduced toAlbertldquoahalfshyasswiseguyrdquoaconnectedshytobutnotamadememberof theCoshylombofamily
Donnie eventually became the proteacutegeacute of a made guy BenjaminldquoLeftyGunsrdquoRuggieroandspentsixyearswiththemafiosilivingtheirdaily lives and sharing their crooked dealingsmdashconstantly exposed totheriskofbeingdiscoveredandkilledInthecourseoftheoperationhewasofferedtheopportunitynotonlytohandlethebookmakingforthemob boss of Milwaukee Frank Balistrieri but also to get inside theskimmingoperationinLasVegasBalistrierisaidhehadagoodcrewbuttheywereldquoolderkindof set in theirways Icoulduse someyoungerguysthatIcouldtrusttotakeoveracoupleofmyclubsandotherbusishynessesYoungerguyswouldbeabletorelatetothewaysoftodayrsquosbusishynessworldrdquo62Leftyvouched forDonnieldquoI told [Balistrieri]rdquoDonnie
22 c h a p t e r 1
saysldquoyouaremybloodrdquo63ButacceptingwouldhavemadeitimpossibleforDonnietoseehisrealfamilysoheturneddowntheofferWhilethatdecisionangeredLeftyitalsoconferredanadvantageasitfurthersigshynaledDonniersquoscredibilityldquoOnethingIhadinmyfavorseenthroughanymobguyrsquoseyeswas thatno cop would ever turn that job downSo Iwouldbeabovesuspicioninthatregardrdquo64
Donniecameupwithmanyother signalsbelieved tobeof akindthat a cop could not afford He pretended to beat up someone whoowedmoney toLeftyHe roughedup a comedianwhohad annoyedLeftyattheThunderbirdaMiamirestaurant65Furthermoreldquotypicallywhatanundercovercopwilldo inabuyshybust situation is try tobuysomethingfromyouCops always buy never sellI was going to sellrdquoPistonereveals66mdashthankstothefactthattheFBIallowedhimdiscretioninthatregard One very special commodity he bought though Lefty RugshygierorsquosprotectionTheFBIdishedoutatotalof$40000forthispurposewhileDonniewasundercoverldquoTheywerepayinghimforhisservicesasalsquowiseguyrsquotoinsuretheyhadtheprotectionoftheBonannofamilyin the event another family tried to interfere with their businessrdquo67
WhilepaymentwasostensiblyaimedatcompensatingLeftyitwasalsoliterallyacostlysignalandintentionallydesignedtoappeartobesoldquoBygivinghimmoneyContiandRossi[twoundercoveragentswhocolshylaboratedwithDonnie] ledLefty tobelieve that theywerewilling tobecomeinvolvedwithhimandhe trusted them as bad guysrdquo68
Mafiosiwerenot taken inbecause theyweredumbratherPistonewasunbelievablysmartandresilientanditjustwasveryhardformobshysterstothinkthattakentogetherallthethingshedidanddidnotdowerenotnearshyperfectdiscriminatingsignalsTheFBIwaslatercriticizedforoperatingverynearorevenbeyondthe limitsof the lawBut thisrelative freedomfooledthemafiosibecause theyassumedthatanunshydercoveragentwouldnotpaythecostofbreakingthelawDivinecouldnothavebankedonherneatlittletestifagentsofthelawhadbeenalshylowedtoexposethemselvesThemobsterswerecheatednotjustinthesense thatDonnieBrascoby faking forging andpretending successshyfullymimickedarealbadguybutalsointhesensethathedidsomereal badactions
23 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
In a short biography ofBonanno familymembersmdashposted on theInternetforawhilethenremovedmdashLeftywasdescribedasldquothebiggestidiotinthehistoryofLaCosaNostraHisblindgreedandlackofinshystinctwerefelthardintheAmericanmafiardquoAndyetLeftywascarefulevenyearsafterDonniehadbeenacceptedasaconnectedguyDonniewasassistedbyotherundercoveragentsoneofwhomwasldquoRossirdquoTotestwhetherRossiwasanundercoveragentLeftydeliberatelyldquolostrdquoaplaneticketthatRossihadbookedonhisowncreditcardforLefty(thiswasacovertwayofpayingprotectiontoLefty)ldquoBypretendingtolosetheticketLeftywantedtoseehowRossi reactedIfhewasanagentLeftyreasonedhewouldgetnervousbecausehewouldprobablyhavetoaccount for the ticket tohisofficeplushewouldbeworried thatsomebodylsquointheunderworldbusinessrsquomightmeanwhilefindtheticketandcheckouttheAmericanExpressnumbertoseeifitwasagovernshymentnumberrdquo69
WhenitwasfinallyrevealedthatDonniewasanundercoveragentthemobsterswereshockedanddidnotbelieveittillDonnieactuallytestishyfied in court against them His operation managed to send many ofthemmostlymembersoftheBonannofamilytojail71
ThemobsterslearnedtheirlessonandincreasedthepriceofthetestsNow not just one butldquotwo mafiosi have to vouch for the proposedmemberrdquoldquoTheyhavetosaytheyhaveknowntheproposedmemberifnotsincechildhoodthenatleastforfifteentotwentyyearsrdquo72Accordshying to theFBI theyalso resumeda traditionalpractice thathadbeenabandonedldquoaproposedmembermustlsquomakehisbonesrsquoorkillsomeonebeforehecanbecomeamadeguyTheyhavedonesobecause no agent
24 c h a p t e r 1
would commit murder while posing as a bad guyrdquo73Murderisreallyapershyfectlydiscriminatingsignalofbeingabadguyasignalthatnoundershycover agentnot evenonebelonging to a rather lax lawshyenforcementagencycouldafford
Thisentryrequirementmdashwhichshowshowcriminalactscanbepershypetratednotmerelyfortheirimmediateinstrumentalvaluebutalsofortheir signaling valuemdashhad never been explicitly removed but it wasno longerusedwithgreat determination In truthDominickldquoSonnyBlackrdquoNapolitanowhoeventuallybecameDonniersquosmainmentorandplannedtoproposeDonnieformembershiphadaskedDonnietomurshydersomeoneldquoHegavemeacontractsothatIwouldhavethatcredenshytialwhenheputmynameuprdquoButtheopportunitytocarryitoutdidnotariseforAnthonyBrunoIndelicatotheintendedvictimwentsucshycessfullyintohidingDonnieshowedthathewasdoingallhecouldtotrackIndelicatodownanditwasnotthoughttobehisfaultwhenhefailedThusalthoughhedidnotcarryoutthekillinghestillmanagedtoshowhiswillingnesstodoitandafewmonthslaterSonnyputhisnameforwardformembershipAtthatpointtheFBIdecidedtostoptheoperationandDonnieresumedonceagainhisrealidentity
Undercoveragentsmdashwhohavetopersuadethegrouptheyaimtoinfilshytrateof theircriminalcredentialsmdasharea serious threat forunlikesolomimicstheycandrawontheresourcesofstateagenciesandcanaffordcomplexmimicryactswhichinvolveposingforgingcredentialstrainshyingandfundsStill itcanbenear impossibleto infiltrategroupsproshytected by an array of features that cannot be successfully imitatedmdashwhichinotherwordsperfectlydistinguishtherealfromthephonyFor
EvenaMuslimCIAofficerwithnativeshylanguageabilities(andtheAgencyaccordingtoseveralactiveshydutycaseofficershasveryfewoperativesfromMiddleEasternbackgrounds)coulddolittlemorein thisenvironment [PeshawarPakistan] thanablondblueshyeyedallshyAmericanCaseofficerscannotlongescapetheembassiesandconsulates in which they serveA US official overseasphotoshygraphedandregisteredwiththelocalintelligenceandsecuritysershyvicescanrsquottravelmuchparticularlyinapoliceshyrichcountrylikePakistanwithouttheldquohostrdquoservicesknowingaboutitAnofficerwho tries togonativepretending tobe a trueshybelieving radicalMuslim searching for brothers in the causewillmake a fool ofhimselfquickly
UndercoveroperationsareaproblematicformofanticrimeactivityforanotherreasonaswellThelogicofcostshydiscriminatingsignalsinclinesundercoveragentstogobeyondinnocentpretensionsandsupportinishytiativesof thesamekinda truecriminalor terroristwouldundertakeSincelawshyenforcementagenciesareunderpressuretokeeptheiragentssafetheypushfordiscretiontobegrantedtothemAndsometimestheundercoveragentsthemselvesunbeknownsttotheiremployerschoosetobreakthelawbecausetheyworryabouttheircredibilityintheeyesof the host group and the consequences if they are discoveredThememoirsofundercoveragentsandspiesarerepletewiththisdilemma
According to incomplete calculations there were about 6500agents provocateurs and other political investigations specialistsoperatinginvariouspoliticalpartiesandorganizationsintheRusshy
26 c h a p t e r 1
sianEmpireatthestartofthetwentiethcenturythepoliceandgendarmesoftensetprioritiesthemselvesattimesevenattheriskofthelivesofhighshyrankinggovernmentofficialsandmembersoftheimperialfamilyMattersconcerningthesecurityofthesecretagentswereoftoppriorityandmaintainingthestrongpositionsofagentswithintheterroristorganizationsof theSocialistshyRevolushytionarieswasconsideredmore important thanpreventingassassishynationsevenagainstofficialsofthegovernment75
AfamouscasewasthatofEvnoAzefanagentwhooperatedinrevolushytionary circles for aboutfifteen years From 1893on hewas a policeagentAsastudentinaGermanpolytechnicschoolhetooktheinitiashytiveofofferinghisservicestothepolicedepartmentat therateof50rublespermonth afterwhichhe attachedhimself to a foreigngroupcallingitselftheUnionofRussianSocialistshyRevolutionariesHeknewaboutthemajorityofterroristactsbeingplannedbytheSRsbuthedidnotalwaysreporttohisbossesaboutthemNeverthelessthepolicepaidhimwellforhisservices76
EpisodesofthiskindarenotrestrictedtopredemocraticsocietiesAnilluminatingcaseoccurredinCanadaAtitspeakin1993theHeritageFront was the largest and bestshyorganized neoshyNazi group in Canadaboastingacontactlistof1800namesGrantBristowcofounderandaleadingmemberofthiswhiteracistgroupturnedouttobeapaidinshyformantoftheCanadianSecurityIntelligenceServiceldquoBristoworchesshytrated aharassment campaign that terrorizedFront enemies harboredleadinginternationalracistsinhisownhomeinclearviolationofbothCSISrulesandtheImmigrationActandassistedintheFrontrsquosinfiltrashytionoftheReformPartyrdquo77ldquoCSISmoleGrantBristowwasanlsquoagentprovocateurrsquowhowithhisspymastersbrokeCanadianlawsandinternalCSISregulationsagroupofMPshaveconcludedBristowrsquosleadershyshiproleinthewhiteracistHeritageFrontthereportsuggestsmay have led to the very events that caused CSIS to keep him in place for several more yearsrdquo78 An inquiry by the Security Intelligence Review CommitteeintotheaffairplayeddowntheaccusationsbutitisclearfromthereportthattherewereseriousbreachesForinstanceontheissueofharassment
27 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
of antiracistmilitants and Jewish communitymembers thedocumentconcludesthatldquoanyinformantwhoenterstheHeritageFrontorasimishylargrouphastomaintainhiscredibilitywithhisassociatesotherwisehewouldnot remain a trustedmember for longThe questionwewerefacedwithwaswhethertheCSISsource[GrantBristow]hadremainedwithintheboundsofappropriatebehaviourwhiletryingtomaintainhiscredibilityTheanswerwearrivedatwasthatin certain circumstances he had not[emphasisintheoriginal]rdquo79
Eveniftheyareonlysupposedtocollectinformationoncriminalorsubversiveactivitiesspiesmayendupproducingmoreofsuchactivitieson theirown initiativeThey tend tobecomeagentsprovocateursnotnecessarilyfortheconspiratorialreasonswhyJosephConradrsquosprotagoshynistinThe Secret Agentdoes(VerlocwasinthepayofanunnamedforshyeignembassythatwantedtopersuadetheBritishtotakeatougherlineagainsttheanarchistsandusedhisdimshywittednephewtostageanldquoanarshychistrdquobombingattack)buttypicallyonlyoutoffearofnotbeingcredshyibleenoughandofriskingtheirlivesThecoststhatmaketheirsignalscredibleintheeyesoftheirtargetsareafterallldquoonlyrdquothoseofbreakinglegalconstraintsTheymayneverbecaughtgiventheintrinsicopacityofwhattheydoandifcaughttheyarenotsolikelytobepunishedcershytainlynotbydeathAndontheothersideoftheequationtheyhavetoconsider the personal costs of failing to persuadeWhen onersquos life isthreatened thecostsofbreakingthe lawmaysuddenlyappear smallerthanthoseofobeyingitThesetofthosewhoarereadytorisktheirlifesacrificetheirfamilyanddeceivedangerouscriminalsforlongperiodsoftimewhileatthesametimeremainingstrictlyalawshyabidingcitizenmustbeextremelysmall
ThisraisesaninterestingquandaryforthecriminalsorterroristswhoaretryingtotestthebonafidesofothersForbyincreasingtheseverityofthepunishmentmetedoutagainstundercoveragentswhoarediscovshyered they encourage the latter to afford costly signals that once disshyplayedmaymakeitimpossibleforthebadguystosaywhethertheposhytentialrecruitsareundercoveragentsinthefirstplace
undercover agentmayfind it preferable to refrain from swallowing itevenatthecostofrevealinghistruetypeforhedoesnotwanttobreakthelawBycontrasttherealcriminalwhowantstodealwiththedrugdealersmayprefertopaythecostofthephysicalillnesscausedbyswalshylowing forhe isentirelyateasewithbreaking the lawThekeyextracost that discriminates between the real criminal and the undercoveragentisthecostofbreakingthelawwhichthemimicfaceswhilethegenuinearticledoesnotAharsherpunishmenthowevercanreversetheequationandmakeitcheaperfortheundercoveragenttoswallowratherthannot swallowevenat thecostofbreaking the lawandthusmakehimbehaviorallyindistinguishablefromtherealcriminalWhenadminshyisteredunder the threatof theharsherpunishment the testno longerseparatesonetypefromtheotherByfailingtoappreciatethisquandaryandthreateningdeathagainstthosewhorefusetoswallowthedrugthedealers fail to realize that theyaredeactivating thevery sourceof thereliabilityoftheirtestforunderthatthreattheagentsarenowallowed(andwouldinanycasefeelinclined)toswallowthedrug
CONCLUSIONS
OncesomeoneintentoncrimeidentifiesapotentialpartnerasabonafidecriminalhehassolvedoneproblemonlytolandinanotherequallydifficultoneHenowhastoestablishwhetherhispartnerisnotjustacrookbutanhonorableoneAfterHughGrantexposedhimselfDivineknewthathewasnotanundercovercopforshebelievedthatcopsdonotdothatYetshestilldidnotknowwhatkindofacustomerhewasProstitutesareconstantlyonguardagainstrobbersorpervertswhoposeasordinarycustomers80AnyonewhoworksoutsidethelawismoreexshyposedthanordinarybusinessmentobecomingthepreyofothercrimishynalswhomimicbeingacriminalofthehonestsortAstreetshydrugdealerwhosuccessfullyadvertises tocustomersmayalsoattract robberswhopretend to be customers in order to get close to the dealers and robthem81Acriminalhastobeonguardagainstbothkindsofmimicslawshyenforcementagentsandcriminalsofthewrongsort
29 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
Ifhonestywerethoughttobeatraitofcertaincriminalsandnotothshyersinordertoestablishwhetherapotentialpartnerishonestonecouldfollowthesamestrategyoneusesforidentifyingwhethersomeoneisacriminal tobeginwithThe samekindof costly signalswouldbe reshyquiredforcriminalstopersuadeoneanotherthattheywerethehonesttypeIncertaincasesthegametheyplayisindeedoneofsignalingtheirtypeHowever inmost circumstancescriminals tend to thinkofeachotherasbeingof justonetypenamelythedishonestoneandbelievethatgivenhalfachancetheywilltakeadvantageofeachotherTheonlyway inwhich they can comealmost toldquotrustrdquo eachother enough tocooperateisthereforenotbysignalingtheirtypebuteitherbyenforcshyingtheirpartnersrsquohonestywiththethreatofsomekindofretaliationormoregenerallybyputtingthemselvesandtheirpartnersinaconditionwherebyldquohonestyrdquo rather thancheating is theirbest courseof actionwhatevertheirtypeIshallexploresomeofthestrategiestheyadoptinchapters2and3
15 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
monlyacceptedviewthatldquopunishingacriminalmoreseverelyreducesthatindividualrsquossubsequentprobabilityofrecidivismrdquo33Sinceprisonersareassignedtominimumshylowshyorhighshysecurityprisonsonthebasisoftheirscoreonascalefrom1to10pointsldquointendedtoreflect[their]needforsupervisionrdquo34ChenandShapirowereabletocomparetherearrestratesofexshyinmateswhohadbeenoneithersideofthecutoffboundarshyiesthathadledthemtobeincarceratedinprisonswithdifferentsecushyrity levelsldquoinessenceweargue thatwithin a small interval aroundacutofftheallocationofprisonerstodifferentsecuritylevelsamountstoarandomassignmentrdquo35Althoughtheresultsarebasedonasmallnumberofcases948theystillenabletheauthorstorejectstronglythehypothshyesisthatlowerlevelsofprisonsecurityleadtomorerecidivismafterreshyleaseinsteadtheyindicateinmanywaysthattheoppositeeffectobtainsThe authorsrsquo interpretationof this effect refers to lower laborshymarketopportunities for highershysecurity exshyinmates and to peer effectsmdashldquoinmatesmayacquireskillslearnofnewprospectsordevelopcriminalcontactsrdquo36moreofteninhighershythaninlowershysecurityprisonsTheirresultsarealsoperfectlycompatiblewithanotherinterpretationhavingbeeninprisonswithastricterregimestrengthensthecertifyingeffectoncriminalcredentialsandgivesexshyinmatesfromtheseprisonsrelativeto those fromprisonswith lower security levelsgreatercredibilityonthecriminallabormarket
the two pairs have solved the identification problem in the past Butwhatabouttheelementarycaseinwhichreferralsarenotavailableornotpersuasiveorsafeenoughmdashcantwoagentsthenfindadirectsolushytiontotheproblem
It is hard to observe someone committing a crime in the naturalcourseofeventsbutvillainscancertainlyaskapotentialpartnerorreshycruittogivethemevidenceofhavingcommittedcrimesandcandosowithout resorting to an intermediaryThis can work if the crimes inquestionleaveatracethatcanbeknownorpossessedonlybytherealperpetrator One cannot just say that one has committed a crimemdashaphonymayhavereadaboutitinthepaperandsimplybeclaimingtobetheperpetratorOnehastoshowthebootyasitwereasinthefollowingcasePoliceinfourteencountriesincludingtheUnitedStatesarrestednearlytwohundredsuspectedmembersofanInternetchildpornograshyphyringtheWonderlandClubTojointheringonehadtoshowthatonepossessedtenthousandphotographsandbepreparedtosharethemwith other membersThe photographs were screened by a computerprogramwhichcheckedwhethertheyweredifferentfromoneanotherand fromthosealreadyavailable fromother sources37Thisaction sigshynaledthatprospectivemembershadcommittedacrimeandwereserishyouslycommittedtotheactivityofcommoninterestandcouldnotthusbeundercoveragents(Ireturntothiscaseinchapter3)
UltimatelycriminalscanalsoaskapotentialpartnerorrecruittoenshygageinadisplaycrimemdashanactthatanoncriminalwouldneverdomdashandtocommitthecrimeundertheireyesorinsuchawayastoleaveanunmistakablesignofauthorshipThenatureoftheillegalactrequesteddependsonthetypeofcrimeinwhichtheagentsareinvolvedandthelawsthatgovernitDivinetheLosAngelesprostitutewhoachievedherfifteenminutesoffameforadministeringoralsextoBritishactorHughGrant in 1995 revealedherparticularkindof testBefore agreeing totradesheaskedGranttoexposehimselfThereasonshesaidisthatanundercoverpolicemanwouldnotdothatforhewouldbebreakingthelawDivinebelievedonewondershowaccuratelythatexposingoneselfwasasignalonlyrealcustomerscouldafford
The same reasoning inspires a test appliedbydrugdealers inNew
17 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
YorkSincethemidshy1990sldquoaspolicehave intensifiedtheirassault thedealershavealsoadoptedmoreperilous tacticsFiveor six timeseachmonthundercoverinvestigatorsarenowforcedtousecocaineorheroinatgunpointtoprovetodealersthattheycanbetrustedAtleasttwiceamonth anofficer is shotorotherwisewoundedduring a stagedpurshychasesaypolicecommanderswhospokeonconditionofanonymityrdquo38
These kinds of tests are common in organizationswhere loyalty isparamount Before initiation mafia novicesmdashespecially those not alshyreadymembersoffamilieswithamafiatraditionmdashareaskedtocommitamurder(sometimeswouldshybemembersmovefirstandcommitseriouscrimesbeforeanyoneaskedthemtodoso)39Themafiausuallydoesnotkill anyonepurely for the sakeof a testmdashit optimizes byldquowhackingrdquosomeonewhowasmeanttobewhackedanywayand atthesametimetrying out the determination and bona fides of a noviceTheAryanBrotherhoodinprisonadoptedthesametesttogainmembershipcanshydidatesldquohadtokillwhomevertheBrotherhoodtargetedrdquo40AkindredoutfitknownastheAryanWarriorsalsorequiredwouldshybememberstopassatestldquousuallyabloodyassaultorinsomeinstancesadrugripshyofffrom a person outside of the brotherhoodrdquo41 But there are cases inwhichheinous crimes are committed purely as tests In a hairshyraisingaccountoflifeinyouthgangsinColombiathewriterEfraimMedinaReyes claims that it is not uncommon for new gangmembers to beasked to murder innocent friends or members of their own familywhich pushes the test to the extreme42 Revolutionary and resistancegroups deemed to be illegal by the incumbent government have alsousedthesametestBeingaskedtocommitamurderwasforinstanceacommonpractice in theAlgerianFLNSometimes the leaderswouldpick victims more or less at random to see if prospective memberswouldobeyevenmeaninglessorders43
ThismethodexploitsthelawwhichrestrictsthelawshyabidingundershycoveragentsrsquooptionsandturnsittothecriminalsrsquoadvantageIfhowshyeverlawshyenforcementagenciesgivetheirundercoveroperativesgreaterdiscretion to act against the law for the sakeofpersuading thegrouptheyaretryingtoinfiltrateoftheirbonafidesthepowerofthesesignalsisweakened for theagentcannowaffordat least someof themThe
18 c h a p t e r 1
degreesoffreedomvaryfromtimetotimeandfromagencytoagencyPoliceinNewYorkarenowldquoinstructedtoavoidtakingthedrugsunless their lives are in dangerrdquoIfdealersreadtheNew York Timeswherethisinshyformationwaspublishedtheyknowthatforcingbuyerstoingestdrugsby threatening their lives isnowauseless test for itno longerdistinshyguishesgenuinebuyersfromundercoveragents
BeforediscussingthisproblemfurtherIwillpresentthecaseofFBIspecial agent Joseph Pistone aka Donnie Brasco who infiltrated theNewYorkmafiaandcameclosetobeinginitiatedIknowofnobettercase for illustratingall the typesofcostshydiscriminating signalsusedbycriminalsmdashand by those who try to fool them Donnie Brasco pershysuadedthemobstersofhiscriminalcredentialsbyemployingabreathshytakingrangeofsubtlesignalsandnarratedhisexperienceinabookmdasharguablythemostvividethnographyoftheUSmafiafromldquowithinrdquo44
Entering the mob world is needless to say very hardldquoAssociates ofwiseguysdonrsquotdealwithpeopletheydonrsquotknoworwhosomebodyelsedoesnrsquotvouchforrdquo45PriortoPistonersquosinfiltrationtheFBIlackedexpeshyrienceDuringJEdgarHooverrsquosreignatthebureauundercoverworkwasrarelyusedldquobecauseitcouldbeadirtyjobthatcouldenduptaintshyingtheagentsrdquo46AndalthoughithadbeenusedsinceldquosofarasweknewtheFBIhadneverplantedoneofitsownagentsinthemafiardquo47Yettheoperation itwas about to attemptwasextraordinarily shrewdPistoneneededtobuildawholebarrageofsignalswhichtakentogethercouldpersuadethemobstersthathewasarealbadguyAndthatiswhatheandhishandlerssetouttodomindingthatthelawconstrainedhisfreeshydomldquoTheFBIwouldnrsquotletmeactuallygooutonhijackingsandburshyglariesbecausethecrewwentarmedrdquoPistonewrites48
19 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
PistoneneededanamehedecideditwaseasiertosticktoDonnieBrasco the name he had used in a previous undercover operation inFloridaHeneededaplausiblebiographythatcouldbecheckedorbetshyterhardtocheckheposedasanorphanandabachelorHesaidhehadbeenraisedinanorphanageinPittsburghthatburneddowntherewereno records leftThe story needed to be simpleldquoThe fewer [lies] youhave to tell the feweryouhave torememberrdquohenotes49HesaidhehadspenttimeontheWestCoastandinFloridawhereinfacthehadbeenbeforeasldquoDonaldBrascordquointhepreviousoperationandhadesshytablishedsomecontactsHeneededaldquoprofessionrdquoandsettledonjewelrytheftsomethingonecandoaloneandthatdoesnotrequiretheuseofweaponsmdashsomething moreover that allowed him to use confiscatedstolen jewels to sell so he would not have to break the law to stealthem50
Hecouldcountonadvantagesthatwouldhavebeenhardtofakehadtheynotbeenpartofhis realbiographyHis Italianancestryprovidedhim with theldquorightrdquo ethnic background He had grown up in theldquorightrdquoneighborhoodandasayoungsterhungoutinldquojointsrdquopatronshyizedbywiseguysldquoYouhad tobe streetshysmartevencockysometimesEverygoodundercoveragentIhaveknowngrewuponthestreetlikeIdidandwasagoodstreetagentbeforebecominganundercoveragentOnthestreetyoulearnwhatrsquoswhatandwhorsquoswhoYoulearnhowtoreadsituationsandhandleyourselfYou cannot fake the ability It showsrdquo51
It is also interesting to know what he chose not to say or do Heavoided acting in a way that could raise suspicionldquoNo street guy isgoingtothrowmoneyallovertheplaceunlesshersquostryingtoattractatshytentionrdquoPistonereveals ldquoThenthequestionisWhyishetryingtoatshytractattentionrdquo52BydoingsoheeitherbecomesatargetinthatpeoplethinktheycanrobhimorraisessuspicionsthathemaybeacopDonshyniewasparsimonioustooinrevealingdetailsofhislifewhetherrealorphonyforldquoyouneverknowwhatpartofwhatyoudowillbecomepartofyourhistorywhenpeoplewanttocheckonyourdquo53
Ifthey[themobsters]werenrsquotscheminganddreamingtheyweretellingwarstoriesreminiscencesabouttheirtimeinvariousjailsandprisonsEverybodydidtimeinthecanItwaspartofthepriceofdoingbusinessTheyknewallaboutdifferent jailscellblocksguards I had enough phony background set up to establish mycredentialsasaseriouscriminaltoshowthatIwastoughenoughtodo time if Ihad towithout turningratBut I never claimed to have done any prison timebecause IdidnrsquotknowthoseplacesandthatcouldhavejustrippedmeupIfyoudothreetofiveyearsyouget to know the guardsmdashwhat guardrsquos on what tierYou get toknowtheinmatesguyswhoaredoingfifteentotwentyguyswhoarestillthereTheyknewthelingoandtheslangEverybodyreshymembersthoserelationshipsandthattime54
IndirectlyPistonersquos choice showswhat a robust signalhavingbeen inprison is It isnot something that canbeeasily fakedguyswhohavetrulybeentherewouldquicklyspotanimpostor
Donniewentonforacoupleofmonths
playing this game of being noticedwithout being noticed slideintothebadguyworldandbecomeacceptedwithoutdrawingatshytentionYoupushalittlehereandtherebutverygentlyBriefinshytroductions short conversations appearances one place and anshyotherhintsaboutwhatyoursquoreuptocasualmannerismsdemeanorand lingo that youknowyourway aroundmdashall these become atrail of credibility you leave behind youAbove all you cannothurryYoucannotseemeagertomeetcertainpeoplemakecertaincontactslearnaboutcertainscoresThe quickest way to get tagged as a cop is to try to move too fastYouhavetoshowthatyouhavethetime to play by the rules of the street and that includes lettingpeoplecheckyououtandcometoyou55
Hewouldphonethebar leavingmessages forhimself just toestablishthathehadconnectionsandconveythebeliefpeopleknewhepatronshyizedthebar57ldquoWhenIwentotherplacesIcouldsayrdquoPistonewritesldquolsquoIbeenhangingoutat thatplace for fourorfivemonthsrsquoAnd theycould check it outThe guys had been hanging around in this placewouldsaylsquoYeahDonBrascohasbeencominginhereforquiteawhileandheseemsallrightnevertriedtopullanythingonusrsquordquo58
Wealsoread ldquoYoucanrsquotgoinallthetimebyyourselfbecausetheythinkyoursquoreeitherafagoracopAnditrsquosgoodtovarycompanysotheydonrsquot see you with the same people all the time and wonder whatrsquosuprdquo59SoDonniewouldbringanoccasionalfemaleorChuckanotherundercover agentThanks to Chuck he was introduced toAlbertldquoahalfshyasswiseguyrdquoaconnectedshytobutnotamadememberof theCoshylombofamily
Donnie eventually became the proteacutegeacute of a made guy BenjaminldquoLeftyGunsrdquoRuggieroandspentsixyearswiththemafiosilivingtheirdaily lives and sharing their crooked dealingsmdashconstantly exposed totheriskofbeingdiscoveredandkilledInthecourseoftheoperationhewasofferedtheopportunitynotonlytohandlethebookmakingforthemob boss of Milwaukee Frank Balistrieri but also to get inside theskimmingoperationinLasVegasBalistrierisaidhehadagoodcrewbuttheywereldquoolderkindof set in theirways Icoulduse someyoungerguysthatIcouldtrusttotakeoveracoupleofmyclubsandotherbusishynessesYoungerguyswouldbeabletorelatetothewaysoftodayrsquosbusishynessworldrdquo62Leftyvouched forDonnieldquoI told [Balistrieri]rdquoDonnie
22 c h a p t e r 1
saysldquoyouaremybloodrdquo63ButacceptingwouldhavemadeitimpossibleforDonnietoseehisrealfamilysoheturneddowntheofferWhilethatdecisionangeredLeftyitalsoconferredanadvantageasitfurthersigshynaledDonniersquoscredibilityldquoOnethingIhadinmyfavorseenthroughanymobguyrsquoseyeswas thatno cop would ever turn that job downSo Iwouldbeabovesuspicioninthatregardrdquo64
Donniecameupwithmanyother signalsbelieved tobeof akindthat a cop could not afford He pretended to beat up someone whoowedmoney toLeftyHe roughedup a comedianwhohad annoyedLeftyattheThunderbirdaMiamirestaurant65Furthermoreldquotypicallywhatanundercovercopwilldo inabuyshybust situation is try tobuysomethingfromyouCops always buy never sellI was going to sellrdquoPistonereveals66mdashthankstothefactthattheFBIallowedhimdiscretioninthatregard One very special commodity he bought though Lefty RugshygierorsquosprotectionTheFBIdishedoutatotalof$40000forthispurposewhileDonniewasundercoverldquoTheywerepayinghimforhisservicesasalsquowiseguyrsquotoinsuretheyhadtheprotectionoftheBonannofamilyin the event another family tried to interfere with their businessrdquo67
WhilepaymentwasostensiblyaimedatcompensatingLeftyitwasalsoliterallyacostlysignalandintentionallydesignedtoappeartobesoldquoBygivinghimmoneyContiandRossi[twoundercoveragentswhocolshylaboratedwithDonnie] ledLefty tobelieve that theywerewilling tobecomeinvolvedwithhimandhe trusted them as bad guysrdquo68
Mafiosiwerenot taken inbecause theyweredumbratherPistonewasunbelievablysmartandresilientanditjustwasveryhardformobshysterstothinkthattakentogetherallthethingshedidanddidnotdowerenotnearshyperfectdiscriminatingsignalsTheFBIwaslatercriticizedforoperatingverynearorevenbeyondthe limitsof the lawBut thisrelative freedomfooledthemafiosibecause theyassumedthatanunshydercoveragentwouldnotpaythecostofbreakingthelawDivinecouldnothavebankedonherneatlittletestifagentsofthelawhadbeenalshylowedtoexposethemselvesThemobsterswerecheatednotjustinthesense thatDonnieBrascoby faking forging andpretending successshyfullymimickedarealbadguybutalsointhesensethathedidsomereal badactions
23 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
In a short biography ofBonanno familymembersmdashposted on theInternetforawhilethenremovedmdashLeftywasdescribedasldquothebiggestidiotinthehistoryofLaCosaNostraHisblindgreedandlackofinshystinctwerefelthardintheAmericanmafiardquoAndyetLeftywascarefulevenyearsafterDonniehadbeenacceptedasaconnectedguyDonniewasassistedbyotherundercoveragentsoneofwhomwasldquoRossirdquoTotestwhetherRossiwasanundercoveragentLeftydeliberatelyldquolostrdquoaplaneticketthatRossihadbookedonhisowncreditcardforLefty(thiswasacovertwayofpayingprotectiontoLefty)ldquoBypretendingtolosetheticketLeftywantedtoseehowRossi reactedIfhewasanagentLeftyreasonedhewouldgetnervousbecausehewouldprobablyhavetoaccount for the ticket tohisofficeplushewouldbeworried thatsomebodylsquointheunderworldbusinessrsquomightmeanwhilefindtheticketandcheckouttheAmericanExpressnumbertoseeifitwasagovernshymentnumberrdquo69
WhenitwasfinallyrevealedthatDonniewasanundercoveragentthemobsterswereshockedanddidnotbelieveittillDonnieactuallytestishyfied in court against them His operation managed to send many ofthemmostlymembersoftheBonannofamilytojail71
ThemobsterslearnedtheirlessonandincreasedthepriceofthetestsNow not just one butldquotwo mafiosi have to vouch for the proposedmemberrdquoldquoTheyhavetosaytheyhaveknowntheproposedmemberifnotsincechildhoodthenatleastforfifteentotwentyyearsrdquo72Accordshying to theFBI theyalso resumeda traditionalpractice thathadbeenabandonedldquoaproposedmembermustlsquomakehisbonesrsquoorkillsomeonebeforehecanbecomeamadeguyTheyhavedonesobecause no agent
24 c h a p t e r 1
would commit murder while posing as a bad guyrdquo73Murderisreallyapershyfectlydiscriminatingsignalofbeingabadguyasignalthatnoundershycover agentnot evenonebelonging to a rather lax lawshyenforcementagencycouldafford
Thisentryrequirementmdashwhichshowshowcriminalactscanbepershypetratednotmerelyfortheirimmediateinstrumentalvaluebutalsofortheir signaling valuemdashhad never been explicitly removed but it wasno longerusedwithgreat determination In truthDominickldquoSonnyBlackrdquoNapolitanowhoeventuallybecameDonniersquosmainmentorandplannedtoproposeDonnieformembershiphadaskedDonnietomurshydersomeoneldquoHegavemeacontractsothatIwouldhavethatcredenshytialwhenheputmynameuprdquoButtheopportunitytocarryitoutdidnotariseforAnthonyBrunoIndelicatotheintendedvictimwentsucshycessfullyintohidingDonnieshowedthathewasdoingallhecouldtotrackIndelicatodownanditwasnotthoughttobehisfaultwhenhefailedThusalthoughhedidnotcarryoutthekillinghestillmanagedtoshowhiswillingnesstodoitandafewmonthslaterSonnyputhisnameforwardformembershipAtthatpointtheFBIdecidedtostoptheoperationandDonnieresumedonceagainhisrealidentity
Undercoveragentsmdashwhohavetopersuadethegrouptheyaimtoinfilshytrateof theircriminalcredentialsmdasharea serious threat forunlikesolomimicstheycandrawontheresourcesofstateagenciesandcanaffordcomplexmimicryactswhichinvolveposingforgingcredentialstrainshyingandfundsStill itcanbenear impossibleto infiltrategroupsproshytected by an array of features that cannot be successfully imitatedmdashwhichinotherwordsperfectlydistinguishtherealfromthephonyFor
EvenaMuslimCIAofficerwithnativeshylanguageabilities(andtheAgencyaccordingtoseveralactiveshydutycaseofficershasveryfewoperativesfromMiddleEasternbackgrounds)coulddolittlemorein thisenvironment [PeshawarPakistan] thanablondblueshyeyedallshyAmericanCaseofficerscannotlongescapetheembassiesandconsulates in which they serveA US official overseasphotoshygraphedandregisteredwiththelocalintelligenceandsecuritysershyvicescanrsquottravelmuchparticularlyinapoliceshyrichcountrylikePakistanwithouttheldquohostrdquoservicesknowingaboutitAnofficerwho tries togonativepretending tobe a trueshybelieving radicalMuslim searching for brothers in the causewillmake a fool ofhimselfquickly
UndercoveroperationsareaproblematicformofanticrimeactivityforanotherreasonaswellThelogicofcostshydiscriminatingsignalsinclinesundercoveragentstogobeyondinnocentpretensionsandsupportinishytiativesof thesamekinda truecriminalor terroristwouldundertakeSincelawshyenforcementagenciesareunderpressuretokeeptheiragentssafetheypushfordiscretiontobegrantedtothemAndsometimestheundercoveragentsthemselvesunbeknownsttotheiremployerschoosetobreakthelawbecausetheyworryabouttheircredibilityintheeyesof the host group and the consequences if they are discoveredThememoirsofundercoveragentsandspiesarerepletewiththisdilemma
According to incomplete calculations there were about 6500agents provocateurs and other political investigations specialistsoperatinginvariouspoliticalpartiesandorganizationsintheRusshy
26 c h a p t e r 1
sianEmpireatthestartofthetwentiethcenturythepoliceandgendarmesoftensetprioritiesthemselvesattimesevenattheriskofthelivesofhighshyrankinggovernmentofficialsandmembersoftheimperialfamilyMattersconcerningthesecurityofthesecretagentswereoftoppriorityandmaintainingthestrongpositionsofagentswithintheterroristorganizationsof theSocialistshyRevolushytionarieswasconsideredmore important thanpreventingassassishynationsevenagainstofficialsofthegovernment75
AfamouscasewasthatofEvnoAzefanagentwhooperatedinrevolushytionary circles for aboutfifteen years From 1893on hewas a policeagentAsastudentinaGermanpolytechnicschoolhetooktheinitiashytiveofofferinghisservicestothepolicedepartmentat therateof50rublespermonth afterwhichhe attachedhimself to a foreigngroupcallingitselftheUnionofRussianSocialistshyRevolutionariesHeknewaboutthemajorityofterroristactsbeingplannedbytheSRsbuthedidnotalwaysreporttohisbossesaboutthemNeverthelessthepolicepaidhimwellforhisservices76
EpisodesofthiskindarenotrestrictedtopredemocraticsocietiesAnilluminatingcaseoccurredinCanadaAtitspeakin1993theHeritageFront was the largest and bestshyorganized neoshyNazi group in Canadaboastingacontactlistof1800namesGrantBristowcofounderandaleadingmemberofthiswhiteracistgroupturnedouttobeapaidinshyformantoftheCanadianSecurityIntelligenceServiceldquoBristoworchesshytrated aharassment campaign that terrorizedFront enemies harboredleadinginternationalracistsinhisownhomeinclearviolationofbothCSISrulesandtheImmigrationActandassistedintheFrontrsquosinfiltrashytionoftheReformPartyrdquo77ldquoCSISmoleGrantBristowwasanlsquoagentprovocateurrsquowhowithhisspymastersbrokeCanadianlawsandinternalCSISregulationsagroupofMPshaveconcludedBristowrsquosleadershyshiproleinthewhiteracistHeritageFrontthereportsuggestsmay have led to the very events that caused CSIS to keep him in place for several more yearsrdquo78 An inquiry by the Security Intelligence Review CommitteeintotheaffairplayeddowntheaccusationsbutitisclearfromthereportthattherewereseriousbreachesForinstanceontheissueofharassment
27 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
of antiracistmilitants and Jewish communitymembers thedocumentconcludesthatldquoanyinformantwhoenterstheHeritageFrontorasimishylargrouphastomaintainhiscredibilitywithhisassociatesotherwisehewouldnot remain a trustedmember for longThe questionwewerefacedwithwaswhethertheCSISsource[GrantBristow]hadremainedwithintheboundsofappropriatebehaviourwhiletryingtomaintainhiscredibilityTheanswerwearrivedatwasthatin certain circumstances he had not[emphasisintheoriginal]rdquo79
Eveniftheyareonlysupposedtocollectinformationoncriminalorsubversiveactivitiesspiesmayendupproducingmoreofsuchactivitieson theirown initiativeThey tend tobecomeagentsprovocateursnotnecessarilyfortheconspiratorialreasonswhyJosephConradrsquosprotagoshynistinThe Secret Agentdoes(VerlocwasinthepayofanunnamedforshyeignembassythatwantedtopersuadetheBritishtotakeatougherlineagainsttheanarchistsandusedhisdimshywittednephewtostageanldquoanarshychistrdquobombingattack)buttypicallyonlyoutoffearofnotbeingcredshyibleenoughandofriskingtheirlivesThecoststhatmaketheirsignalscredibleintheeyesoftheirtargetsareafterallldquoonlyrdquothoseofbreakinglegalconstraintsTheymayneverbecaughtgiventheintrinsicopacityofwhattheydoandifcaughttheyarenotsolikelytobepunishedcershytainlynotbydeathAndontheothersideoftheequationtheyhavetoconsider the personal costs of failing to persuadeWhen onersquos life isthreatened thecostsofbreakingthe lawmaysuddenlyappear smallerthanthoseofobeyingitThesetofthosewhoarereadytorisktheirlifesacrificetheirfamilyanddeceivedangerouscriminalsforlongperiodsoftimewhileatthesametimeremainingstrictlyalawshyabidingcitizenmustbeextremelysmall
ThisraisesaninterestingquandaryforthecriminalsorterroristswhoaretryingtotestthebonafidesofothersForbyincreasingtheseverityofthepunishmentmetedoutagainstundercoveragentswhoarediscovshyered they encourage the latter to afford costly signals that once disshyplayedmaymakeitimpossibleforthebadguystosaywhethertheposhytentialrecruitsareundercoveragentsinthefirstplace
undercover agentmayfind it preferable to refrain from swallowing itevenatthecostofrevealinghistruetypeforhedoesnotwanttobreakthelawBycontrasttherealcriminalwhowantstodealwiththedrugdealersmayprefertopaythecostofthephysicalillnesscausedbyswalshylowing forhe isentirelyateasewithbreaking the lawThekeyextracost that discriminates between the real criminal and the undercoveragentisthecostofbreakingthelawwhichthemimicfaceswhilethegenuinearticledoesnotAharsherpunishmenthowevercanreversetheequationandmakeitcheaperfortheundercoveragenttoswallowratherthannot swallowevenat thecostofbreaking the lawandthusmakehimbehaviorallyindistinguishablefromtherealcriminalWhenadminshyisteredunder the threatof theharsherpunishment the testno longerseparatesonetypefromtheotherByfailingtoappreciatethisquandaryandthreateningdeathagainstthosewhorefusetoswallowthedrugthedealers fail to realize that theyaredeactivating thevery sourceof thereliabilityoftheirtestforunderthatthreattheagentsarenowallowed(andwouldinanycasefeelinclined)toswallowthedrug
CONCLUSIONS
OncesomeoneintentoncrimeidentifiesapotentialpartnerasabonafidecriminalhehassolvedoneproblemonlytolandinanotherequallydifficultoneHenowhastoestablishwhetherhispartnerisnotjustacrookbutanhonorableoneAfterHughGrantexposedhimselfDivineknewthathewasnotanundercovercopforshebelievedthatcopsdonotdothatYetshestilldidnotknowwhatkindofacustomerhewasProstitutesareconstantlyonguardagainstrobbersorpervertswhoposeasordinarycustomers80AnyonewhoworksoutsidethelawismoreexshyposedthanordinarybusinessmentobecomingthepreyofothercrimishynalswhomimicbeingacriminalofthehonestsortAstreetshydrugdealerwhosuccessfullyadvertises tocustomersmayalsoattract robberswhopretend to be customers in order to get close to the dealers and robthem81Acriminalhastobeonguardagainstbothkindsofmimicslawshyenforcementagentsandcriminalsofthewrongsort
29 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
Ifhonestywerethoughttobeatraitofcertaincriminalsandnotothshyersinordertoestablishwhetherapotentialpartnerishonestonecouldfollowthesamestrategyoneusesforidentifyingwhethersomeoneisacriminal tobeginwithThe samekindof costly signalswouldbe reshyquiredforcriminalstopersuadeoneanotherthattheywerethehonesttypeIncertaincasesthegametheyplayisindeedoneofsignalingtheirtypeHowever inmost circumstancescriminals tend to thinkofeachotherasbeingof justonetypenamelythedishonestoneandbelievethatgivenhalfachancetheywilltakeadvantageofeachotherTheonlyway inwhich they can comealmost toldquotrustrdquo eachother enough tocooperateisthereforenotbysignalingtheirtypebuteitherbyenforcshyingtheirpartnersrsquohonestywiththethreatofsomekindofretaliationormoregenerallybyputtingthemselvesandtheirpartnersinaconditionwherebyldquohonestyrdquo rather thancheating is theirbest courseof actionwhatevertheirtypeIshallexploresomeofthestrategiestheyadoptinchapters2and3
16 c h a p t e r 1
the two pairs have solved the identification problem in the past Butwhatabouttheelementarycaseinwhichreferralsarenotavailableornotpersuasiveorsafeenoughmdashcantwoagentsthenfindadirectsolushytiontotheproblem
It is hard to observe someone committing a crime in the naturalcourseofeventsbutvillainscancertainlyaskapotentialpartnerorreshycruittogivethemevidenceofhavingcommittedcrimesandcandosowithout resorting to an intermediaryThis can work if the crimes inquestionleaveatracethatcanbeknownorpossessedonlybytherealperpetrator One cannot just say that one has committed a crimemdashaphonymayhavereadaboutitinthepaperandsimplybeclaimingtobetheperpetratorOnehastoshowthebootyasitwereasinthefollowingcasePoliceinfourteencountriesincludingtheUnitedStatesarrestednearlytwohundredsuspectedmembersofanInternetchildpornograshyphyringtheWonderlandClubTojointheringonehadtoshowthatonepossessedtenthousandphotographsandbepreparedtosharethemwith other membersThe photographs were screened by a computerprogramwhichcheckedwhethertheyweredifferentfromoneanotherand fromthosealreadyavailable fromother sources37Thisaction sigshynaledthatprospectivemembershadcommittedacrimeandwereserishyouslycommittedtotheactivityofcommoninterestandcouldnotthusbeundercoveragents(Ireturntothiscaseinchapter3)
UltimatelycriminalscanalsoaskapotentialpartnerorrecruittoenshygageinadisplaycrimemdashanactthatanoncriminalwouldneverdomdashandtocommitthecrimeundertheireyesorinsuchawayastoleaveanunmistakablesignofauthorshipThenatureoftheillegalactrequesteddependsonthetypeofcrimeinwhichtheagentsareinvolvedandthelawsthatgovernitDivinetheLosAngelesprostitutewhoachievedherfifteenminutesoffameforadministeringoralsextoBritishactorHughGrant in 1995 revealedherparticularkindof testBefore agreeing totradesheaskedGranttoexposehimselfThereasonshesaidisthatanundercoverpolicemanwouldnotdothatforhewouldbebreakingthelawDivinebelievedonewondershowaccuratelythatexposingoneselfwasasignalonlyrealcustomerscouldafford
The same reasoning inspires a test appliedbydrugdealers inNew
17 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
YorkSincethemidshy1990sldquoaspolicehave intensifiedtheirassault thedealershavealsoadoptedmoreperilous tacticsFiveor six timeseachmonthundercoverinvestigatorsarenowforcedtousecocaineorheroinatgunpointtoprovetodealersthattheycanbetrustedAtleasttwiceamonth anofficer is shotorotherwisewoundedduring a stagedpurshychasesaypolicecommanderswhospokeonconditionofanonymityrdquo38
These kinds of tests are common in organizationswhere loyalty isparamount Before initiation mafia novicesmdashespecially those not alshyreadymembersoffamilieswithamafiatraditionmdashareaskedtocommitamurder(sometimeswouldshybemembersmovefirstandcommitseriouscrimesbeforeanyoneaskedthemtodoso)39Themafiausuallydoesnotkill anyonepurely for the sakeof a testmdashit optimizes byldquowhackingrdquosomeonewhowasmeanttobewhackedanywayand atthesametimetrying out the determination and bona fides of a noviceTheAryanBrotherhoodinprisonadoptedthesametesttogainmembershipcanshydidatesldquohadtokillwhomevertheBrotherhoodtargetedrdquo40AkindredoutfitknownastheAryanWarriorsalsorequiredwouldshybememberstopassatestldquousuallyabloodyassaultorinsomeinstancesadrugripshyofffrom a person outside of the brotherhoodrdquo41 But there are cases inwhichheinous crimes are committed purely as tests In a hairshyraisingaccountoflifeinyouthgangsinColombiathewriterEfraimMedinaReyes claims that it is not uncommon for new gangmembers to beasked to murder innocent friends or members of their own familywhich pushes the test to the extreme42 Revolutionary and resistancegroups deemed to be illegal by the incumbent government have alsousedthesametestBeingaskedtocommitamurderwasforinstanceacommonpractice in theAlgerianFLNSometimes the leaderswouldpick victims more or less at random to see if prospective memberswouldobeyevenmeaninglessorders43
ThismethodexploitsthelawwhichrestrictsthelawshyabidingundershycoveragentsrsquooptionsandturnsittothecriminalsrsquoadvantageIfhowshyeverlawshyenforcementagenciesgivetheirundercoveroperativesgreaterdiscretion to act against the law for the sakeofpersuading thegrouptheyaretryingtoinfiltrateoftheirbonafidesthepowerofthesesignalsisweakened for theagentcannowaffordat least someof themThe
18 c h a p t e r 1
degreesoffreedomvaryfromtimetotimeandfromagencytoagencyPoliceinNewYorkarenowldquoinstructedtoavoidtakingthedrugsunless their lives are in dangerrdquoIfdealersreadtheNew York Timeswherethisinshyformationwaspublishedtheyknowthatforcingbuyerstoingestdrugsby threatening their lives isnowauseless test for itno longerdistinshyguishesgenuinebuyersfromundercoveragents
BeforediscussingthisproblemfurtherIwillpresentthecaseofFBIspecial agent Joseph Pistone aka Donnie Brasco who infiltrated theNewYorkmafiaandcameclosetobeinginitiatedIknowofnobettercase for illustratingall the typesofcostshydiscriminating signalsusedbycriminalsmdashand by those who try to fool them Donnie Brasco pershysuadedthemobstersofhiscriminalcredentialsbyemployingabreathshytakingrangeofsubtlesignalsandnarratedhisexperienceinabookmdasharguablythemostvividethnographyoftheUSmafiafromldquowithinrdquo44
Entering the mob world is needless to say very hardldquoAssociates ofwiseguysdonrsquotdealwithpeopletheydonrsquotknoworwhosomebodyelsedoesnrsquotvouchforrdquo45PriortoPistonersquosinfiltrationtheFBIlackedexpeshyrienceDuringJEdgarHooverrsquosreignatthebureauundercoverworkwasrarelyusedldquobecauseitcouldbeadirtyjobthatcouldenduptaintshyingtheagentsrdquo46AndalthoughithadbeenusedsinceldquosofarasweknewtheFBIhadneverplantedoneofitsownagentsinthemafiardquo47Yettheoperation itwas about to attemptwasextraordinarily shrewdPistoneneededtobuildawholebarrageofsignalswhichtakentogethercouldpersuadethemobstersthathewasarealbadguyAndthatiswhatheandhishandlerssetouttodomindingthatthelawconstrainedhisfreeshydomldquoTheFBIwouldnrsquotletmeactuallygooutonhijackingsandburshyglariesbecausethecrewwentarmedrdquoPistonewrites48
19 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
PistoneneededanamehedecideditwaseasiertosticktoDonnieBrasco the name he had used in a previous undercover operation inFloridaHeneededaplausiblebiographythatcouldbecheckedorbetshyterhardtocheckheposedasanorphanandabachelorHesaidhehadbeenraisedinanorphanageinPittsburghthatburneddowntherewereno records leftThe story needed to be simpleldquoThe fewer [lies] youhave to tell the feweryouhave torememberrdquohenotes49HesaidhehadspenttimeontheWestCoastandinFloridawhereinfacthehadbeenbeforeasldquoDonaldBrascordquointhepreviousoperationandhadesshytablishedsomecontactsHeneededaldquoprofessionrdquoandsettledonjewelrytheftsomethingonecandoaloneandthatdoesnotrequiretheuseofweaponsmdashsomething moreover that allowed him to use confiscatedstolen jewels to sell so he would not have to break the law to stealthem50
Hecouldcountonadvantagesthatwouldhavebeenhardtofakehadtheynotbeenpartofhis realbiographyHis Italianancestryprovidedhim with theldquorightrdquo ethnic background He had grown up in theldquorightrdquoneighborhoodandasayoungsterhungoutinldquojointsrdquopatronshyizedbywiseguysldquoYouhad tobe streetshysmartevencockysometimesEverygoodundercoveragentIhaveknowngrewuponthestreetlikeIdidandwasagoodstreetagentbeforebecominganundercoveragentOnthestreetyoulearnwhatrsquoswhatandwhorsquoswhoYoulearnhowtoreadsituationsandhandleyourselfYou cannot fake the ability It showsrdquo51
It is also interesting to know what he chose not to say or do Heavoided acting in a way that could raise suspicionldquoNo street guy isgoingtothrowmoneyallovertheplaceunlesshersquostryingtoattractatshytentionrdquoPistonereveals ldquoThenthequestionisWhyishetryingtoatshytractattentionrdquo52BydoingsoheeitherbecomesatargetinthatpeoplethinktheycanrobhimorraisessuspicionsthathemaybeacopDonshyniewasparsimonioustooinrevealingdetailsofhislifewhetherrealorphonyforldquoyouneverknowwhatpartofwhatyoudowillbecomepartofyourhistorywhenpeoplewanttocheckonyourdquo53
Ifthey[themobsters]werenrsquotscheminganddreamingtheyweretellingwarstoriesreminiscencesabouttheirtimeinvariousjailsandprisonsEverybodydidtimeinthecanItwaspartofthepriceofdoingbusinessTheyknewallaboutdifferent jailscellblocksguards I had enough phony background set up to establish mycredentialsasaseriouscriminaltoshowthatIwastoughenoughtodo time if Ihad towithout turningratBut I never claimed to have done any prison timebecause IdidnrsquotknowthoseplacesandthatcouldhavejustrippedmeupIfyoudothreetofiveyearsyouget to know the guardsmdashwhat guardrsquos on what tierYou get toknowtheinmatesguyswhoaredoingfifteentotwentyguyswhoarestillthereTheyknewthelingoandtheslangEverybodyreshymembersthoserelationshipsandthattime54
IndirectlyPistonersquos choice showswhat a robust signalhavingbeen inprison is It isnot something that canbeeasily fakedguyswhohavetrulybeentherewouldquicklyspotanimpostor
Donniewentonforacoupleofmonths
playing this game of being noticedwithout being noticed slideintothebadguyworldandbecomeacceptedwithoutdrawingatshytentionYoupushalittlehereandtherebutverygentlyBriefinshytroductions short conversations appearances one place and anshyotherhintsaboutwhatyoursquoreuptocasualmannerismsdemeanorand lingo that youknowyourway aroundmdashall these become atrail of credibility you leave behind youAbove all you cannothurryYoucannotseemeagertomeetcertainpeoplemakecertaincontactslearnaboutcertainscoresThe quickest way to get tagged as a cop is to try to move too fastYouhavetoshowthatyouhavethetime to play by the rules of the street and that includes lettingpeoplecheckyououtandcometoyou55
Hewouldphonethebar leavingmessages forhimself just toestablishthathehadconnectionsandconveythebeliefpeopleknewhepatronshyizedthebar57ldquoWhenIwentotherplacesIcouldsayrdquoPistonewritesldquolsquoIbeenhangingoutat thatplace for fourorfivemonthsrsquoAnd theycould check it outThe guys had been hanging around in this placewouldsaylsquoYeahDonBrascohasbeencominginhereforquiteawhileandheseemsallrightnevertriedtopullanythingonusrsquordquo58
Wealsoread ldquoYoucanrsquotgoinallthetimebyyourselfbecausetheythinkyoursquoreeitherafagoracopAnditrsquosgoodtovarycompanysotheydonrsquot see you with the same people all the time and wonder whatrsquosuprdquo59SoDonniewouldbringanoccasionalfemaleorChuckanotherundercover agentThanks to Chuck he was introduced toAlbertldquoahalfshyasswiseguyrdquoaconnectedshytobutnotamadememberof theCoshylombofamily
Donnie eventually became the proteacutegeacute of a made guy BenjaminldquoLeftyGunsrdquoRuggieroandspentsixyearswiththemafiosilivingtheirdaily lives and sharing their crooked dealingsmdashconstantly exposed totheriskofbeingdiscoveredandkilledInthecourseoftheoperationhewasofferedtheopportunitynotonlytohandlethebookmakingforthemob boss of Milwaukee Frank Balistrieri but also to get inside theskimmingoperationinLasVegasBalistrierisaidhehadagoodcrewbuttheywereldquoolderkindof set in theirways Icoulduse someyoungerguysthatIcouldtrusttotakeoveracoupleofmyclubsandotherbusishynessesYoungerguyswouldbeabletorelatetothewaysoftodayrsquosbusishynessworldrdquo62Leftyvouched forDonnieldquoI told [Balistrieri]rdquoDonnie
22 c h a p t e r 1
saysldquoyouaremybloodrdquo63ButacceptingwouldhavemadeitimpossibleforDonnietoseehisrealfamilysoheturneddowntheofferWhilethatdecisionangeredLeftyitalsoconferredanadvantageasitfurthersigshynaledDonniersquoscredibilityldquoOnethingIhadinmyfavorseenthroughanymobguyrsquoseyeswas thatno cop would ever turn that job downSo Iwouldbeabovesuspicioninthatregardrdquo64
Donniecameupwithmanyother signalsbelieved tobeof akindthat a cop could not afford He pretended to beat up someone whoowedmoney toLeftyHe roughedup a comedianwhohad annoyedLeftyattheThunderbirdaMiamirestaurant65Furthermoreldquotypicallywhatanundercovercopwilldo inabuyshybust situation is try tobuysomethingfromyouCops always buy never sellI was going to sellrdquoPistonereveals66mdashthankstothefactthattheFBIallowedhimdiscretioninthatregard One very special commodity he bought though Lefty RugshygierorsquosprotectionTheFBIdishedoutatotalof$40000forthispurposewhileDonniewasundercoverldquoTheywerepayinghimforhisservicesasalsquowiseguyrsquotoinsuretheyhadtheprotectionoftheBonannofamilyin the event another family tried to interfere with their businessrdquo67
WhilepaymentwasostensiblyaimedatcompensatingLeftyitwasalsoliterallyacostlysignalandintentionallydesignedtoappeartobesoldquoBygivinghimmoneyContiandRossi[twoundercoveragentswhocolshylaboratedwithDonnie] ledLefty tobelieve that theywerewilling tobecomeinvolvedwithhimandhe trusted them as bad guysrdquo68
Mafiosiwerenot taken inbecause theyweredumbratherPistonewasunbelievablysmartandresilientanditjustwasveryhardformobshysterstothinkthattakentogetherallthethingshedidanddidnotdowerenotnearshyperfectdiscriminatingsignalsTheFBIwaslatercriticizedforoperatingverynearorevenbeyondthe limitsof the lawBut thisrelative freedomfooledthemafiosibecause theyassumedthatanunshydercoveragentwouldnotpaythecostofbreakingthelawDivinecouldnothavebankedonherneatlittletestifagentsofthelawhadbeenalshylowedtoexposethemselvesThemobsterswerecheatednotjustinthesense thatDonnieBrascoby faking forging andpretending successshyfullymimickedarealbadguybutalsointhesensethathedidsomereal badactions
23 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
In a short biography ofBonanno familymembersmdashposted on theInternetforawhilethenremovedmdashLeftywasdescribedasldquothebiggestidiotinthehistoryofLaCosaNostraHisblindgreedandlackofinshystinctwerefelthardintheAmericanmafiardquoAndyetLeftywascarefulevenyearsafterDonniehadbeenacceptedasaconnectedguyDonniewasassistedbyotherundercoveragentsoneofwhomwasldquoRossirdquoTotestwhetherRossiwasanundercoveragentLeftydeliberatelyldquolostrdquoaplaneticketthatRossihadbookedonhisowncreditcardforLefty(thiswasacovertwayofpayingprotectiontoLefty)ldquoBypretendingtolosetheticketLeftywantedtoseehowRossi reactedIfhewasanagentLeftyreasonedhewouldgetnervousbecausehewouldprobablyhavetoaccount for the ticket tohisofficeplushewouldbeworried thatsomebodylsquointheunderworldbusinessrsquomightmeanwhilefindtheticketandcheckouttheAmericanExpressnumbertoseeifitwasagovernshymentnumberrdquo69
WhenitwasfinallyrevealedthatDonniewasanundercoveragentthemobsterswereshockedanddidnotbelieveittillDonnieactuallytestishyfied in court against them His operation managed to send many ofthemmostlymembersoftheBonannofamilytojail71
ThemobsterslearnedtheirlessonandincreasedthepriceofthetestsNow not just one butldquotwo mafiosi have to vouch for the proposedmemberrdquoldquoTheyhavetosaytheyhaveknowntheproposedmemberifnotsincechildhoodthenatleastforfifteentotwentyyearsrdquo72Accordshying to theFBI theyalso resumeda traditionalpractice thathadbeenabandonedldquoaproposedmembermustlsquomakehisbonesrsquoorkillsomeonebeforehecanbecomeamadeguyTheyhavedonesobecause no agent
24 c h a p t e r 1
would commit murder while posing as a bad guyrdquo73Murderisreallyapershyfectlydiscriminatingsignalofbeingabadguyasignalthatnoundershycover agentnot evenonebelonging to a rather lax lawshyenforcementagencycouldafford
Thisentryrequirementmdashwhichshowshowcriminalactscanbepershypetratednotmerelyfortheirimmediateinstrumentalvaluebutalsofortheir signaling valuemdashhad never been explicitly removed but it wasno longerusedwithgreat determination In truthDominickldquoSonnyBlackrdquoNapolitanowhoeventuallybecameDonniersquosmainmentorandplannedtoproposeDonnieformembershiphadaskedDonnietomurshydersomeoneldquoHegavemeacontractsothatIwouldhavethatcredenshytialwhenheputmynameuprdquoButtheopportunitytocarryitoutdidnotariseforAnthonyBrunoIndelicatotheintendedvictimwentsucshycessfullyintohidingDonnieshowedthathewasdoingallhecouldtotrackIndelicatodownanditwasnotthoughttobehisfaultwhenhefailedThusalthoughhedidnotcarryoutthekillinghestillmanagedtoshowhiswillingnesstodoitandafewmonthslaterSonnyputhisnameforwardformembershipAtthatpointtheFBIdecidedtostoptheoperationandDonnieresumedonceagainhisrealidentity
Undercoveragentsmdashwhohavetopersuadethegrouptheyaimtoinfilshytrateof theircriminalcredentialsmdasharea serious threat forunlikesolomimicstheycandrawontheresourcesofstateagenciesandcanaffordcomplexmimicryactswhichinvolveposingforgingcredentialstrainshyingandfundsStill itcanbenear impossibleto infiltrategroupsproshytected by an array of features that cannot be successfully imitatedmdashwhichinotherwordsperfectlydistinguishtherealfromthephonyFor
EvenaMuslimCIAofficerwithnativeshylanguageabilities(andtheAgencyaccordingtoseveralactiveshydutycaseofficershasveryfewoperativesfromMiddleEasternbackgrounds)coulddolittlemorein thisenvironment [PeshawarPakistan] thanablondblueshyeyedallshyAmericanCaseofficerscannotlongescapetheembassiesandconsulates in which they serveA US official overseasphotoshygraphedandregisteredwiththelocalintelligenceandsecuritysershyvicescanrsquottravelmuchparticularlyinapoliceshyrichcountrylikePakistanwithouttheldquohostrdquoservicesknowingaboutitAnofficerwho tries togonativepretending tobe a trueshybelieving radicalMuslim searching for brothers in the causewillmake a fool ofhimselfquickly
UndercoveroperationsareaproblematicformofanticrimeactivityforanotherreasonaswellThelogicofcostshydiscriminatingsignalsinclinesundercoveragentstogobeyondinnocentpretensionsandsupportinishytiativesof thesamekinda truecriminalor terroristwouldundertakeSincelawshyenforcementagenciesareunderpressuretokeeptheiragentssafetheypushfordiscretiontobegrantedtothemAndsometimestheundercoveragentsthemselvesunbeknownsttotheiremployerschoosetobreakthelawbecausetheyworryabouttheircredibilityintheeyesof the host group and the consequences if they are discoveredThememoirsofundercoveragentsandspiesarerepletewiththisdilemma
According to incomplete calculations there were about 6500agents provocateurs and other political investigations specialistsoperatinginvariouspoliticalpartiesandorganizationsintheRusshy
26 c h a p t e r 1
sianEmpireatthestartofthetwentiethcenturythepoliceandgendarmesoftensetprioritiesthemselvesattimesevenattheriskofthelivesofhighshyrankinggovernmentofficialsandmembersoftheimperialfamilyMattersconcerningthesecurityofthesecretagentswereoftoppriorityandmaintainingthestrongpositionsofagentswithintheterroristorganizationsof theSocialistshyRevolushytionarieswasconsideredmore important thanpreventingassassishynationsevenagainstofficialsofthegovernment75
AfamouscasewasthatofEvnoAzefanagentwhooperatedinrevolushytionary circles for aboutfifteen years From 1893on hewas a policeagentAsastudentinaGermanpolytechnicschoolhetooktheinitiashytiveofofferinghisservicestothepolicedepartmentat therateof50rublespermonth afterwhichhe attachedhimself to a foreigngroupcallingitselftheUnionofRussianSocialistshyRevolutionariesHeknewaboutthemajorityofterroristactsbeingplannedbytheSRsbuthedidnotalwaysreporttohisbossesaboutthemNeverthelessthepolicepaidhimwellforhisservices76
EpisodesofthiskindarenotrestrictedtopredemocraticsocietiesAnilluminatingcaseoccurredinCanadaAtitspeakin1993theHeritageFront was the largest and bestshyorganized neoshyNazi group in Canadaboastingacontactlistof1800namesGrantBristowcofounderandaleadingmemberofthiswhiteracistgroupturnedouttobeapaidinshyformantoftheCanadianSecurityIntelligenceServiceldquoBristoworchesshytrated aharassment campaign that terrorizedFront enemies harboredleadinginternationalracistsinhisownhomeinclearviolationofbothCSISrulesandtheImmigrationActandassistedintheFrontrsquosinfiltrashytionoftheReformPartyrdquo77ldquoCSISmoleGrantBristowwasanlsquoagentprovocateurrsquowhowithhisspymastersbrokeCanadianlawsandinternalCSISregulationsagroupofMPshaveconcludedBristowrsquosleadershyshiproleinthewhiteracistHeritageFrontthereportsuggestsmay have led to the very events that caused CSIS to keep him in place for several more yearsrdquo78 An inquiry by the Security Intelligence Review CommitteeintotheaffairplayeddowntheaccusationsbutitisclearfromthereportthattherewereseriousbreachesForinstanceontheissueofharassment
27 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
of antiracistmilitants and Jewish communitymembers thedocumentconcludesthatldquoanyinformantwhoenterstheHeritageFrontorasimishylargrouphastomaintainhiscredibilitywithhisassociatesotherwisehewouldnot remain a trustedmember for longThe questionwewerefacedwithwaswhethertheCSISsource[GrantBristow]hadremainedwithintheboundsofappropriatebehaviourwhiletryingtomaintainhiscredibilityTheanswerwearrivedatwasthatin certain circumstances he had not[emphasisintheoriginal]rdquo79
Eveniftheyareonlysupposedtocollectinformationoncriminalorsubversiveactivitiesspiesmayendupproducingmoreofsuchactivitieson theirown initiativeThey tend tobecomeagentsprovocateursnotnecessarilyfortheconspiratorialreasonswhyJosephConradrsquosprotagoshynistinThe Secret Agentdoes(VerlocwasinthepayofanunnamedforshyeignembassythatwantedtopersuadetheBritishtotakeatougherlineagainsttheanarchistsandusedhisdimshywittednephewtostageanldquoanarshychistrdquobombingattack)buttypicallyonlyoutoffearofnotbeingcredshyibleenoughandofriskingtheirlivesThecoststhatmaketheirsignalscredibleintheeyesoftheirtargetsareafterallldquoonlyrdquothoseofbreakinglegalconstraintsTheymayneverbecaughtgiventheintrinsicopacityofwhattheydoandifcaughttheyarenotsolikelytobepunishedcershytainlynotbydeathAndontheothersideoftheequationtheyhavetoconsider the personal costs of failing to persuadeWhen onersquos life isthreatened thecostsofbreakingthe lawmaysuddenlyappear smallerthanthoseofobeyingitThesetofthosewhoarereadytorisktheirlifesacrificetheirfamilyanddeceivedangerouscriminalsforlongperiodsoftimewhileatthesametimeremainingstrictlyalawshyabidingcitizenmustbeextremelysmall
ThisraisesaninterestingquandaryforthecriminalsorterroristswhoaretryingtotestthebonafidesofothersForbyincreasingtheseverityofthepunishmentmetedoutagainstundercoveragentswhoarediscovshyered they encourage the latter to afford costly signals that once disshyplayedmaymakeitimpossibleforthebadguystosaywhethertheposhytentialrecruitsareundercoveragentsinthefirstplace
undercover agentmayfind it preferable to refrain from swallowing itevenatthecostofrevealinghistruetypeforhedoesnotwanttobreakthelawBycontrasttherealcriminalwhowantstodealwiththedrugdealersmayprefertopaythecostofthephysicalillnesscausedbyswalshylowing forhe isentirelyateasewithbreaking the lawThekeyextracost that discriminates between the real criminal and the undercoveragentisthecostofbreakingthelawwhichthemimicfaceswhilethegenuinearticledoesnotAharsherpunishmenthowevercanreversetheequationandmakeitcheaperfortheundercoveragenttoswallowratherthannot swallowevenat thecostofbreaking the lawandthusmakehimbehaviorallyindistinguishablefromtherealcriminalWhenadminshyisteredunder the threatof theharsherpunishment the testno longerseparatesonetypefromtheotherByfailingtoappreciatethisquandaryandthreateningdeathagainstthosewhorefusetoswallowthedrugthedealers fail to realize that theyaredeactivating thevery sourceof thereliabilityoftheirtestforunderthatthreattheagentsarenowallowed(andwouldinanycasefeelinclined)toswallowthedrug
CONCLUSIONS
OncesomeoneintentoncrimeidentifiesapotentialpartnerasabonafidecriminalhehassolvedoneproblemonlytolandinanotherequallydifficultoneHenowhastoestablishwhetherhispartnerisnotjustacrookbutanhonorableoneAfterHughGrantexposedhimselfDivineknewthathewasnotanundercovercopforshebelievedthatcopsdonotdothatYetshestilldidnotknowwhatkindofacustomerhewasProstitutesareconstantlyonguardagainstrobbersorpervertswhoposeasordinarycustomers80AnyonewhoworksoutsidethelawismoreexshyposedthanordinarybusinessmentobecomingthepreyofothercrimishynalswhomimicbeingacriminalofthehonestsortAstreetshydrugdealerwhosuccessfullyadvertises tocustomersmayalsoattract robberswhopretend to be customers in order to get close to the dealers and robthem81Acriminalhastobeonguardagainstbothkindsofmimicslawshyenforcementagentsandcriminalsofthewrongsort
29 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
Ifhonestywerethoughttobeatraitofcertaincriminalsandnotothshyersinordertoestablishwhetherapotentialpartnerishonestonecouldfollowthesamestrategyoneusesforidentifyingwhethersomeoneisacriminal tobeginwithThe samekindof costly signalswouldbe reshyquiredforcriminalstopersuadeoneanotherthattheywerethehonesttypeIncertaincasesthegametheyplayisindeedoneofsignalingtheirtypeHowever inmost circumstancescriminals tend to thinkofeachotherasbeingof justonetypenamelythedishonestoneandbelievethatgivenhalfachancetheywilltakeadvantageofeachotherTheonlyway inwhich they can comealmost toldquotrustrdquo eachother enough tocooperateisthereforenotbysignalingtheirtypebuteitherbyenforcshyingtheirpartnersrsquohonestywiththethreatofsomekindofretaliationormoregenerallybyputtingthemselvesandtheirpartnersinaconditionwherebyldquohonestyrdquo rather thancheating is theirbest courseof actionwhatevertheirtypeIshallexploresomeofthestrategiestheyadoptinchapters2and3
17 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
YorkSincethemidshy1990sldquoaspolicehave intensifiedtheirassault thedealershavealsoadoptedmoreperilous tacticsFiveor six timeseachmonthundercoverinvestigatorsarenowforcedtousecocaineorheroinatgunpointtoprovetodealersthattheycanbetrustedAtleasttwiceamonth anofficer is shotorotherwisewoundedduring a stagedpurshychasesaypolicecommanderswhospokeonconditionofanonymityrdquo38
These kinds of tests are common in organizationswhere loyalty isparamount Before initiation mafia novicesmdashespecially those not alshyreadymembersoffamilieswithamafiatraditionmdashareaskedtocommitamurder(sometimeswouldshybemembersmovefirstandcommitseriouscrimesbeforeanyoneaskedthemtodoso)39Themafiausuallydoesnotkill anyonepurely for the sakeof a testmdashit optimizes byldquowhackingrdquosomeonewhowasmeanttobewhackedanywayand atthesametimetrying out the determination and bona fides of a noviceTheAryanBrotherhoodinprisonadoptedthesametesttogainmembershipcanshydidatesldquohadtokillwhomevertheBrotherhoodtargetedrdquo40AkindredoutfitknownastheAryanWarriorsalsorequiredwouldshybememberstopassatestldquousuallyabloodyassaultorinsomeinstancesadrugripshyofffrom a person outside of the brotherhoodrdquo41 But there are cases inwhichheinous crimes are committed purely as tests In a hairshyraisingaccountoflifeinyouthgangsinColombiathewriterEfraimMedinaReyes claims that it is not uncommon for new gangmembers to beasked to murder innocent friends or members of their own familywhich pushes the test to the extreme42 Revolutionary and resistancegroups deemed to be illegal by the incumbent government have alsousedthesametestBeingaskedtocommitamurderwasforinstanceacommonpractice in theAlgerianFLNSometimes the leaderswouldpick victims more or less at random to see if prospective memberswouldobeyevenmeaninglessorders43
ThismethodexploitsthelawwhichrestrictsthelawshyabidingundershycoveragentsrsquooptionsandturnsittothecriminalsrsquoadvantageIfhowshyeverlawshyenforcementagenciesgivetheirundercoveroperativesgreaterdiscretion to act against the law for the sakeofpersuading thegrouptheyaretryingtoinfiltrateoftheirbonafidesthepowerofthesesignalsisweakened for theagentcannowaffordat least someof themThe
18 c h a p t e r 1
degreesoffreedomvaryfromtimetotimeandfromagencytoagencyPoliceinNewYorkarenowldquoinstructedtoavoidtakingthedrugsunless their lives are in dangerrdquoIfdealersreadtheNew York Timeswherethisinshyformationwaspublishedtheyknowthatforcingbuyerstoingestdrugsby threatening their lives isnowauseless test for itno longerdistinshyguishesgenuinebuyersfromundercoveragents
BeforediscussingthisproblemfurtherIwillpresentthecaseofFBIspecial agent Joseph Pistone aka Donnie Brasco who infiltrated theNewYorkmafiaandcameclosetobeinginitiatedIknowofnobettercase for illustratingall the typesofcostshydiscriminating signalsusedbycriminalsmdashand by those who try to fool them Donnie Brasco pershysuadedthemobstersofhiscriminalcredentialsbyemployingabreathshytakingrangeofsubtlesignalsandnarratedhisexperienceinabookmdasharguablythemostvividethnographyoftheUSmafiafromldquowithinrdquo44
Entering the mob world is needless to say very hardldquoAssociates ofwiseguysdonrsquotdealwithpeopletheydonrsquotknoworwhosomebodyelsedoesnrsquotvouchforrdquo45PriortoPistonersquosinfiltrationtheFBIlackedexpeshyrienceDuringJEdgarHooverrsquosreignatthebureauundercoverworkwasrarelyusedldquobecauseitcouldbeadirtyjobthatcouldenduptaintshyingtheagentsrdquo46AndalthoughithadbeenusedsinceldquosofarasweknewtheFBIhadneverplantedoneofitsownagentsinthemafiardquo47Yettheoperation itwas about to attemptwasextraordinarily shrewdPistoneneededtobuildawholebarrageofsignalswhichtakentogethercouldpersuadethemobstersthathewasarealbadguyAndthatiswhatheandhishandlerssetouttodomindingthatthelawconstrainedhisfreeshydomldquoTheFBIwouldnrsquotletmeactuallygooutonhijackingsandburshyglariesbecausethecrewwentarmedrdquoPistonewrites48
19 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
PistoneneededanamehedecideditwaseasiertosticktoDonnieBrasco the name he had used in a previous undercover operation inFloridaHeneededaplausiblebiographythatcouldbecheckedorbetshyterhardtocheckheposedasanorphanandabachelorHesaidhehadbeenraisedinanorphanageinPittsburghthatburneddowntherewereno records leftThe story needed to be simpleldquoThe fewer [lies] youhave to tell the feweryouhave torememberrdquohenotes49HesaidhehadspenttimeontheWestCoastandinFloridawhereinfacthehadbeenbeforeasldquoDonaldBrascordquointhepreviousoperationandhadesshytablishedsomecontactsHeneededaldquoprofessionrdquoandsettledonjewelrytheftsomethingonecandoaloneandthatdoesnotrequiretheuseofweaponsmdashsomething moreover that allowed him to use confiscatedstolen jewels to sell so he would not have to break the law to stealthem50
Hecouldcountonadvantagesthatwouldhavebeenhardtofakehadtheynotbeenpartofhis realbiographyHis Italianancestryprovidedhim with theldquorightrdquo ethnic background He had grown up in theldquorightrdquoneighborhoodandasayoungsterhungoutinldquojointsrdquopatronshyizedbywiseguysldquoYouhad tobe streetshysmartevencockysometimesEverygoodundercoveragentIhaveknowngrewuponthestreetlikeIdidandwasagoodstreetagentbeforebecominganundercoveragentOnthestreetyoulearnwhatrsquoswhatandwhorsquoswhoYoulearnhowtoreadsituationsandhandleyourselfYou cannot fake the ability It showsrdquo51
It is also interesting to know what he chose not to say or do Heavoided acting in a way that could raise suspicionldquoNo street guy isgoingtothrowmoneyallovertheplaceunlesshersquostryingtoattractatshytentionrdquoPistonereveals ldquoThenthequestionisWhyishetryingtoatshytractattentionrdquo52BydoingsoheeitherbecomesatargetinthatpeoplethinktheycanrobhimorraisessuspicionsthathemaybeacopDonshyniewasparsimonioustooinrevealingdetailsofhislifewhetherrealorphonyforldquoyouneverknowwhatpartofwhatyoudowillbecomepartofyourhistorywhenpeoplewanttocheckonyourdquo53
Ifthey[themobsters]werenrsquotscheminganddreamingtheyweretellingwarstoriesreminiscencesabouttheirtimeinvariousjailsandprisonsEverybodydidtimeinthecanItwaspartofthepriceofdoingbusinessTheyknewallaboutdifferent jailscellblocksguards I had enough phony background set up to establish mycredentialsasaseriouscriminaltoshowthatIwastoughenoughtodo time if Ihad towithout turningratBut I never claimed to have done any prison timebecause IdidnrsquotknowthoseplacesandthatcouldhavejustrippedmeupIfyoudothreetofiveyearsyouget to know the guardsmdashwhat guardrsquos on what tierYou get toknowtheinmatesguyswhoaredoingfifteentotwentyguyswhoarestillthereTheyknewthelingoandtheslangEverybodyreshymembersthoserelationshipsandthattime54
IndirectlyPistonersquos choice showswhat a robust signalhavingbeen inprison is It isnot something that canbeeasily fakedguyswhohavetrulybeentherewouldquicklyspotanimpostor
Donniewentonforacoupleofmonths
playing this game of being noticedwithout being noticed slideintothebadguyworldandbecomeacceptedwithoutdrawingatshytentionYoupushalittlehereandtherebutverygentlyBriefinshytroductions short conversations appearances one place and anshyotherhintsaboutwhatyoursquoreuptocasualmannerismsdemeanorand lingo that youknowyourway aroundmdashall these become atrail of credibility you leave behind youAbove all you cannothurryYoucannotseemeagertomeetcertainpeoplemakecertaincontactslearnaboutcertainscoresThe quickest way to get tagged as a cop is to try to move too fastYouhavetoshowthatyouhavethetime to play by the rules of the street and that includes lettingpeoplecheckyououtandcometoyou55
Hewouldphonethebar leavingmessages forhimself just toestablishthathehadconnectionsandconveythebeliefpeopleknewhepatronshyizedthebar57ldquoWhenIwentotherplacesIcouldsayrdquoPistonewritesldquolsquoIbeenhangingoutat thatplace for fourorfivemonthsrsquoAnd theycould check it outThe guys had been hanging around in this placewouldsaylsquoYeahDonBrascohasbeencominginhereforquiteawhileandheseemsallrightnevertriedtopullanythingonusrsquordquo58
Wealsoread ldquoYoucanrsquotgoinallthetimebyyourselfbecausetheythinkyoursquoreeitherafagoracopAnditrsquosgoodtovarycompanysotheydonrsquot see you with the same people all the time and wonder whatrsquosuprdquo59SoDonniewouldbringanoccasionalfemaleorChuckanotherundercover agentThanks to Chuck he was introduced toAlbertldquoahalfshyasswiseguyrdquoaconnectedshytobutnotamadememberof theCoshylombofamily
Donnie eventually became the proteacutegeacute of a made guy BenjaminldquoLeftyGunsrdquoRuggieroandspentsixyearswiththemafiosilivingtheirdaily lives and sharing their crooked dealingsmdashconstantly exposed totheriskofbeingdiscoveredandkilledInthecourseoftheoperationhewasofferedtheopportunitynotonlytohandlethebookmakingforthemob boss of Milwaukee Frank Balistrieri but also to get inside theskimmingoperationinLasVegasBalistrierisaidhehadagoodcrewbuttheywereldquoolderkindof set in theirways Icoulduse someyoungerguysthatIcouldtrusttotakeoveracoupleofmyclubsandotherbusishynessesYoungerguyswouldbeabletorelatetothewaysoftodayrsquosbusishynessworldrdquo62Leftyvouched forDonnieldquoI told [Balistrieri]rdquoDonnie
22 c h a p t e r 1
saysldquoyouaremybloodrdquo63ButacceptingwouldhavemadeitimpossibleforDonnietoseehisrealfamilysoheturneddowntheofferWhilethatdecisionangeredLeftyitalsoconferredanadvantageasitfurthersigshynaledDonniersquoscredibilityldquoOnethingIhadinmyfavorseenthroughanymobguyrsquoseyeswas thatno cop would ever turn that job downSo Iwouldbeabovesuspicioninthatregardrdquo64
Donniecameupwithmanyother signalsbelieved tobeof akindthat a cop could not afford He pretended to beat up someone whoowedmoney toLeftyHe roughedup a comedianwhohad annoyedLeftyattheThunderbirdaMiamirestaurant65Furthermoreldquotypicallywhatanundercovercopwilldo inabuyshybust situation is try tobuysomethingfromyouCops always buy never sellI was going to sellrdquoPistonereveals66mdashthankstothefactthattheFBIallowedhimdiscretioninthatregard One very special commodity he bought though Lefty RugshygierorsquosprotectionTheFBIdishedoutatotalof$40000forthispurposewhileDonniewasundercoverldquoTheywerepayinghimforhisservicesasalsquowiseguyrsquotoinsuretheyhadtheprotectionoftheBonannofamilyin the event another family tried to interfere with their businessrdquo67
WhilepaymentwasostensiblyaimedatcompensatingLeftyitwasalsoliterallyacostlysignalandintentionallydesignedtoappeartobesoldquoBygivinghimmoneyContiandRossi[twoundercoveragentswhocolshylaboratedwithDonnie] ledLefty tobelieve that theywerewilling tobecomeinvolvedwithhimandhe trusted them as bad guysrdquo68
Mafiosiwerenot taken inbecause theyweredumbratherPistonewasunbelievablysmartandresilientanditjustwasveryhardformobshysterstothinkthattakentogetherallthethingshedidanddidnotdowerenotnearshyperfectdiscriminatingsignalsTheFBIwaslatercriticizedforoperatingverynearorevenbeyondthe limitsof the lawBut thisrelative freedomfooledthemafiosibecause theyassumedthatanunshydercoveragentwouldnotpaythecostofbreakingthelawDivinecouldnothavebankedonherneatlittletestifagentsofthelawhadbeenalshylowedtoexposethemselvesThemobsterswerecheatednotjustinthesense thatDonnieBrascoby faking forging andpretending successshyfullymimickedarealbadguybutalsointhesensethathedidsomereal badactions
23 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
In a short biography ofBonanno familymembersmdashposted on theInternetforawhilethenremovedmdashLeftywasdescribedasldquothebiggestidiotinthehistoryofLaCosaNostraHisblindgreedandlackofinshystinctwerefelthardintheAmericanmafiardquoAndyetLeftywascarefulevenyearsafterDonniehadbeenacceptedasaconnectedguyDonniewasassistedbyotherundercoveragentsoneofwhomwasldquoRossirdquoTotestwhetherRossiwasanundercoveragentLeftydeliberatelyldquolostrdquoaplaneticketthatRossihadbookedonhisowncreditcardforLefty(thiswasacovertwayofpayingprotectiontoLefty)ldquoBypretendingtolosetheticketLeftywantedtoseehowRossi reactedIfhewasanagentLeftyreasonedhewouldgetnervousbecausehewouldprobablyhavetoaccount for the ticket tohisofficeplushewouldbeworried thatsomebodylsquointheunderworldbusinessrsquomightmeanwhilefindtheticketandcheckouttheAmericanExpressnumbertoseeifitwasagovernshymentnumberrdquo69
WhenitwasfinallyrevealedthatDonniewasanundercoveragentthemobsterswereshockedanddidnotbelieveittillDonnieactuallytestishyfied in court against them His operation managed to send many ofthemmostlymembersoftheBonannofamilytojail71
ThemobsterslearnedtheirlessonandincreasedthepriceofthetestsNow not just one butldquotwo mafiosi have to vouch for the proposedmemberrdquoldquoTheyhavetosaytheyhaveknowntheproposedmemberifnotsincechildhoodthenatleastforfifteentotwentyyearsrdquo72Accordshying to theFBI theyalso resumeda traditionalpractice thathadbeenabandonedldquoaproposedmembermustlsquomakehisbonesrsquoorkillsomeonebeforehecanbecomeamadeguyTheyhavedonesobecause no agent
24 c h a p t e r 1
would commit murder while posing as a bad guyrdquo73Murderisreallyapershyfectlydiscriminatingsignalofbeingabadguyasignalthatnoundershycover agentnot evenonebelonging to a rather lax lawshyenforcementagencycouldafford
Thisentryrequirementmdashwhichshowshowcriminalactscanbepershypetratednotmerelyfortheirimmediateinstrumentalvaluebutalsofortheir signaling valuemdashhad never been explicitly removed but it wasno longerusedwithgreat determination In truthDominickldquoSonnyBlackrdquoNapolitanowhoeventuallybecameDonniersquosmainmentorandplannedtoproposeDonnieformembershiphadaskedDonnietomurshydersomeoneldquoHegavemeacontractsothatIwouldhavethatcredenshytialwhenheputmynameuprdquoButtheopportunitytocarryitoutdidnotariseforAnthonyBrunoIndelicatotheintendedvictimwentsucshycessfullyintohidingDonnieshowedthathewasdoingallhecouldtotrackIndelicatodownanditwasnotthoughttobehisfaultwhenhefailedThusalthoughhedidnotcarryoutthekillinghestillmanagedtoshowhiswillingnesstodoitandafewmonthslaterSonnyputhisnameforwardformembershipAtthatpointtheFBIdecidedtostoptheoperationandDonnieresumedonceagainhisrealidentity
Undercoveragentsmdashwhohavetopersuadethegrouptheyaimtoinfilshytrateof theircriminalcredentialsmdasharea serious threat forunlikesolomimicstheycandrawontheresourcesofstateagenciesandcanaffordcomplexmimicryactswhichinvolveposingforgingcredentialstrainshyingandfundsStill itcanbenear impossibleto infiltrategroupsproshytected by an array of features that cannot be successfully imitatedmdashwhichinotherwordsperfectlydistinguishtherealfromthephonyFor
EvenaMuslimCIAofficerwithnativeshylanguageabilities(andtheAgencyaccordingtoseveralactiveshydutycaseofficershasveryfewoperativesfromMiddleEasternbackgrounds)coulddolittlemorein thisenvironment [PeshawarPakistan] thanablondblueshyeyedallshyAmericanCaseofficerscannotlongescapetheembassiesandconsulates in which they serveA US official overseasphotoshygraphedandregisteredwiththelocalintelligenceandsecuritysershyvicescanrsquottravelmuchparticularlyinapoliceshyrichcountrylikePakistanwithouttheldquohostrdquoservicesknowingaboutitAnofficerwho tries togonativepretending tobe a trueshybelieving radicalMuslim searching for brothers in the causewillmake a fool ofhimselfquickly
UndercoveroperationsareaproblematicformofanticrimeactivityforanotherreasonaswellThelogicofcostshydiscriminatingsignalsinclinesundercoveragentstogobeyondinnocentpretensionsandsupportinishytiativesof thesamekinda truecriminalor terroristwouldundertakeSincelawshyenforcementagenciesareunderpressuretokeeptheiragentssafetheypushfordiscretiontobegrantedtothemAndsometimestheundercoveragentsthemselvesunbeknownsttotheiremployerschoosetobreakthelawbecausetheyworryabouttheircredibilityintheeyesof the host group and the consequences if they are discoveredThememoirsofundercoveragentsandspiesarerepletewiththisdilemma
According to incomplete calculations there were about 6500agents provocateurs and other political investigations specialistsoperatinginvariouspoliticalpartiesandorganizationsintheRusshy
26 c h a p t e r 1
sianEmpireatthestartofthetwentiethcenturythepoliceandgendarmesoftensetprioritiesthemselvesattimesevenattheriskofthelivesofhighshyrankinggovernmentofficialsandmembersoftheimperialfamilyMattersconcerningthesecurityofthesecretagentswereoftoppriorityandmaintainingthestrongpositionsofagentswithintheterroristorganizationsof theSocialistshyRevolushytionarieswasconsideredmore important thanpreventingassassishynationsevenagainstofficialsofthegovernment75
AfamouscasewasthatofEvnoAzefanagentwhooperatedinrevolushytionary circles for aboutfifteen years From 1893on hewas a policeagentAsastudentinaGermanpolytechnicschoolhetooktheinitiashytiveofofferinghisservicestothepolicedepartmentat therateof50rublespermonth afterwhichhe attachedhimself to a foreigngroupcallingitselftheUnionofRussianSocialistshyRevolutionariesHeknewaboutthemajorityofterroristactsbeingplannedbytheSRsbuthedidnotalwaysreporttohisbossesaboutthemNeverthelessthepolicepaidhimwellforhisservices76
EpisodesofthiskindarenotrestrictedtopredemocraticsocietiesAnilluminatingcaseoccurredinCanadaAtitspeakin1993theHeritageFront was the largest and bestshyorganized neoshyNazi group in Canadaboastingacontactlistof1800namesGrantBristowcofounderandaleadingmemberofthiswhiteracistgroupturnedouttobeapaidinshyformantoftheCanadianSecurityIntelligenceServiceldquoBristoworchesshytrated aharassment campaign that terrorizedFront enemies harboredleadinginternationalracistsinhisownhomeinclearviolationofbothCSISrulesandtheImmigrationActandassistedintheFrontrsquosinfiltrashytionoftheReformPartyrdquo77ldquoCSISmoleGrantBristowwasanlsquoagentprovocateurrsquowhowithhisspymastersbrokeCanadianlawsandinternalCSISregulationsagroupofMPshaveconcludedBristowrsquosleadershyshiproleinthewhiteracistHeritageFrontthereportsuggestsmay have led to the very events that caused CSIS to keep him in place for several more yearsrdquo78 An inquiry by the Security Intelligence Review CommitteeintotheaffairplayeddowntheaccusationsbutitisclearfromthereportthattherewereseriousbreachesForinstanceontheissueofharassment
27 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
of antiracistmilitants and Jewish communitymembers thedocumentconcludesthatldquoanyinformantwhoenterstheHeritageFrontorasimishylargrouphastomaintainhiscredibilitywithhisassociatesotherwisehewouldnot remain a trustedmember for longThe questionwewerefacedwithwaswhethertheCSISsource[GrantBristow]hadremainedwithintheboundsofappropriatebehaviourwhiletryingtomaintainhiscredibilityTheanswerwearrivedatwasthatin certain circumstances he had not[emphasisintheoriginal]rdquo79
Eveniftheyareonlysupposedtocollectinformationoncriminalorsubversiveactivitiesspiesmayendupproducingmoreofsuchactivitieson theirown initiativeThey tend tobecomeagentsprovocateursnotnecessarilyfortheconspiratorialreasonswhyJosephConradrsquosprotagoshynistinThe Secret Agentdoes(VerlocwasinthepayofanunnamedforshyeignembassythatwantedtopersuadetheBritishtotakeatougherlineagainsttheanarchistsandusedhisdimshywittednephewtostageanldquoanarshychistrdquobombingattack)buttypicallyonlyoutoffearofnotbeingcredshyibleenoughandofriskingtheirlivesThecoststhatmaketheirsignalscredibleintheeyesoftheirtargetsareafterallldquoonlyrdquothoseofbreakinglegalconstraintsTheymayneverbecaughtgiventheintrinsicopacityofwhattheydoandifcaughttheyarenotsolikelytobepunishedcershytainlynotbydeathAndontheothersideoftheequationtheyhavetoconsider the personal costs of failing to persuadeWhen onersquos life isthreatened thecostsofbreakingthe lawmaysuddenlyappear smallerthanthoseofobeyingitThesetofthosewhoarereadytorisktheirlifesacrificetheirfamilyanddeceivedangerouscriminalsforlongperiodsoftimewhileatthesametimeremainingstrictlyalawshyabidingcitizenmustbeextremelysmall
ThisraisesaninterestingquandaryforthecriminalsorterroristswhoaretryingtotestthebonafidesofothersForbyincreasingtheseverityofthepunishmentmetedoutagainstundercoveragentswhoarediscovshyered they encourage the latter to afford costly signals that once disshyplayedmaymakeitimpossibleforthebadguystosaywhethertheposhytentialrecruitsareundercoveragentsinthefirstplace
undercover agentmayfind it preferable to refrain from swallowing itevenatthecostofrevealinghistruetypeforhedoesnotwanttobreakthelawBycontrasttherealcriminalwhowantstodealwiththedrugdealersmayprefertopaythecostofthephysicalillnesscausedbyswalshylowing forhe isentirelyateasewithbreaking the lawThekeyextracost that discriminates between the real criminal and the undercoveragentisthecostofbreakingthelawwhichthemimicfaceswhilethegenuinearticledoesnotAharsherpunishmenthowevercanreversetheequationandmakeitcheaperfortheundercoveragenttoswallowratherthannot swallowevenat thecostofbreaking the lawandthusmakehimbehaviorallyindistinguishablefromtherealcriminalWhenadminshyisteredunder the threatof theharsherpunishment the testno longerseparatesonetypefromtheotherByfailingtoappreciatethisquandaryandthreateningdeathagainstthosewhorefusetoswallowthedrugthedealers fail to realize that theyaredeactivating thevery sourceof thereliabilityoftheirtestforunderthatthreattheagentsarenowallowed(andwouldinanycasefeelinclined)toswallowthedrug
CONCLUSIONS
OncesomeoneintentoncrimeidentifiesapotentialpartnerasabonafidecriminalhehassolvedoneproblemonlytolandinanotherequallydifficultoneHenowhastoestablishwhetherhispartnerisnotjustacrookbutanhonorableoneAfterHughGrantexposedhimselfDivineknewthathewasnotanundercovercopforshebelievedthatcopsdonotdothatYetshestilldidnotknowwhatkindofacustomerhewasProstitutesareconstantlyonguardagainstrobbersorpervertswhoposeasordinarycustomers80AnyonewhoworksoutsidethelawismoreexshyposedthanordinarybusinessmentobecomingthepreyofothercrimishynalswhomimicbeingacriminalofthehonestsortAstreetshydrugdealerwhosuccessfullyadvertises tocustomersmayalsoattract robberswhopretend to be customers in order to get close to the dealers and robthem81Acriminalhastobeonguardagainstbothkindsofmimicslawshyenforcementagentsandcriminalsofthewrongsort
29 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
Ifhonestywerethoughttobeatraitofcertaincriminalsandnotothshyersinordertoestablishwhetherapotentialpartnerishonestonecouldfollowthesamestrategyoneusesforidentifyingwhethersomeoneisacriminal tobeginwithThe samekindof costly signalswouldbe reshyquiredforcriminalstopersuadeoneanotherthattheywerethehonesttypeIncertaincasesthegametheyplayisindeedoneofsignalingtheirtypeHowever inmost circumstancescriminals tend to thinkofeachotherasbeingof justonetypenamelythedishonestoneandbelievethatgivenhalfachancetheywilltakeadvantageofeachotherTheonlyway inwhich they can comealmost toldquotrustrdquo eachother enough tocooperateisthereforenotbysignalingtheirtypebuteitherbyenforcshyingtheirpartnersrsquohonestywiththethreatofsomekindofretaliationormoregenerallybyputtingthemselvesandtheirpartnersinaconditionwherebyldquohonestyrdquo rather thancheating is theirbest courseof actionwhatevertheirtypeIshallexploresomeofthestrategiestheyadoptinchapters2and3
18 c h a p t e r 1
degreesoffreedomvaryfromtimetotimeandfromagencytoagencyPoliceinNewYorkarenowldquoinstructedtoavoidtakingthedrugsunless their lives are in dangerrdquoIfdealersreadtheNew York Timeswherethisinshyformationwaspublishedtheyknowthatforcingbuyerstoingestdrugsby threatening their lives isnowauseless test for itno longerdistinshyguishesgenuinebuyersfromundercoveragents
BeforediscussingthisproblemfurtherIwillpresentthecaseofFBIspecial agent Joseph Pistone aka Donnie Brasco who infiltrated theNewYorkmafiaandcameclosetobeinginitiatedIknowofnobettercase for illustratingall the typesofcostshydiscriminating signalsusedbycriminalsmdashand by those who try to fool them Donnie Brasco pershysuadedthemobstersofhiscriminalcredentialsbyemployingabreathshytakingrangeofsubtlesignalsandnarratedhisexperienceinabookmdasharguablythemostvividethnographyoftheUSmafiafromldquowithinrdquo44
Entering the mob world is needless to say very hardldquoAssociates ofwiseguysdonrsquotdealwithpeopletheydonrsquotknoworwhosomebodyelsedoesnrsquotvouchforrdquo45PriortoPistonersquosinfiltrationtheFBIlackedexpeshyrienceDuringJEdgarHooverrsquosreignatthebureauundercoverworkwasrarelyusedldquobecauseitcouldbeadirtyjobthatcouldenduptaintshyingtheagentsrdquo46AndalthoughithadbeenusedsinceldquosofarasweknewtheFBIhadneverplantedoneofitsownagentsinthemafiardquo47Yettheoperation itwas about to attemptwasextraordinarily shrewdPistoneneededtobuildawholebarrageofsignalswhichtakentogethercouldpersuadethemobstersthathewasarealbadguyAndthatiswhatheandhishandlerssetouttodomindingthatthelawconstrainedhisfreeshydomldquoTheFBIwouldnrsquotletmeactuallygooutonhijackingsandburshyglariesbecausethecrewwentarmedrdquoPistonewrites48
19 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
PistoneneededanamehedecideditwaseasiertosticktoDonnieBrasco the name he had used in a previous undercover operation inFloridaHeneededaplausiblebiographythatcouldbecheckedorbetshyterhardtocheckheposedasanorphanandabachelorHesaidhehadbeenraisedinanorphanageinPittsburghthatburneddowntherewereno records leftThe story needed to be simpleldquoThe fewer [lies] youhave to tell the feweryouhave torememberrdquohenotes49HesaidhehadspenttimeontheWestCoastandinFloridawhereinfacthehadbeenbeforeasldquoDonaldBrascordquointhepreviousoperationandhadesshytablishedsomecontactsHeneededaldquoprofessionrdquoandsettledonjewelrytheftsomethingonecandoaloneandthatdoesnotrequiretheuseofweaponsmdashsomething moreover that allowed him to use confiscatedstolen jewels to sell so he would not have to break the law to stealthem50
Hecouldcountonadvantagesthatwouldhavebeenhardtofakehadtheynotbeenpartofhis realbiographyHis Italianancestryprovidedhim with theldquorightrdquo ethnic background He had grown up in theldquorightrdquoneighborhoodandasayoungsterhungoutinldquojointsrdquopatronshyizedbywiseguysldquoYouhad tobe streetshysmartevencockysometimesEverygoodundercoveragentIhaveknowngrewuponthestreetlikeIdidandwasagoodstreetagentbeforebecominganundercoveragentOnthestreetyoulearnwhatrsquoswhatandwhorsquoswhoYoulearnhowtoreadsituationsandhandleyourselfYou cannot fake the ability It showsrdquo51
It is also interesting to know what he chose not to say or do Heavoided acting in a way that could raise suspicionldquoNo street guy isgoingtothrowmoneyallovertheplaceunlesshersquostryingtoattractatshytentionrdquoPistonereveals ldquoThenthequestionisWhyishetryingtoatshytractattentionrdquo52BydoingsoheeitherbecomesatargetinthatpeoplethinktheycanrobhimorraisessuspicionsthathemaybeacopDonshyniewasparsimonioustooinrevealingdetailsofhislifewhetherrealorphonyforldquoyouneverknowwhatpartofwhatyoudowillbecomepartofyourhistorywhenpeoplewanttocheckonyourdquo53
Ifthey[themobsters]werenrsquotscheminganddreamingtheyweretellingwarstoriesreminiscencesabouttheirtimeinvariousjailsandprisonsEverybodydidtimeinthecanItwaspartofthepriceofdoingbusinessTheyknewallaboutdifferent jailscellblocksguards I had enough phony background set up to establish mycredentialsasaseriouscriminaltoshowthatIwastoughenoughtodo time if Ihad towithout turningratBut I never claimed to have done any prison timebecause IdidnrsquotknowthoseplacesandthatcouldhavejustrippedmeupIfyoudothreetofiveyearsyouget to know the guardsmdashwhat guardrsquos on what tierYou get toknowtheinmatesguyswhoaredoingfifteentotwentyguyswhoarestillthereTheyknewthelingoandtheslangEverybodyreshymembersthoserelationshipsandthattime54
IndirectlyPistonersquos choice showswhat a robust signalhavingbeen inprison is It isnot something that canbeeasily fakedguyswhohavetrulybeentherewouldquicklyspotanimpostor
Donniewentonforacoupleofmonths
playing this game of being noticedwithout being noticed slideintothebadguyworldandbecomeacceptedwithoutdrawingatshytentionYoupushalittlehereandtherebutverygentlyBriefinshytroductions short conversations appearances one place and anshyotherhintsaboutwhatyoursquoreuptocasualmannerismsdemeanorand lingo that youknowyourway aroundmdashall these become atrail of credibility you leave behind youAbove all you cannothurryYoucannotseemeagertomeetcertainpeoplemakecertaincontactslearnaboutcertainscoresThe quickest way to get tagged as a cop is to try to move too fastYouhavetoshowthatyouhavethetime to play by the rules of the street and that includes lettingpeoplecheckyououtandcometoyou55
Hewouldphonethebar leavingmessages forhimself just toestablishthathehadconnectionsandconveythebeliefpeopleknewhepatronshyizedthebar57ldquoWhenIwentotherplacesIcouldsayrdquoPistonewritesldquolsquoIbeenhangingoutat thatplace for fourorfivemonthsrsquoAnd theycould check it outThe guys had been hanging around in this placewouldsaylsquoYeahDonBrascohasbeencominginhereforquiteawhileandheseemsallrightnevertriedtopullanythingonusrsquordquo58
Wealsoread ldquoYoucanrsquotgoinallthetimebyyourselfbecausetheythinkyoursquoreeitherafagoracopAnditrsquosgoodtovarycompanysotheydonrsquot see you with the same people all the time and wonder whatrsquosuprdquo59SoDonniewouldbringanoccasionalfemaleorChuckanotherundercover agentThanks to Chuck he was introduced toAlbertldquoahalfshyasswiseguyrdquoaconnectedshytobutnotamadememberof theCoshylombofamily
Donnie eventually became the proteacutegeacute of a made guy BenjaminldquoLeftyGunsrdquoRuggieroandspentsixyearswiththemafiosilivingtheirdaily lives and sharing their crooked dealingsmdashconstantly exposed totheriskofbeingdiscoveredandkilledInthecourseoftheoperationhewasofferedtheopportunitynotonlytohandlethebookmakingforthemob boss of Milwaukee Frank Balistrieri but also to get inside theskimmingoperationinLasVegasBalistrierisaidhehadagoodcrewbuttheywereldquoolderkindof set in theirways Icoulduse someyoungerguysthatIcouldtrusttotakeoveracoupleofmyclubsandotherbusishynessesYoungerguyswouldbeabletorelatetothewaysoftodayrsquosbusishynessworldrdquo62Leftyvouched forDonnieldquoI told [Balistrieri]rdquoDonnie
22 c h a p t e r 1
saysldquoyouaremybloodrdquo63ButacceptingwouldhavemadeitimpossibleforDonnietoseehisrealfamilysoheturneddowntheofferWhilethatdecisionangeredLeftyitalsoconferredanadvantageasitfurthersigshynaledDonniersquoscredibilityldquoOnethingIhadinmyfavorseenthroughanymobguyrsquoseyeswas thatno cop would ever turn that job downSo Iwouldbeabovesuspicioninthatregardrdquo64
Donniecameupwithmanyother signalsbelieved tobeof akindthat a cop could not afford He pretended to beat up someone whoowedmoney toLeftyHe roughedup a comedianwhohad annoyedLeftyattheThunderbirdaMiamirestaurant65Furthermoreldquotypicallywhatanundercovercopwilldo inabuyshybust situation is try tobuysomethingfromyouCops always buy never sellI was going to sellrdquoPistonereveals66mdashthankstothefactthattheFBIallowedhimdiscretioninthatregard One very special commodity he bought though Lefty RugshygierorsquosprotectionTheFBIdishedoutatotalof$40000forthispurposewhileDonniewasundercoverldquoTheywerepayinghimforhisservicesasalsquowiseguyrsquotoinsuretheyhadtheprotectionoftheBonannofamilyin the event another family tried to interfere with their businessrdquo67
WhilepaymentwasostensiblyaimedatcompensatingLeftyitwasalsoliterallyacostlysignalandintentionallydesignedtoappeartobesoldquoBygivinghimmoneyContiandRossi[twoundercoveragentswhocolshylaboratedwithDonnie] ledLefty tobelieve that theywerewilling tobecomeinvolvedwithhimandhe trusted them as bad guysrdquo68
Mafiosiwerenot taken inbecause theyweredumbratherPistonewasunbelievablysmartandresilientanditjustwasveryhardformobshysterstothinkthattakentogetherallthethingshedidanddidnotdowerenotnearshyperfectdiscriminatingsignalsTheFBIwaslatercriticizedforoperatingverynearorevenbeyondthe limitsof the lawBut thisrelative freedomfooledthemafiosibecause theyassumedthatanunshydercoveragentwouldnotpaythecostofbreakingthelawDivinecouldnothavebankedonherneatlittletestifagentsofthelawhadbeenalshylowedtoexposethemselvesThemobsterswerecheatednotjustinthesense thatDonnieBrascoby faking forging andpretending successshyfullymimickedarealbadguybutalsointhesensethathedidsomereal badactions
23 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
In a short biography ofBonanno familymembersmdashposted on theInternetforawhilethenremovedmdashLeftywasdescribedasldquothebiggestidiotinthehistoryofLaCosaNostraHisblindgreedandlackofinshystinctwerefelthardintheAmericanmafiardquoAndyetLeftywascarefulevenyearsafterDonniehadbeenacceptedasaconnectedguyDonniewasassistedbyotherundercoveragentsoneofwhomwasldquoRossirdquoTotestwhetherRossiwasanundercoveragentLeftydeliberatelyldquolostrdquoaplaneticketthatRossihadbookedonhisowncreditcardforLefty(thiswasacovertwayofpayingprotectiontoLefty)ldquoBypretendingtolosetheticketLeftywantedtoseehowRossi reactedIfhewasanagentLeftyreasonedhewouldgetnervousbecausehewouldprobablyhavetoaccount for the ticket tohisofficeplushewouldbeworried thatsomebodylsquointheunderworldbusinessrsquomightmeanwhilefindtheticketandcheckouttheAmericanExpressnumbertoseeifitwasagovernshymentnumberrdquo69
WhenitwasfinallyrevealedthatDonniewasanundercoveragentthemobsterswereshockedanddidnotbelieveittillDonnieactuallytestishyfied in court against them His operation managed to send many ofthemmostlymembersoftheBonannofamilytojail71
ThemobsterslearnedtheirlessonandincreasedthepriceofthetestsNow not just one butldquotwo mafiosi have to vouch for the proposedmemberrdquoldquoTheyhavetosaytheyhaveknowntheproposedmemberifnotsincechildhoodthenatleastforfifteentotwentyyearsrdquo72Accordshying to theFBI theyalso resumeda traditionalpractice thathadbeenabandonedldquoaproposedmembermustlsquomakehisbonesrsquoorkillsomeonebeforehecanbecomeamadeguyTheyhavedonesobecause no agent
24 c h a p t e r 1
would commit murder while posing as a bad guyrdquo73Murderisreallyapershyfectlydiscriminatingsignalofbeingabadguyasignalthatnoundershycover agentnot evenonebelonging to a rather lax lawshyenforcementagencycouldafford
Thisentryrequirementmdashwhichshowshowcriminalactscanbepershypetratednotmerelyfortheirimmediateinstrumentalvaluebutalsofortheir signaling valuemdashhad never been explicitly removed but it wasno longerusedwithgreat determination In truthDominickldquoSonnyBlackrdquoNapolitanowhoeventuallybecameDonniersquosmainmentorandplannedtoproposeDonnieformembershiphadaskedDonnietomurshydersomeoneldquoHegavemeacontractsothatIwouldhavethatcredenshytialwhenheputmynameuprdquoButtheopportunitytocarryitoutdidnotariseforAnthonyBrunoIndelicatotheintendedvictimwentsucshycessfullyintohidingDonnieshowedthathewasdoingallhecouldtotrackIndelicatodownanditwasnotthoughttobehisfaultwhenhefailedThusalthoughhedidnotcarryoutthekillinghestillmanagedtoshowhiswillingnesstodoitandafewmonthslaterSonnyputhisnameforwardformembershipAtthatpointtheFBIdecidedtostoptheoperationandDonnieresumedonceagainhisrealidentity
Undercoveragentsmdashwhohavetopersuadethegrouptheyaimtoinfilshytrateof theircriminalcredentialsmdasharea serious threat forunlikesolomimicstheycandrawontheresourcesofstateagenciesandcanaffordcomplexmimicryactswhichinvolveposingforgingcredentialstrainshyingandfundsStill itcanbenear impossibleto infiltrategroupsproshytected by an array of features that cannot be successfully imitatedmdashwhichinotherwordsperfectlydistinguishtherealfromthephonyFor
EvenaMuslimCIAofficerwithnativeshylanguageabilities(andtheAgencyaccordingtoseveralactiveshydutycaseofficershasveryfewoperativesfromMiddleEasternbackgrounds)coulddolittlemorein thisenvironment [PeshawarPakistan] thanablondblueshyeyedallshyAmericanCaseofficerscannotlongescapetheembassiesandconsulates in which they serveA US official overseasphotoshygraphedandregisteredwiththelocalintelligenceandsecuritysershyvicescanrsquottravelmuchparticularlyinapoliceshyrichcountrylikePakistanwithouttheldquohostrdquoservicesknowingaboutitAnofficerwho tries togonativepretending tobe a trueshybelieving radicalMuslim searching for brothers in the causewillmake a fool ofhimselfquickly
UndercoveroperationsareaproblematicformofanticrimeactivityforanotherreasonaswellThelogicofcostshydiscriminatingsignalsinclinesundercoveragentstogobeyondinnocentpretensionsandsupportinishytiativesof thesamekinda truecriminalor terroristwouldundertakeSincelawshyenforcementagenciesareunderpressuretokeeptheiragentssafetheypushfordiscretiontobegrantedtothemAndsometimestheundercoveragentsthemselvesunbeknownsttotheiremployerschoosetobreakthelawbecausetheyworryabouttheircredibilityintheeyesof the host group and the consequences if they are discoveredThememoirsofundercoveragentsandspiesarerepletewiththisdilemma
According to incomplete calculations there were about 6500agents provocateurs and other political investigations specialistsoperatinginvariouspoliticalpartiesandorganizationsintheRusshy
26 c h a p t e r 1
sianEmpireatthestartofthetwentiethcenturythepoliceandgendarmesoftensetprioritiesthemselvesattimesevenattheriskofthelivesofhighshyrankinggovernmentofficialsandmembersoftheimperialfamilyMattersconcerningthesecurityofthesecretagentswereoftoppriorityandmaintainingthestrongpositionsofagentswithintheterroristorganizationsof theSocialistshyRevolushytionarieswasconsideredmore important thanpreventingassassishynationsevenagainstofficialsofthegovernment75
AfamouscasewasthatofEvnoAzefanagentwhooperatedinrevolushytionary circles for aboutfifteen years From 1893on hewas a policeagentAsastudentinaGermanpolytechnicschoolhetooktheinitiashytiveofofferinghisservicestothepolicedepartmentat therateof50rublespermonth afterwhichhe attachedhimself to a foreigngroupcallingitselftheUnionofRussianSocialistshyRevolutionariesHeknewaboutthemajorityofterroristactsbeingplannedbytheSRsbuthedidnotalwaysreporttohisbossesaboutthemNeverthelessthepolicepaidhimwellforhisservices76
EpisodesofthiskindarenotrestrictedtopredemocraticsocietiesAnilluminatingcaseoccurredinCanadaAtitspeakin1993theHeritageFront was the largest and bestshyorganized neoshyNazi group in Canadaboastingacontactlistof1800namesGrantBristowcofounderandaleadingmemberofthiswhiteracistgroupturnedouttobeapaidinshyformantoftheCanadianSecurityIntelligenceServiceldquoBristoworchesshytrated aharassment campaign that terrorizedFront enemies harboredleadinginternationalracistsinhisownhomeinclearviolationofbothCSISrulesandtheImmigrationActandassistedintheFrontrsquosinfiltrashytionoftheReformPartyrdquo77ldquoCSISmoleGrantBristowwasanlsquoagentprovocateurrsquowhowithhisspymastersbrokeCanadianlawsandinternalCSISregulationsagroupofMPshaveconcludedBristowrsquosleadershyshiproleinthewhiteracistHeritageFrontthereportsuggestsmay have led to the very events that caused CSIS to keep him in place for several more yearsrdquo78 An inquiry by the Security Intelligence Review CommitteeintotheaffairplayeddowntheaccusationsbutitisclearfromthereportthattherewereseriousbreachesForinstanceontheissueofharassment
27 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
of antiracistmilitants and Jewish communitymembers thedocumentconcludesthatldquoanyinformantwhoenterstheHeritageFrontorasimishylargrouphastomaintainhiscredibilitywithhisassociatesotherwisehewouldnot remain a trustedmember for longThe questionwewerefacedwithwaswhethertheCSISsource[GrantBristow]hadremainedwithintheboundsofappropriatebehaviourwhiletryingtomaintainhiscredibilityTheanswerwearrivedatwasthatin certain circumstances he had not[emphasisintheoriginal]rdquo79
Eveniftheyareonlysupposedtocollectinformationoncriminalorsubversiveactivitiesspiesmayendupproducingmoreofsuchactivitieson theirown initiativeThey tend tobecomeagentsprovocateursnotnecessarilyfortheconspiratorialreasonswhyJosephConradrsquosprotagoshynistinThe Secret Agentdoes(VerlocwasinthepayofanunnamedforshyeignembassythatwantedtopersuadetheBritishtotakeatougherlineagainsttheanarchistsandusedhisdimshywittednephewtostageanldquoanarshychistrdquobombingattack)buttypicallyonlyoutoffearofnotbeingcredshyibleenoughandofriskingtheirlivesThecoststhatmaketheirsignalscredibleintheeyesoftheirtargetsareafterallldquoonlyrdquothoseofbreakinglegalconstraintsTheymayneverbecaughtgiventheintrinsicopacityofwhattheydoandifcaughttheyarenotsolikelytobepunishedcershytainlynotbydeathAndontheothersideoftheequationtheyhavetoconsider the personal costs of failing to persuadeWhen onersquos life isthreatened thecostsofbreakingthe lawmaysuddenlyappear smallerthanthoseofobeyingitThesetofthosewhoarereadytorisktheirlifesacrificetheirfamilyanddeceivedangerouscriminalsforlongperiodsoftimewhileatthesametimeremainingstrictlyalawshyabidingcitizenmustbeextremelysmall
ThisraisesaninterestingquandaryforthecriminalsorterroristswhoaretryingtotestthebonafidesofothersForbyincreasingtheseverityofthepunishmentmetedoutagainstundercoveragentswhoarediscovshyered they encourage the latter to afford costly signals that once disshyplayedmaymakeitimpossibleforthebadguystosaywhethertheposhytentialrecruitsareundercoveragentsinthefirstplace
undercover agentmayfind it preferable to refrain from swallowing itevenatthecostofrevealinghistruetypeforhedoesnotwanttobreakthelawBycontrasttherealcriminalwhowantstodealwiththedrugdealersmayprefertopaythecostofthephysicalillnesscausedbyswalshylowing forhe isentirelyateasewithbreaking the lawThekeyextracost that discriminates between the real criminal and the undercoveragentisthecostofbreakingthelawwhichthemimicfaceswhilethegenuinearticledoesnotAharsherpunishmenthowevercanreversetheequationandmakeitcheaperfortheundercoveragenttoswallowratherthannot swallowevenat thecostofbreaking the lawandthusmakehimbehaviorallyindistinguishablefromtherealcriminalWhenadminshyisteredunder the threatof theharsherpunishment the testno longerseparatesonetypefromtheotherByfailingtoappreciatethisquandaryandthreateningdeathagainstthosewhorefusetoswallowthedrugthedealers fail to realize that theyaredeactivating thevery sourceof thereliabilityoftheirtestforunderthatthreattheagentsarenowallowed(andwouldinanycasefeelinclined)toswallowthedrug
CONCLUSIONS
OncesomeoneintentoncrimeidentifiesapotentialpartnerasabonafidecriminalhehassolvedoneproblemonlytolandinanotherequallydifficultoneHenowhastoestablishwhetherhispartnerisnotjustacrookbutanhonorableoneAfterHughGrantexposedhimselfDivineknewthathewasnotanundercovercopforshebelievedthatcopsdonotdothatYetshestilldidnotknowwhatkindofacustomerhewasProstitutesareconstantlyonguardagainstrobbersorpervertswhoposeasordinarycustomers80AnyonewhoworksoutsidethelawismoreexshyposedthanordinarybusinessmentobecomingthepreyofothercrimishynalswhomimicbeingacriminalofthehonestsortAstreetshydrugdealerwhosuccessfullyadvertises tocustomersmayalsoattract robberswhopretend to be customers in order to get close to the dealers and robthem81Acriminalhastobeonguardagainstbothkindsofmimicslawshyenforcementagentsandcriminalsofthewrongsort
29 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
Ifhonestywerethoughttobeatraitofcertaincriminalsandnotothshyersinordertoestablishwhetherapotentialpartnerishonestonecouldfollowthesamestrategyoneusesforidentifyingwhethersomeoneisacriminal tobeginwithThe samekindof costly signalswouldbe reshyquiredforcriminalstopersuadeoneanotherthattheywerethehonesttypeIncertaincasesthegametheyplayisindeedoneofsignalingtheirtypeHowever inmost circumstancescriminals tend to thinkofeachotherasbeingof justonetypenamelythedishonestoneandbelievethatgivenhalfachancetheywilltakeadvantageofeachotherTheonlyway inwhich they can comealmost toldquotrustrdquo eachother enough tocooperateisthereforenotbysignalingtheirtypebuteitherbyenforcshyingtheirpartnersrsquohonestywiththethreatofsomekindofretaliationormoregenerallybyputtingthemselvesandtheirpartnersinaconditionwherebyldquohonestyrdquo rather thancheating is theirbest courseof actionwhatevertheirtypeIshallexploresomeofthestrategiestheyadoptinchapters2and3
19 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
PistoneneededanamehedecideditwaseasiertosticktoDonnieBrasco the name he had used in a previous undercover operation inFloridaHeneededaplausiblebiographythatcouldbecheckedorbetshyterhardtocheckheposedasanorphanandabachelorHesaidhehadbeenraisedinanorphanageinPittsburghthatburneddowntherewereno records leftThe story needed to be simpleldquoThe fewer [lies] youhave to tell the feweryouhave torememberrdquohenotes49HesaidhehadspenttimeontheWestCoastandinFloridawhereinfacthehadbeenbeforeasldquoDonaldBrascordquointhepreviousoperationandhadesshytablishedsomecontactsHeneededaldquoprofessionrdquoandsettledonjewelrytheftsomethingonecandoaloneandthatdoesnotrequiretheuseofweaponsmdashsomething moreover that allowed him to use confiscatedstolen jewels to sell so he would not have to break the law to stealthem50
Hecouldcountonadvantagesthatwouldhavebeenhardtofakehadtheynotbeenpartofhis realbiographyHis Italianancestryprovidedhim with theldquorightrdquo ethnic background He had grown up in theldquorightrdquoneighborhoodandasayoungsterhungoutinldquojointsrdquopatronshyizedbywiseguysldquoYouhad tobe streetshysmartevencockysometimesEverygoodundercoveragentIhaveknowngrewuponthestreetlikeIdidandwasagoodstreetagentbeforebecominganundercoveragentOnthestreetyoulearnwhatrsquoswhatandwhorsquoswhoYoulearnhowtoreadsituationsandhandleyourselfYou cannot fake the ability It showsrdquo51
It is also interesting to know what he chose not to say or do Heavoided acting in a way that could raise suspicionldquoNo street guy isgoingtothrowmoneyallovertheplaceunlesshersquostryingtoattractatshytentionrdquoPistonereveals ldquoThenthequestionisWhyishetryingtoatshytractattentionrdquo52BydoingsoheeitherbecomesatargetinthatpeoplethinktheycanrobhimorraisessuspicionsthathemaybeacopDonshyniewasparsimonioustooinrevealingdetailsofhislifewhetherrealorphonyforldquoyouneverknowwhatpartofwhatyoudowillbecomepartofyourhistorywhenpeoplewanttocheckonyourdquo53
Ifthey[themobsters]werenrsquotscheminganddreamingtheyweretellingwarstoriesreminiscencesabouttheirtimeinvariousjailsandprisonsEverybodydidtimeinthecanItwaspartofthepriceofdoingbusinessTheyknewallaboutdifferent jailscellblocksguards I had enough phony background set up to establish mycredentialsasaseriouscriminaltoshowthatIwastoughenoughtodo time if Ihad towithout turningratBut I never claimed to have done any prison timebecause IdidnrsquotknowthoseplacesandthatcouldhavejustrippedmeupIfyoudothreetofiveyearsyouget to know the guardsmdashwhat guardrsquos on what tierYou get toknowtheinmatesguyswhoaredoingfifteentotwentyguyswhoarestillthereTheyknewthelingoandtheslangEverybodyreshymembersthoserelationshipsandthattime54
IndirectlyPistonersquos choice showswhat a robust signalhavingbeen inprison is It isnot something that canbeeasily fakedguyswhohavetrulybeentherewouldquicklyspotanimpostor
Donniewentonforacoupleofmonths
playing this game of being noticedwithout being noticed slideintothebadguyworldandbecomeacceptedwithoutdrawingatshytentionYoupushalittlehereandtherebutverygentlyBriefinshytroductions short conversations appearances one place and anshyotherhintsaboutwhatyoursquoreuptocasualmannerismsdemeanorand lingo that youknowyourway aroundmdashall these become atrail of credibility you leave behind youAbove all you cannothurryYoucannotseemeagertomeetcertainpeoplemakecertaincontactslearnaboutcertainscoresThe quickest way to get tagged as a cop is to try to move too fastYouhavetoshowthatyouhavethetime to play by the rules of the street and that includes lettingpeoplecheckyououtandcometoyou55
Hewouldphonethebar leavingmessages forhimself just toestablishthathehadconnectionsandconveythebeliefpeopleknewhepatronshyizedthebar57ldquoWhenIwentotherplacesIcouldsayrdquoPistonewritesldquolsquoIbeenhangingoutat thatplace for fourorfivemonthsrsquoAnd theycould check it outThe guys had been hanging around in this placewouldsaylsquoYeahDonBrascohasbeencominginhereforquiteawhileandheseemsallrightnevertriedtopullanythingonusrsquordquo58
Wealsoread ldquoYoucanrsquotgoinallthetimebyyourselfbecausetheythinkyoursquoreeitherafagoracopAnditrsquosgoodtovarycompanysotheydonrsquot see you with the same people all the time and wonder whatrsquosuprdquo59SoDonniewouldbringanoccasionalfemaleorChuckanotherundercover agentThanks to Chuck he was introduced toAlbertldquoahalfshyasswiseguyrdquoaconnectedshytobutnotamadememberof theCoshylombofamily
Donnie eventually became the proteacutegeacute of a made guy BenjaminldquoLeftyGunsrdquoRuggieroandspentsixyearswiththemafiosilivingtheirdaily lives and sharing their crooked dealingsmdashconstantly exposed totheriskofbeingdiscoveredandkilledInthecourseoftheoperationhewasofferedtheopportunitynotonlytohandlethebookmakingforthemob boss of Milwaukee Frank Balistrieri but also to get inside theskimmingoperationinLasVegasBalistrierisaidhehadagoodcrewbuttheywereldquoolderkindof set in theirways Icoulduse someyoungerguysthatIcouldtrusttotakeoveracoupleofmyclubsandotherbusishynessesYoungerguyswouldbeabletorelatetothewaysoftodayrsquosbusishynessworldrdquo62Leftyvouched forDonnieldquoI told [Balistrieri]rdquoDonnie
22 c h a p t e r 1
saysldquoyouaremybloodrdquo63ButacceptingwouldhavemadeitimpossibleforDonnietoseehisrealfamilysoheturneddowntheofferWhilethatdecisionangeredLeftyitalsoconferredanadvantageasitfurthersigshynaledDonniersquoscredibilityldquoOnethingIhadinmyfavorseenthroughanymobguyrsquoseyeswas thatno cop would ever turn that job downSo Iwouldbeabovesuspicioninthatregardrdquo64
Donniecameupwithmanyother signalsbelieved tobeof akindthat a cop could not afford He pretended to beat up someone whoowedmoney toLeftyHe roughedup a comedianwhohad annoyedLeftyattheThunderbirdaMiamirestaurant65Furthermoreldquotypicallywhatanundercovercopwilldo inabuyshybust situation is try tobuysomethingfromyouCops always buy never sellI was going to sellrdquoPistonereveals66mdashthankstothefactthattheFBIallowedhimdiscretioninthatregard One very special commodity he bought though Lefty RugshygierorsquosprotectionTheFBIdishedoutatotalof$40000forthispurposewhileDonniewasundercoverldquoTheywerepayinghimforhisservicesasalsquowiseguyrsquotoinsuretheyhadtheprotectionoftheBonannofamilyin the event another family tried to interfere with their businessrdquo67
WhilepaymentwasostensiblyaimedatcompensatingLeftyitwasalsoliterallyacostlysignalandintentionallydesignedtoappeartobesoldquoBygivinghimmoneyContiandRossi[twoundercoveragentswhocolshylaboratedwithDonnie] ledLefty tobelieve that theywerewilling tobecomeinvolvedwithhimandhe trusted them as bad guysrdquo68
Mafiosiwerenot taken inbecause theyweredumbratherPistonewasunbelievablysmartandresilientanditjustwasveryhardformobshysterstothinkthattakentogetherallthethingshedidanddidnotdowerenotnearshyperfectdiscriminatingsignalsTheFBIwaslatercriticizedforoperatingverynearorevenbeyondthe limitsof the lawBut thisrelative freedomfooledthemafiosibecause theyassumedthatanunshydercoveragentwouldnotpaythecostofbreakingthelawDivinecouldnothavebankedonherneatlittletestifagentsofthelawhadbeenalshylowedtoexposethemselvesThemobsterswerecheatednotjustinthesense thatDonnieBrascoby faking forging andpretending successshyfullymimickedarealbadguybutalsointhesensethathedidsomereal badactions
23 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
In a short biography ofBonanno familymembersmdashposted on theInternetforawhilethenremovedmdashLeftywasdescribedasldquothebiggestidiotinthehistoryofLaCosaNostraHisblindgreedandlackofinshystinctwerefelthardintheAmericanmafiardquoAndyetLeftywascarefulevenyearsafterDonniehadbeenacceptedasaconnectedguyDonniewasassistedbyotherundercoveragentsoneofwhomwasldquoRossirdquoTotestwhetherRossiwasanundercoveragentLeftydeliberatelyldquolostrdquoaplaneticketthatRossihadbookedonhisowncreditcardforLefty(thiswasacovertwayofpayingprotectiontoLefty)ldquoBypretendingtolosetheticketLeftywantedtoseehowRossi reactedIfhewasanagentLeftyreasonedhewouldgetnervousbecausehewouldprobablyhavetoaccount for the ticket tohisofficeplushewouldbeworried thatsomebodylsquointheunderworldbusinessrsquomightmeanwhilefindtheticketandcheckouttheAmericanExpressnumbertoseeifitwasagovernshymentnumberrdquo69
WhenitwasfinallyrevealedthatDonniewasanundercoveragentthemobsterswereshockedanddidnotbelieveittillDonnieactuallytestishyfied in court against them His operation managed to send many ofthemmostlymembersoftheBonannofamilytojail71
ThemobsterslearnedtheirlessonandincreasedthepriceofthetestsNow not just one butldquotwo mafiosi have to vouch for the proposedmemberrdquoldquoTheyhavetosaytheyhaveknowntheproposedmemberifnotsincechildhoodthenatleastforfifteentotwentyyearsrdquo72Accordshying to theFBI theyalso resumeda traditionalpractice thathadbeenabandonedldquoaproposedmembermustlsquomakehisbonesrsquoorkillsomeonebeforehecanbecomeamadeguyTheyhavedonesobecause no agent
24 c h a p t e r 1
would commit murder while posing as a bad guyrdquo73Murderisreallyapershyfectlydiscriminatingsignalofbeingabadguyasignalthatnoundershycover agentnot evenonebelonging to a rather lax lawshyenforcementagencycouldafford
Thisentryrequirementmdashwhichshowshowcriminalactscanbepershypetratednotmerelyfortheirimmediateinstrumentalvaluebutalsofortheir signaling valuemdashhad never been explicitly removed but it wasno longerusedwithgreat determination In truthDominickldquoSonnyBlackrdquoNapolitanowhoeventuallybecameDonniersquosmainmentorandplannedtoproposeDonnieformembershiphadaskedDonnietomurshydersomeoneldquoHegavemeacontractsothatIwouldhavethatcredenshytialwhenheputmynameuprdquoButtheopportunitytocarryitoutdidnotariseforAnthonyBrunoIndelicatotheintendedvictimwentsucshycessfullyintohidingDonnieshowedthathewasdoingallhecouldtotrackIndelicatodownanditwasnotthoughttobehisfaultwhenhefailedThusalthoughhedidnotcarryoutthekillinghestillmanagedtoshowhiswillingnesstodoitandafewmonthslaterSonnyputhisnameforwardformembershipAtthatpointtheFBIdecidedtostoptheoperationandDonnieresumedonceagainhisrealidentity
Undercoveragentsmdashwhohavetopersuadethegrouptheyaimtoinfilshytrateof theircriminalcredentialsmdasharea serious threat forunlikesolomimicstheycandrawontheresourcesofstateagenciesandcanaffordcomplexmimicryactswhichinvolveposingforgingcredentialstrainshyingandfundsStill itcanbenear impossibleto infiltrategroupsproshytected by an array of features that cannot be successfully imitatedmdashwhichinotherwordsperfectlydistinguishtherealfromthephonyFor
EvenaMuslimCIAofficerwithnativeshylanguageabilities(andtheAgencyaccordingtoseveralactiveshydutycaseofficershasveryfewoperativesfromMiddleEasternbackgrounds)coulddolittlemorein thisenvironment [PeshawarPakistan] thanablondblueshyeyedallshyAmericanCaseofficerscannotlongescapetheembassiesandconsulates in which they serveA US official overseasphotoshygraphedandregisteredwiththelocalintelligenceandsecuritysershyvicescanrsquottravelmuchparticularlyinapoliceshyrichcountrylikePakistanwithouttheldquohostrdquoservicesknowingaboutitAnofficerwho tries togonativepretending tobe a trueshybelieving radicalMuslim searching for brothers in the causewillmake a fool ofhimselfquickly
UndercoveroperationsareaproblematicformofanticrimeactivityforanotherreasonaswellThelogicofcostshydiscriminatingsignalsinclinesundercoveragentstogobeyondinnocentpretensionsandsupportinishytiativesof thesamekinda truecriminalor terroristwouldundertakeSincelawshyenforcementagenciesareunderpressuretokeeptheiragentssafetheypushfordiscretiontobegrantedtothemAndsometimestheundercoveragentsthemselvesunbeknownsttotheiremployerschoosetobreakthelawbecausetheyworryabouttheircredibilityintheeyesof the host group and the consequences if they are discoveredThememoirsofundercoveragentsandspiesarerepletewiththisdilemma
According to incomplete calculations there were about 6500agents provocateurs and other political investigations specialistsoperatinginvariouspoliticalpartiesandorganizationsintheRusshy
26 c h a p t e r 1
sianEmpireatthestartofthetwentiethcenturythepoliceandgendarmesoftensetprioritiesthemselvesattimesevenattheriskofthelivesofhighshyrankinggovernmentofficialsandmembersoftheimperialfamilyMattersconcerningthesecurityofthesecretagentswereoftoppriorityandmaintainingthestrongpositionsofagentswithintheterroristorganizationsof theSocialistshyRevolushytionarieswasconsideredmore important thanpreventingassassishynationsevenagainstofficialsofthegovernment75
AfamouscasewasthatofEvnoAzefanagentwhooperatedinrevolushytionary circles for aboutfifteen years From 1893on hewas a policeagentAsastudentinaGermanpolytechnicschoolhetooktheinitiashytiveofofferinghisservicestothepolicedepartmentat therateof50rublespermonth afterwhichhe attachedhimself to a foreigngroupcallingitselftheUnionofRussianSocialistshyRevolutionariesHeknewaboutthemajorityofterroristactsbeingplannedbytheSRsbuthedidnotalwaysreporttohisbossesaboutthemNeverthelessthepolicepaidhimwellforhisservices76
EpisodesofthiskindarenotrestrictedtopredemocraticsocietiesAnilluminatingcaseoccurredinCanadaAtitspeakin1993theHeritageFront was the largest and bestshyorganized neoshyNazi group in Canadaboastingacontactlistof1800namesGrantBristowcofounderandaleadingmemberofthiswhiteracistgroupturnedouttobeapaidinshyformantoftheCanadianSecurityIntelligenceServiceldquoBristoworchesshytrated aharassment campaign that terrorizedFront enemies harboredleadinginternationalracistsinhisownhomeinclearviolationofbothCSISrulesandtheImmigrationActandassistedintheFrontrsquosinfiltrashytionoftheReformPartyrdquo77ldquoCSISmoleGrantBristowwasanlsquoagentprovocateurrsquowhowithhisspymastersbrokeCanadianlawsandinternalCSISregulationsagroupofMPshaveconcludedBristowrsquosleadershyshiproleinthewhiteracistHeritageFrontthereportsuggestsmay have led to the very events that caused CSIS to keep him in place for several more yearsrdquo78 An inquiry by the Security Intelligence Review CommitteeintotheaffairplayeddowntheaccusationsbutitisclearfromthereportthattherewereseriousbreachesForinstanceontheissueofharassment
27 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
of antiracistmilitants and Jewish communitymembers thedocumentconcludesthatldquoanyinformantwhoenterstheHeritageFrontorasimishylargrouphastomaintainhiscredibilitywithhisassociatesotherwisehewouldnot remain a trustedmember for longThe questionwewerefacedwithwaswhethertheCSISsource[GrantBristow]hadremainedwithintheboundsofappropriatebehaviourwhiletryingtomaintainhiscredibilityTheanswerwearrivedatwasthatin certain circumstances he had not[emphasisintheoriginal]rdquo79
Eveniftheyareonlysupposedtocollectinformationoncriminalorsubversiveactivitiesspiesmayendupproducingmoreofsuchactivitieson theirown initiativeThey tend tobecomeagentsprovocateursnotnecessarilyfortheconspiratorialreasonswhyJosephConradrsquosprotagoshynistinThe Secret Agentdoes(VerlocwasinthepayofanunnamedforshyeignembassythatwantedtopersuadetheBritishtotakeatougherlineagainsttheanarchistsandusedhisdimshywittednephewtostageanldquoanarshychistrdquobombingattack)buttypicallyonlyoutoffearofnotbeingcredshyibleenoughandofriskingtheirlivesThecoststhatmaketheirsignalscredibleintheeyesoftheirtargetsareafterallldquoonlyrdquothoseofbreakinglegalconstraintsTheymayneverbecaughtgiventheintrinsicopacityofwhattheydoandifcaughttheyarenotsolikelytobepunishedcershytainlynotbydeathAndontheothersideoftheequationtheyhavetoconsider the personal costs of failing to persuadeWhen onersquos life isthreatened thecostsofbreakingthe lawmaysuddenlyappear smallerthanthoseofobeyingitThesetofthosewhoarereadytorisktheirlifesacrificetheirfamilyanddeceivedangerouscriminalsforlongperiodsoftimewhileatthesametimeremainingstrictlyalawshyabidingcitizenmustbeextremelysmall
ThisraisesaninterestingquandaryforthecriminalsorterroristswhoaretryingtotestthebonafidesofothersForbyincreasingtheseverityofthepunishmentmetedoutagainstundercoveragentswhoarediscovshyered they encourage the latter to afford costly signals that once disshyplayedmaymakeitimpossibleforthebadguystosaywhethertheposhytentialrecruitsareundercoveragentsinthefirstplace
undercover agentmayfind it preferable to refrain from swallowing itevenatthecostofrevealinghistruetypeforhedoesnotwanttobreakthelawBycontrasttherealcriminalwhowantstodealwiththedrugdealersmayprefertopaythecostofthephysicalillnesscausedbyswalshylowing forhe isentirelyateasewithbreaking the lawThekeyextracost that discriminates between the real criminal and the undercoveragentisthecostofbreakingthelawwhichthemimicfaceswhilethegenuinearticledoesnotAharsherpunishmenthowevercanreversetheequationandmakeitcheaperfortheundercoveragenttoswallowratherthannot swallowevenat thecostofbreaking the lawandthusmakehimbehaviorallyindistinguishablefromtherealcriminalWhenadminshyisteredunder the threatof theharsherpunishment the testno longerseparatesonetypefromtheotherByfailingtoappreciatethisquandaryandthreateningdeathagainstthosewhorefusetoswallowthedrugthedealers fail to realize that theyaredeactivating thevery sourceof thereliabilityoftheirtestforunderthatthreattheagentsarenowallowed(andwouldinanycasefeelinclined)toswallowthedrug
CONCLUSIONS
OncesomeoneintentoncrimeidentifiesapotentialpartnerasabonafidecriminalhehassolvedoneproblemonlytolandinanotherequallydifficultoneHenowhastoestablishwhetherhispartnerisnotjustacrookbutanhonorableoneAfterHughGrantexposedhimselfDivineknewthathewasnotanundercovercopforshebelievedthatcopsdonotdothatYetshestilldidnotknowwhatkindofacustomerhewasProstitutesareconstantlyonguardagainstrobbersorpervertswhoposeasordinarycustomers80AnyonewhoworksoutsidethelawismoreexshyposedthanordinarybusinessmentobecomingthepreyofothercrimishynalswhomimicbeingacriminalofthehonestsortAstreetshydrugdealerwhosuccessfullyadvertises tocustomersmayalsoattract robberswhopretend to be customers in order to get close to the dealers and robthem81Acriminalhastobeonguardagainstbothkindsofmimicslawshyenforcementagentsandcriminalsofthewrongsort
29 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
Ifhonestywerethoughttobeatraitofcertaincriminalsandnotothshyersinordertoestablishwhetherapotentialpartnerishonestonecouldfollowthesamestrategyoneusesforidentifyingwhethersomeoneisacriminal tobeginwithThe samekindof costly signalswouldbe reshyquiredforcriminalstopersuadeoneanotherthattheywerethehonesttypeIncertaincasesthegametheyplayisindeedoneofsignalingtheirtypeHowever inmost circumstancescriminals tend to thinkofeachotherasbeingof justonetypenamelythedishonestoneandbelievethatgivenhalfachancetheywilltakeadvantageofeachotherTheonlyway inwhich they can comealmost toldquotrustrdquo eachother enough tocooperateisthereforenotbysignalingtheirtypebuteitherbyenforcshyingtheirpartnersrsquohonestywiththethreatofsomekindofretaliationormoregenerallybyputtingthemselvesandtheirpartnersinaconditionwherebyldquohonestyrdquo rather thancheating is theirbest courseof actionwhatevertheirtypeIshallexploresomeofthestrategiestheyadoptinchapters2and3
20 c h a p t e r 1
Ifthey[themobsters]werenrsquotscheminganddreamingtheyweretellingwarstoriesreminiscencesabouttheirtimeinvariousjailsandprisonsEverybodydidtimeinthecanItwaspartofthepriceofdoingbusinessTheyknewallaboutdifferent jailscellblocksguards I had enough phony background set up to establish mycredentialsasaseriouscriminaltoshowthatIwastoughenoughtodo time if Ihad towithout turningratBut I never claimed to have done any prison timebecause IdidnrsquotknowthoseplacesandthatcouldhavejustrippedmeupIfyoudothreetofiveyearsyouget to know the guardsmdashwhat guardrsquos on what tierYou get toknowtheinmatesguyswhoaredoingfifteentotwentyguyswhoarestillthereTheyknewthelingoandtheslangEverybodyreshymembersthoserelationshipsandthattime54
IndirectlyPistonersquos choice showswhat a robust signalhavingbeen inprison is It isnot something that canbeeasily fakedguyswhohavetrulybeentherewouldquicklyspotanimpostor
Donniewentonforacoupleofmonths
playing this game of being noticedwithout being noticed slideintothebadguyworldandbecomeacceptedwithoutdrawingatshytentionYoupushalittlehereandtherebutverygentlyBriefinshytroductions short conversations appearances one place and anshyotherhintsaboutwhatyoursquoreuptocasualmannerismsdemeanorand lingo that youknowyourway aroundmdashall these become atrail of credibility you leave behind youAbove all you cannothurryYoucannotseemeagertomeetcertainpeoplemakecertaincontactslearnaboutcertainscoresThe quickest way to get tagged as a cop is to try to move too fastYouhavetoshowthatyouhavethetime to play by the rules of the street and that includes lettingpeoplecheckyououtandcometoyou55
Hewouldphonethebar leavingmessages forhimself just toestablishthathehadconnectionsandconveythebeliefpeopleknewhepatronshyizedthebar57ldquoWhenIwentotherplacesIcouldsayrdquoPistonewritesldquolsquoIbeenhangingoutat thatplace for fourorfivemonthsrsquoAnd theycould check it outThe guys had been hanging around in this placewouldsaylsquoYeahDonBrascohasbeencominginhereforquiteawhileandheseemsallrightnevertriedtopullanythingonusrsquordquo58
Wealsoread ldquoYoucanrsquotgoinallthetimebyyourselfbecausetheythinkyoursquoreeitherafagoracopAnditrsquosgoodtovarycompanysotheydonrsquot see you with the same people all the time and wonder whatrsquosuprdquo59SoDonniewouldbringanoccasionalfemaleorChuckanotherundercover agentThanks to Chuck he was introduced toAlbertldquoahalfshyasswiseguyrdquoaconnectedshytobutnotamadememberof theCoshylombofamily
Donnie eventually became the proteacutegeacute of a made guy BenjaminldquoLeftyGunsrdquoRuggieroandspentsixyearswiththemafiosilivingtheirdaily lives and sharing their crooked dealingsmdashconstantly exposed totheriskofbeingdiscoveredandkilledInthecourseoftheoperationhewasofferedtheopportunitynotonlytohandlethebookmakingforthemob boss of Milwaukee Frank Balistrieri but also to get inside theskimmingoperationinLasVegasBalistrierisaidhehadagoodcrewbuttheywereldquoolderkindof set in theirways Icoulduse someyoungerguysthatIcouldtrusttotakeoveracoupleofmyclubsandotherbusishynessesYoungerguyswouldbeabletorelatetothewaysoftodayrsquosbusishynessworldrdquo62Leftyvouched forDonnieldquoI told [Balistrieri]rdquoDonnie
22 c h a p t e r 1
saysldquoyouaremybloodrdquo63ButacceptingwouldhavemadeitimpossibleforDonnietoseehisrealfamilysoheturneddowntheofferWhilethatdecisionangeredLeftyitalsoconferredanadvantageasitfurthersigshynaledDonniersquoscredibilityldquoOnethingIhadinmyfavorseenthroughanymobguyrsquoseyeswas thatno cop would ever turn that job downSo Iwouldbeabovesuspicioninthatregardrdquo64
Donniecameupwithmanyother signalsbelieved tobeof akindthat a cop could not afford He pretended to beat up someone whoowedmoney toLeftyHe roughedup a comedianwhohad annoyedLeftyattheThunderbirdaMiamirestaurant65Furthermoreldquotypicallywhatanundercovercopwilldo inabuyshybust situation is try tobuysomethingfromyouCops always buy never sellI was going to sellrdquoPistonereveals66mdashthankstothefactthattheFBIallowedhimdiscretioninthatregard One very special commodity he bought though Lefty RugshygierorsquosprotectionTheFBIdishedoutatotalof$40000forthispurposewhileDonniewasundercoverldquoTheywerepayinghimforhisservicesasalsquowiseguyrsquotoinsuretheyhadtheprotectionoftheBonannofamilyin the event another family tried to interfere with their businessrdquo67
WhilepaymentwasostensiblyaimedatcompensatingLeftyitwasalsoliterallyacostlysignalandintentionallydesignedtoappeartobesoldquoBygivinghimmoneyContiandRossi[twoundercoveragentswhocolshylaboratedwithDonnie] ledLefty tobelieve that theywerewilling tobecomeinvolvedwithhimandhe trusted them as bad guysrdquo68
Mafiosiwerenot taken inbecause theyweredumbratherPistonewasunbelievablysmartandresilientanditjustwasveryhardformobshysterstothinkthattakentogetherallthethingshedidanddidnotdowerenotnearshyperfectdiscriminatingsignalsTheFBIwaslatercriticizedforoperatingverynearorevenbeyondthe limitsof the lawBut thisrelative freedomfooledthemafiosibecause theyassumedthatanunshydercoveragentwouldnotpaythecostofbreakingthelawDivinecouldnothavebankedonherneatlittletestifagentsofthelawhadbeenalshylowedtoexposethemselvesThemobsterswerecheatednotjustinthesense thatDonnieBrascoby faking forging andpretending successshyfullymimickedarealbadguybutalsointhesensethathedidsomereal badactions
23 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
In a short biography ofBonanno familymembersmdashposted on theInternetforawhilethenremovedmdashLeftywasdescribedasldquothebiggestidiotinthehistoryofLaCosaNostraHisblindgreedandlackofinshystinctwerefelthardintheAmericanmafiardquoAndyetLeftywascarefulevenyearsafterDonniehadbeenacceptedasaconnectedguyDonniewasassistedbyotherundercoveragentsoneofwhomwasldquoRossirdquoTotestwhetherRossiwasanundercoveragentLeftydeliberatelyldquolostrdquoaplaneticketthatRossihadbookedonhisowncreditcardforLefty(thiswasacovertwayofpayingprotectiontoLefty)ldquoBypretendingtolosetheticketLeftywantedtoseehowRossi reactedIfhewasanagentLeftyreasonedhewouldgetnervousbecausehewouldprobablyhavetoaccount for the ticket tohisofficeplushewouldbeworried thatsomebodylsquointheunderworldbusinessrsquomightmeanwhilefindtheticketandcheckouttheAmericanExpressnumbertoseeifitwasagovernshymentnumberrdquo69
WhenitwasfinallyrevealedthatDonniewasanundercoveragentthemobsterswereshockedanddidnotbelieveittillDonnieactuallytestishyfied in court against them His operation managed to send many ofthemmostlymembersoftheBonannofamilytojail71
ThemobsterslearnedtheirlessonandincreasedthepriceofthetestsNow not just one butldquotwo mafiosi have to vouch for the proposedmemberrdquoldquoTheyhavetosaytheyhaveknowntheproposedmemberifnotsincechildhoodthenatleastforfifteentotwentyyearsrdquo72Accordshying to theFBI theyalso resumeda traditionalpractice thathadbeenabandonedldquoaproposedmembermustlsquomakehisbonesrsquoorkillsomeonebeforehecanbecomeamadeguyTheyhavedonesobecause no agent
24 c h a p t e r 1
would commit murder while posing as a bad guyrdquo73Murderisreallyapershyfectlydiscriminatingsignalofbeingabadguyasignalthatnoundershycover agentnot evenonebelonging to a rather lax lawshyenforcementagencycouldafford
Thisentryrequirementmdashwhichshowshowcriminalactscanbepershypetratednotmerelyfortheirimmediateinstrumentalvaluebutalsofortheir signaling valuemdashhad never been explicitly removed but it wasno longerusedwithgreat determination In truthDominickldquoSonnyBlackrdquoNapolitanowhoeventuallybecameDonniersquosmainmentorandplannedtoproposeDonnieformembershiphadaskedDonnietomurshydersomeoneldquoHegavemeacontractsothatIwouldhavethatcredenshytialwhenheputmynameuprdquoButtheopportunitytocarryitoutdidnotariseforAnthonyBrunoIndelicatotheintendedvictimwentsucshycessfullyintohidingDonnieshowedthathewasdoingallhecouldtotrackIndelicatodownanditwasnotthoughttobehisfaultwhenhefailedThusalthoughhedidnotcarryoutthekillinghestillmanagedtoshowhiswillingnesstodoitandafewmonthslaterSonnyputhisnameforwardformembershipAtthatpointtheFBIdecidedtostoptheoperationandDonnieresumedonceagainhisrealidentity
Undercoveragentsmdashwhohavetopersuadethegrouptheyaimtoinfilshytrateof theircriminalcredentialsmdasharea serious threat forunlikesolomimicstheycandrawontheresourcesofstateagenciesandcanaffordcomplexmimicryactswhichinvolveposingforgingcredentialstrainshyingandfundsStill itcanbenear impossibleto infiltrategroupsproshytected by an array of features that cannot be successfully imitatedmdashwhichinotherwordsperfectlydistinguishtherealfromthephonyFor
EvenaMuslimCIAofficerwithnativeshylanguageabilities(andtheAgencyaccordingtoseveralactiveshydutycaseofficershasveryfewoperativesfromMiddleEasternbackgrounds)coulddolittlemorein thisenvironment [PeshawarPakistan] thanablondblueshyeyedallshyAmericanCaseofficerscannotlongescapetheembassiesandconsulates in which they serveA US official overseasphotoshygraphedandregisteredwiththelocalintelligenceandsecuritysershyvicescanrsquottravelmuchparticularlyinapoliceshyrichcountrylikePakistanwithouttheldquohostrdquoservicesknowingaboutitAnofficerwho tries togonativepretending tobe a trueshybelieving radicalMuslim searching for brothers in the causewillmake a fool ofhimselfquickly
UndercoveroperationsareaproblematicformofanticrimeactivityforanotherreasonaswellThelogicofcostshydiscriminatingsignalsinclinesundercoveragentstogobeyondinnocentpretensionsandsupportinishytiativesof thesamekinda truecriminalor terroristwouldundertakeSincelawshyenforcementagenciesareunderpressuretokeeptheiragentssafetheypushfordiscretiontobegrantedtothemAndsometimestheundercoveragentsthemselvesunbeknownsttotheiremployerschoosetobreakthelawbecausetheyworryabouttheircredibilityintheeyesof the host group and the consequences if they are discoveredThememoirsofundercoveragentsandspiesarerepletewiththisdilemma
According to incomplete calculations there were about 6500agents provocateurs and other political investigations specialistsoperatinginvariouspoliticalpartiesandorganizationsintheRusshy
26 c h a p t e r 1
sianEmpireatthestartofthetwentiethcenturythepoliceandgendarmesoftensetprioritiesthemselvesattimesevenattheriskofthelivesofhighshyrankinggovernmentofficialsandmembersoftheimperialfamilyMattersconcerningthesecurityofthesecretagentswereoftoppriorityandmaintainingthestrongpositionsofagentswithintheterroristorganizationsof theSocialistshyRevolushytionarieswasconsideredmore important thanpreventingassassishynationsevenagainstofficialsofthegovernment75
AfamouscasewasthatofEvnoAzefanagentwhooperatedinrevolushytionary circles for aboutfifteen years From 1893on hewas a policeagentAsastudentinaGermanpolytechnicschoolhetooktheinitiashytiveofofferinghisservicestothepolicedepartmentat therateof50rublespermonth afterwhichhe attachedhimself to a foreigngroupcallingitselftheUnionofRussianSocialistshyRevolutionariesHeknewaboutthemajorityofterroristactsbeingplannedbytheSRsbuthedidnotalwaysreporttohisbossesaboutthemNeverthelessthepolicepaidhimwellforhisservices76
EpisodesofthiskindarenotrestrictedtopredemocraticsocietiesAnilluminatingcaseoccurredinCanadaAtitspeakin1993theHeritageFront was the largest and bestshyorganized neoshyNazi group in Canadaboastingacontactlistof1800namesGrantBristowcofounderandaleadingmemberofthiswhiteracistgroupturnedouttobeapaidinshyformantoftheCanadianSecurityIntelligenceServiceldquoBristoworchesshytrated aharassment campaign that terrorizedFront enemies harboredleadinginternationalracistsinhisownhomeinclearviolationofbothCSISrulesandtheImmigrationActandassistedintheFrontrsquosinfiltrashytionoftheReformPartyrdquo77ldquoCSISmoleGrantBristowwasanlsquoagentprovocateurrsquowhowithhisspymastersbrokeCanadianlawsandinternalCSISregulationsagroupofMPshaveconcludedBristowrsquosleadershyshiproleinthewhiteracistHeritageFrontthereportsuggestsmay have led to the very events that caused CSIS to keep him in place for several more yearsrdquo78 An inquiry by the Security Intelligence Review CommitteeintotheaffairplayeddowntheaccusationsbutitisclearfromthereportthattherewereseriousbreachesForinstanceontheissueofharassment
27 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
of antiracistmilitants and Jewish communitymembers thedocumentconcludesthatldquoanyinformantwhoenterstheHeritageFrontorasimishylargrouphastomaintainhiscredibilitywithhisassociatesotherwisehewouldnot remain a trustedmember for longThe questionwewerefacedwithwaswhethertheCSISsource[GrantBristow]hadremainedwithintheboundsofappropriatebehaviourwhiletryingtomaintainhiscredibilityTheanswerwearrivedatwasthatin certain circumstances he had not[emphasisintheoriginal]rdquo79
Eveniftheyareonlysupposedtocollectinformationoncriminalorsubversiveactivitiesspiesmayendupproducingmoreofsuchactivitieson theirown initiativeThey tend tobecomeagentsprovocateursnotnecessarilyfortheconspiratorialreasonswhyJosephConradrsquosprotagoshynistinThe Secret Agentdoes(VerlocwasinthepayofanunnamedforshyeignembassythatwantedtopersuadetheBritishtotakeatougherlineagainsttheanarchistsandusedhisdimshywittednephewtostageanldquoanarshychistrdquobombingattack)buttypicallyonlyoutoffearofnotbeingcredshyibleenoughandofriskingtheirlivesThecoststhatmaketheirsignalscredibleintheeyesoftheirtargetsareafterallldquoonlyrdquothoseofbreakinglegalconstraintsTheymayneverbecaughtgiventheintrinsicopacityofwhattheydoandifcaughttheyarenotsolikelytobepunishedcershytainlynotbydeathAndontheothersideoftheequationtheyhavetoconsider the personal costs of failing to persuadeWhen onersquos life isthreatened thecostsofbreakingthe lawmaysuddenlyappear smallerthanthoseofobeyingitThesetofthosewhoarereadytorisktheirlifesacrificetheirfamilyanddeceivedangerouscriminalsforlongperiodsoftimewhileatthesametimeremainingstrictlyalawshyabidingcitizenmustbeextremelysmall
ThisraisesaninterestingquandaryforthecriminalsorterroristswhoaretryingtotestthebonafidesofothersForbyincreasingtheseverityofthepunishmentmetedoutagainstundercoveragentswhoarediscovshyered they encourage the latter to afford costly signals that once disshyplayedmaymakeitimpossibleforthebadguystosaywhethertheposhytentialrecruitsareundercoveragentsinthefirstplace
undercover agentmayfind it preferable to refrain from swallowing itevenatthecostofrevealinghistruetypeforhedoesnotwanttobreakthelawBycontrasttherealcriminalwhowantstodealwiththedrugdealersmayprefertopaythecostofthephysicalillnesscausedbyswalshylowing forhe isentirelyateasewithbreaking the lawThekeyextracost that discriminates between the real criminal and the undercoveragentisthecostofbreakingthelawwhichthemimicfaceswhilethegenuinearticledoesnotAharsherpunishmenthowevercanreversetheequationandmakeitcheaperfortheundercoveragenttoswallowratherthannot swallowevenat thecostofbreaking the lawandthusmakehimbehaviorallyindistinguishablefromtherealcriminalWhenadminshyisteredunder the threatof theharsherpunishment the testno longerseparatesonetypefromtheotherByfailingtoappreciatethisquandaryandthreateningdeathagainstthosewhorefusetoswallowthedrugthedealers fail to realize that theyaredeactivating thevery sourceof thereliabilityoftheirtestforunderthatthreattheagentsarenowallowed(andwouldinanycasefeelinclined)toswallowthedrug
CONCLUSIONS
OncesomeoneintentoncrimeidentifiesapotentialpartnerasabonafidecriminalhehassolvedoneproblemonlytolandinanotherequallydifficultoneHenowhastoestablishwhetherhispartnerisnotjustacrookbutanhonorableoneAfterHughGrantexposedhimselfDivineknewthathewasnotanundercovercopforshebelievedthatcopsdonotdothatYetshestilldidnotknowwhatkindofacustomerhewasProstitutesareconstantlyonguardagainstrobbersorpervertswhoposeasordinarycustomers80AnyonewhoworksoutsidethelawismoreexshyposedthanordinarybusinessmentobecomingthepreyofothercrimishynalswhomimicbeingacriminalofthehonestsortAstreetshydrugdealerwhosuccessfullyadvertises tocustomersmayalsoattract robberswhopretend to be customers in order to get close to the dealers and robthem81Acriminalhastobeonguardagainstbothkindsofmimicslawshyenforcementagentsandcriminalsofthewrongsort
29 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
Ifhonestywerethoughttobeatraitofcertaincriminalsandnotothshyersinordertoestablishwhetherapotentialpartnerishonestonecouldfollowthesamestrategyoneusesforidentifyingwhethersomeoneisacriminal tobeginwithThe samekindof costly signalswouldbe reshyquiredforcriminalstopersuadeoneanotherthattheywerethehonesttypeIncertaincasesthegametheyplayisindeedoneofsignalingtheirtypeHowever inmost circumstancescriminals tend to thinkofeachotherasbeingof justonetypenamelythedishonestoneandbelievethatgivenhalfachancetheywilltakeadvantageofeachotherTheonlyway inwhich they can comealmost toldquotrustrdquo eachother enough tocooperateisthereforenotbysignalingtheirtypebuteitherbyenforcshyingtheirpartnersrsquohonestywiththethreatofsomekindofretaliationormoregenerallybyputtingthemselvesandtheirpartnersinaconditionwherebyldquohonestyrdquo rather thancheating is theirbest courseof actionwhatevertheirtypeIshallexploresomeofthestrategiestheyadoptinchapters2and3
21 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
Hewouldphonethebar leavingmessages forhimself just toestablishthathehadconnectionsandconveythebeliefpeopleknewhepatronshyizedthebar57ldquoWhenIwentotherplacesIcouldsayrdquoPistonewritesldquolsquoIbeenhangingoutat thatplace for fourorfivemonthsrsquoAnd theycould check it outThe guys had been hanging around in this placewouldsaylsquoYeahDonBrascohasbeencominginhereforquiteawhileandheseemsallrightnevertriedtopullanythingonusrsquordquo58
Wealsoread ldquoYoucanrsquotgoinallthetimebyyourselfbecausetheythinkyoursquoreeitherafagoracopAnditrsquosgoodtovarycompanysotheydonrsquot see you with the same people all the time and wonder whatrsquosuprdquo59SoDonniewouldbringanoccasionalfemaleorChuckanotherundercover agentThanks to Chuck he was introduced toAlbertldquoahalfshyasswiseguyrdquoaconnectedshytobutnotamadememberof theCoshylombofamily
Donnie eventually became the proteacutegeacute of a made guy BenjaminldquoLeftyGunsrdquoRuggieroandspentsixyearswiththemafiosilivingtheirdaily lives and sharing their crooked dealingsmdashconstantly exposed totheriskofbeingdiscoveredandkilledInthecourseoftheoperationhewasofferedtheopportunitynotonlytohandlethebookmakingforthemob boss of Milwaukee Frank Balistrieri but also to get inside theskimmingoperationinLasVegasBalistrierisaidhehadagoodcrewbuttheywereldquoolderkindof set in theirways Icoulduse someyoungerguysthatIcouldtrusttotakeoveracoupleofmyclubsandotherbusishynessesYoungerguyswouldbeabletorelatetothewaysoftodayrsquosbusishynessworldrdquo62Leftyvouched forDonnieldquoI told [Balistrieri]rdquoDonnie
22 c h a p t e r 1
saysldquoyouaremybloodrdquo63ButacceptingwouldhavemadeitimpossibleforDonnietoseehisrealfamilysoheturneddowntheofferWhilethatdecisionangeredLeftyitalsoconferredanadvantageasitfurthersigshynaledDonniersquoscredibilityldquoOnethingIhadinmyfavorseenthroughanymobguyrsquoseyeswas thatno cop would ever turn that job downSo Iwouldbeabovesuspicioninthatregardrdquo64
Donniecameupwithmanyother signalsbelieved tobeof akindthat a cop could not afford He pretended to beat up someone whoowedmoney toLeftyHe roughedup a comedianwhohad annoyedLeftyattheThunderbirdaMiamirestaurant65Furthermoreldquotypicallywhatanundercovercopwilldo inabuyshybust situation is try tobuysomethingfromyouCops always buy never sellI was going to sellrdquoPistonereveals66mdashthankstothefactthattheFBIallowedhimdiscretioninthatregard One very special commodity he bought though Lefty RugshygierorsquosprotectionTheFBIdishedoutatotalof$40000forthispurposewhileDonniewasundercoverldquoTheywerepayinghimforhisservicesasalsquowiseguyrsquotoinsuretheyhadtheprotectionoftheBonannofamilyin the event another family tried to interfere with their businessrdquo67
WhilepaymentwasostensiblyaimedatcompensatingLeftyitwasalsoliterallyacostlysignalandintentionallydesignedtoappeartobesoldquoBygivinghimmoneyContiandRossi[twoundercoveragentswhocolshylaboratedwithDonnie] ledLefty tobelieve that theywerewilling tobecomeinvolvedwithhimandhe trusted them as bad guysrdquo68
Mafiosiwerenot taken inbecause theyweredumbratherPistonewasunbelievablysmartandresilientanditjustwasveryhardformobshysterstothinkthattakentogetherallthethingshedidanddidnotdowerenotnearshyperfectdiscriminatingsignalsTheFBIwaslatercriticizedforoperatingverynearorevenbeyondthe limitsof the lawBut thisrelative freedomfooledthemafiosibecause theyassumedthatanunshydercoveragentwouldnotpaythecostofbreakingthelawDivinecouldnothavebankedonherneatlittletestifagentsofthelawhadbeenalshylowedtoexposethemselvesThemobsterswerecheatednotjustinthesense thatDonnieBrascoby faking forging andpretending successshyfullymimickedarealbadguybutalsointhesensethathedidsomereal badactions
23 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
In a short biography ofBonanno familymembersmdashposted on theInternetforawhilethenremovedmdashLeftywasdescribedasldquothebiggestidiotinthehistoryofLaCosaNostraHisblindgreedandlackofinshystinctwerefelthardintheAmericanmafiardquoAndyetLeftywascarefulevenyearsafterDonniehadbeenacceptedasaconnectedguyDonniewasassistedbyotherundercoveragentsoneofwhomwasldquoRossirdquoTotestwhetherRossiwasanundercoveragentLeftydeliberatelyldquolostrdquoaplaneticketthatRossihadbookedonhisowncreditcardforLefty(thiswasacovertwayofpayingprotectiontoLefty)ldquoBypretendingtolosetheticketLeftywantedtoseehowRossi reactedIfhewasanagentLeftyreasonedhewouldgetnervousbecausehewouldprobablyhavetoaccount for the ticket tohisofficeplushewouldbeworried thatsomebodylsquointheunderworldbusinessrsquomightmeanwhilefindtheticketandcheckouttheAmericanExpressnumbertoseeifitwasagovernshymentnumberrdquo69
WhenitwasfinallyrevealedthatDonniewasanundercoveragentthemobsterswereshockedanddidnotbelieveittillDonnieactuallytestishyfied in court against them His operation managed to send many ofthemmostlymembersoftheBonannofamilytojail71
ThemobsterslearnedtheirlessonandincreasedthepriceofthetestsNow not just one butldquotwo mafiosi have to vouch for the proposedmemberrdquoldquoTheyhavetosaytheyhaveknowntheproposedmemberifnotsincechildhoodthenatleastforfifteentotwentyyearsrdquo72Accordshying to theFBI theyalso resumeda traditionalpractice thathadbeenabandonedldquoaproposedmembermustlsquomakehisbonesrsquoorkillsomeonebeforehecanbecomeamadeguyTheyhavedonesobecause no agent
24 c h a p t e r 1
would commit murder while posing as a bad guyrdquo73Murderisreallyapershyfectlydiscriminatingsignalofbeingabadguyasignalthatnoundershycover agentnot evenonebelonging to a rather lax lawshyenforcementagencycouldafford
Thisentryrequirementmdashwhichshowshowcriminalactscanbepershypetratednotmerelyfortheirimmediateinstrumentalvaluebutalsofortheir signaling valuemdashhad never been explicitly removed but it wasno longerusedwithgreat determination In truthDominickldquoSonnyBlackrdquoNapolitanowhoeventuallybecameDonniersquosmainmentorandplannedtoproposeDonnieformembershiphadaskedDonnietomurshydersomeoneldquoHegavemeacontractsothatIwouldhavethatcredenshytialwhenheputmynameuprdquoButtheopportunitytocarryitoutdidnotariseforAnthonyBrunoIndelicatotheintendedvictimwentsucshycessfullyintohidingDonnieshowedthathewasdoingallhecouldtotrackIndelicatodownanditwasnotthoughttobehisfaultwhenhefailedThusalthoughhedidnotcarryoutthekillinghestillmanagedtoshowhiswillingnesstodoitandafewmonthslaterSonnyputhisnameforwardformembershipAtthatpointtheFBIdecidedtostoptheoperationandDonnieresumedonceagainhisrealidentity
Undercoveragentsmdashwhohavetopersuadethegrouptheyaimtoinfilshytrateof theircriminalcredentialsmdasharea serious threat forunlikesolomimicstheycandrawontheresourcesofstateagenciesandcanaffordcomplexmimicryactswhichinvolveposingforgingcredentialstrainshyingandfundsStill itcanbenear impossibleto infiltrategroupsproshytected by an array of features that cannot be successfully imitatedmdashwhichinotherwordsperfectlydistinguishtherealfromthephonyFor
EvenaMuslimCIAofficerwithnativeshylanguageabilities(andtheAgencyaccordingtoseveralactiveshydutycaseofficershasveryfewoperativesfromMiddleEasternbackgrounds)coulddolittlemorein thisenvironment [PeshawarPakistan] thanablondblueshyeyedallshyAmericanCaseofficerscannotlongescapetheembassiesandconsulates in which they serveA US official overseasphotoshygraphedandregisteredwiththelocalintelligenceandsecuritysershyvicescanrsquottravelmuchparticularlyinapoliceshyrichcountrylikePakistanwithouttheldquohostrdquoservicesknowingaboutitAnofficerwho tries togonativepretending tobe a trueshybelieving radicalMuslim searching for brothers in the causewillmake a fool ofhimselfquickly
UndercoveroperationsareaproblematicformofanticrimeactivityforanotherreasonaswellThelogicofcostshydiscriminatingsignalsinclinesundercoveragentstogobeyondinnocentpretensionsandsupportinishytiativesof thesamekinda truecriminalor terroristwouldundertakeSincelawshyenforcementagenciesareunderpressuretokeeptheiragentssafetheypushfordiscretiontobegrantedtothemAndsometimestheundercoveragentsthemselvesunbeknownsttotheiremployerschoosetobreakthelawbecausetheyworryabouttheircredibilityintheeyesof the host group and the consequences if they are discoveredThememoirsofundercoveragentsandspiesarerepletewiththisdilemma
According to incomplete calculations there were about 6500agents provocateurs and other political investigations specialistsoperatinginvariouspoliticalpartiesandorganizationsintheRusshy
26 c h a p t e r 1
sianEmpireatthestartofthetwentiethcenturythepoliceandgendarmesoftensetprioritiesthemselvesattimesevenattheriskofthelivesofhighshyrankinggovernmentofficialsandmembersoftheimperialfamilyMattersconcerningthesecurityofthesecretagentswereoftoppriorityandmaintainingthestrongpositionsofagentswithintheterroristorganizationsof theSocialistshyRevolushytionarieswasconsideredmore important thanpreventingassassishynationsevenagainstofficialsofthegovernment75
AfamouscasewasthatofEvnoAzefanagentwhooperatedinrevolushytionary circles for aboutfifteen years From 1893on hewas a policeagentAsastudentinaGermanpolytechnicschoolhetooktheinitiashytiveofofferinghisservicestothepolicedepartmentat therateof50rublespermonth afterwhichhe attachedhimself to a foreigngroupcallingitselftheUnionofRussianSocialistshyRevolutionariesHeknewaboutthemajorityofterroristactsbeingplannedbytheSRsbuthedidnotalwaysreporttohisbossesaboutthemNeverthelessthepolicepaidhimwellforhisservices76
EpisodesofthiskindarenotrestrictedtopredemocraticsocietiesAnilluminatingcaseoccurredinCanadaAtitspeakin1993theHeritageFront was the largest and bestshyorganized neoshyNazi group in Canadaboastingacontactlistof1800namesGrantBristowcofounderandaleadingmemberofthiswhiteracistgroupturnedouttobeapaidinshyformantoftheCanadianSecurityIntelligenceServiceldquoBristoworchesshytrated aharassment campaign that terrorizedFront enemies harboredleadinginternationalracistsinhisownhomeinclearviolationofbothCSISrulesandtheImmigrationActandassistedintheFrontrsquosinfiltrashytionoftheReformPartyrdquo77ldquoCSISmoleGrantBristowwasanlsquoagentprovocateurrsquowhowithhisspymastersbrokeCanadianlawsandinternalCSISregulationsagroupofMPshaveconcludedBristowrsquosleadershyshiproleinthewhiteracistHeritageFrontthereportsuggestsmay have led to the very events that caused CSIS to keep him in place for several more yearsrdquo78 An inquiry by the Security Intelligence Review CommitteeintotheaffairplayeddowntheaccusationsbutitisclearfromthereportthattherewereseriousbreachesForinstanceontheissueofharassment
27 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
of antiracistmilitants and Jewish communitymembers thedocumentconcludesthatldquoanyinformantwhoenterstheHeritageFrontorasimishylargrouphastomaintainhiscredibilitywithhisassociatesotherwisehewouldnot remain a trustedmember for longThe questionwewerefacedwithwaswhethertheCSISsource[GrantBristow]hadremainedwithintheboundsofappropriatebehaviourwhiletryingtomaintainhiscredibilityTheanswerwearrivedatwasthatin certain circumstances he had not[emphasisintheoriginal]rdquo79
Eveniftheyareonlysupposedtocollectinformationoncriminalorsubversiveactivitiesspiesmayendupproducingmoreofsuchactivitieson theirown initiativeThey tend tobecomeagentsprovocateursnotnecessarilyfortheconspiratorialreasonswhyJosephConradrsquosprotagoshynistinThe Secret Agentdoes(VerlocwasinthepayofanunnamedforshyeignembassythatwantedtopersuadetheBritishtotakeatougherlineagainsttheanarchistsandusedhisdimshywittednephewtostageanldquoanarshychistrdquobombingattack)buttypicallyonlyoutoffearofnotbeingcredshyibleenoughandofriskingtheirlivesThecoststhatmaketheirsignalscredibleintheeyesoftheirtargetsareafterallldquoonlyrdquothoseofbreakinglegalconstraintsTheymayneverbecaughtgiventheintrinsicopacityofwhattheydoandifcaughttheyarenotsolikelytobepunishedcershytainlynotbydeathAndontheothersideoftheequationtheyhavetoconsider the personal costs of failing to persuadeWhen onersquos life isthreatened thecostsofbreakingthe lawmaysuddenlyappear smallerthanthoseofobeyingitThesetofthosewhoarereadytorisktheirlifesacrificetheirfamilyanddeceivedangerouscriminalsforlongperiodsoftimewhileatthesametimeremainingstrictlyalawshyabidingcitizenmustbeextremelysmall
ThisraisesaninterestingquandaryforthecriminalsorterroristswhoaretryingtotestthebonafidesofothersForbyincreasingtheseverityofthepunishmentmetedoutagainstundercoveragentswhoarediscovshyered they encourage the latter to afford costly signals that once disshyplayedmaymakeitimpossibleforthebadguystosaywhethertheposhytentialrecruitsareundercoveragentsinthefirstplace
undercover agentmayfind it preferable to refrain from swallowing itevenatthecostofrevealinghistruetypeforhedoesnotwanttobreakthelawBycontrasttherealcriminalwhowantstodealwiththedrugdealersmayprefertopaythecostofthephysicalillnesscausedbyswalshylowing forhe isentirelyateasewithbreaking the lawThekeyextracost that discriminates between the real criminal and the undercoveragentisthecostofbreakingthelawwhichthemimicfaceswhilethegenuinearticledoesnotAharsherpunishmenthowevercanreversetheequationandmakeitcheaperfortheundercoveragenttoswallowratherthannot swallowevenat thecostofbreaking the lawandthusmakehimbehaviorallyindistinguishablefromtherealcriminalWhenadminshyisteredunder the threatof theharsherpunishment the testno longerseparatesonetypefromtheotherByfailingtoappreciatethisquandaryandthreateningdeathagainstthosewhorefusetoswallowthedrugthedealers fail to realize that theyaredeactivating thevery sourceof thereliabilityoftheirtestforunderthatthreattheagentsarenowallowed(andwouldinanycasefeelinclined)toswallowthedrug
CONCLUSIONS
OncesomeoneintentoncrimeidentifiesapotentialpartnerasabonafidecriminalhehassolvedoneproblemonlytolandinanotherequallydifficultoneHenowhastoestablishwhetherhispartnerisnotjustacrookbutanhonorableoneAfterHughGrantexposedhimselfDivineknewthathewasnotanundercovercopforshebelievedthatcopsdonotdothatYetshestilldidnotknowwhatkindofacustomerhewasProstitutesareconstantlyonguardagainstrobbersorpervertswhoposeasordinarycustomers80AnyonewhoworksoutsidethelawismoreexshyposedthanordinarybusinessmentobecomingthepreyofothercrimishynalswhomimicbeingacriminalofthehonestsortAstreetshydrugdealerwhosuccessfullyadvertises tocustomersmayalsoattract robberswhopretend to be customers in order to get close to the dealers and robthem81Acriminalhastobeonguardagainstbothkindsofmimicslawshyenforcementagentsandcriminalsofthewrongsort
29 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
Ifhonestywerethoughttobeatraitofcertaincriminalsandnotothshyersinordertoestablishwhetherapotentialpartnerishonestonecouldfollowthesamestrategyoneusesforidentifyingwhethersomeoneisacriminal tobeginwithThe samekindof costly signalswouldbe reshyquiredforcriminalstopersuadeoneanotherthattheywerethehonesttypeIncertaincasesthegametheyplayisindeedoneofsignalingtheirtypeHowever inmost circumstancescriminals tend to thinkofeachotherasbeingof justonetypenamelythedishonestoneandbelievethatgivenhalfachancetheywilltakeadvantageofeachotherTheonlyway inwhich they can comealmost toldquotrustrdquo eachother enough tocooperateisthereforenotbysignalingtheirtypebuteitherbyenforcshyingtheirpartnersrsquohonestywiththethreatofsomekindofretaliationormoregenerallybyputtingthemselvesandtheirpartnersinaconditionwherebyldquohonestyrdquo rather thancheating is theirbest courseof actionwhatevertheirtypeIshallexploresomeofthestrategiestheyadoptinchapters2and3
22 c h a p t e r 1
saysldquoyouaremybloodrdquo63ButacceptingwouldhavemadeitimpossibleforDonnietoseehisrealfamilysoheturneddowntheofferWhilethatdecisionangeredLeftyitalsoconferredanadvantageasitfurthersigshynaledDonniersquoscredibilityldquoOnethingIhadinmyfavorseenthroughanymobguyrsquoseyeswas thatno cop would ever turn that job downSo Iwouldbeabovesuspicioninthatregardrdquo64
Donniecameupwithmanyother signalsbelieved tobeof akindthat a cop could not afford He pretended to beat up someone whoowedmoney toLeftyHe roughedup a comedianwhohad annoyedLeftyattheThunderbirdaMiamirestaurant65Furthermoreldquotypicallywhatanundercovercopwilldo inabuyshybust situation is try tobuysomethingfromyouCops always buy never sellI was going to sellrdquoPistonereveals66mdashthankstothefactthattheFBIallowedhimdiscretioninthatregard One very special commodity he bought though Lefty RugshygierorsquosprotectionTheFBIdishedoutatotalof$40000forthispurposewhileDonniewasundercoverldquoTheywerepayinghimforhisservicesasalsquowiseguyrsquotoinsuretheyhadtheprotectionoftheBonannofamilyin the event another family tried to interfere with their businessrdquo67
WhilepaymentwasostensiblyaimedatcompensatingLeftyitwasalsoliterallyacostlysignalandintentionallydesignedtoappeartobesoldquoBygivinghimmoneyContiandRossi[twoundercoveragentswhocolshylaboratedwithDonnie] ledLefty tobelieve that theywerewilling tobecomeinvolvedwithhimandhe trusted them as bad guysrdquo68
Mafiosiwerenot taken inbecause theyweredumbratherPistonewasunbelievablysmartandresilientanditjustwasveryhardformobshysterstothinkthattakentogetherallthethingshedidanddidnotdowerenotnearshyperfectdiscriminatingsignalsTheFBIwaslatercriticizedforoperatingverynearorevenbeyondthe limitsof the lawBut thisrelative freedomfooledthemafiosibecause theyassumedthatanunshydercoveragentwouldnotpaythecostofbreakingthelawDivinecouldnothavebankedonherneatlittletestifagentsofthelawhadbeenalshylowedtoexposethemselvesThemobsterswerecheatednotjustinthesense thatDonnieBrascoby faking forging andpretending successshyfullymimickedarealbadguybutalsointhesensethathedidsomereal badactions
23 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
In a short biography ofBonanno familymembersmdashposted on theInternetforawhilethenremovedmdashLeftywasdescribedasldquothebiggestidiotinthehistoryofLaCosaNostraHisblindgreedandlackofinshystinctwerefelthardintheAmericanmafiardquoAndyetLeftywascarefulevenyearsafterDonniehadbeenacceptedasaconnectedguyDonniewasassistedbyotherundercoveragentsoneofwhomwasldquoRossirdquoTotestwhetherRossiwasanundercoveragentLeftydeliberatelyldquolostrdquoaplaneticketthatRossihadbookedonhisowncreditcardforLefty(thiswasacovertwayofpayingprotectiontoLefty)ldquoBypretendingtolosetheticketLeftywantedtoseehowRossi reactedIfhewasanagentLeftyreasonedhewouldgetnervousbecausehewouldprobablyhavetoaccount for the ticket tohisofficeplushewouldbeworried thatsomebodylsquointheunderworldbusinessrsquomightmeanwhilefindtheticketandcheckouttheAmericanExpressnumbertoseeifitwasagovernshymentnumberrdquo69
WhenitwasfinallyrevealedthatDonniewasanundercoveragentthemobsterswereshockedanddidnotbelieveittillDonnieactuallytestishyfied in court against them His operation managed to send many ofthemmostlymembersoftheBonannofamilytojail71
ThemobsterslearnedtheirlessonandincreasedthepriceofthetestsNow not just one butldquotwo mafiosi have to vouch for the proposedmemberrdquoldquoTheyhavetosaytheyhaveknowntheproposedmemberifnotsincechildhoodthenatleastforfifteentotwentyyearsrdquo72Accordshying to theFBI theyalso resumeda traditionalpractice thathadbeenabandonedldquoaproposedmembermustlsquomakehisbonesrsquoorkillsomeonebeforehecanbecomeamadeguyTheyhavedonesobecause no agent
24 c h a p t e r 1
would commit murder while posing as a bad guyrdquo73Murderisreallyapershyfectlydiscriminatingsignalofbeingabadguyasignalthatnoundershycover agentnot evenonebelonging to a rather lax lawshyenforcementagencycouldafford
Thisentryrequirementmdashwhichshowshowcriminalactscanbepershypetratednotmerelyfortheirimmediateinstrumentalvaluebutalsofortheir signaling valuemdashhad never been explicitly removed but it wasno longerusedwithgreat determination In truthDominickldquoSonnyBlackrdquoNapolitanowhoeventuallybecameDonniersquosmainmentorandplannedtoproposeDonnieformembershiphadaskedDonnietomurshydersomeoneldquoHegavemeacontractsothatIwouldhavethatcredenshytialwhenheputmynameuprdquoButtheopportunitytocarryitoutdidnotariseforAnthonyBrunoIndelicatotheintendedvictimwentsucshycessfullyintohidingDonnieshowedthathewasdoingallhecouldtotrackIndelicatodownanditwasnotthoughttobehisfaultwhenhefailedThusalthoughhedidnotcarryoutthekillinghestillmanagedtoshowhiswillingnesstodoitandafewmonthslaterSonnyputhisnameforwardformembershipAtthatpointtheFBIdecidedtostoptheoperationandDonnieresumedonceagainhisrealidentity
Undercoveragentsmdashwhohavetopersuadethegrouptheyaimtoinfilshytrateof theircriminalcredentialsmdasharea serious threat forunlikesolomimicstheycandrawontheresourcesofstateagenciesandcanaffordcomplexmimicryactswhichinvolveposingforgingcredentialstrainshyingandfundsStill itcanbenear impossibleto infiltrategroupsproshytected by an array of features that cannot be successfully imitatedmdashwhichinotherwordsperfectlydistinguishtherealfromthephonyFor
EvenaMuslimCIAofficerwithnativeshylanguageabilities(andtheAgencyaccordingtoseveralactiveshydutycaseofficershasveryfewoperativesfromMiddleEasternbackgrounds)coulddolittlemorein thisenvironment [PeshawarPakistan] thanablondblueshyeyedallshyAmericanCaseofficerscannotlongescapetheembassiesandconsulates in which they serveA US official overseasphotoshygraphedandregisteredwiththelocalintelligenceandsecuritysershyvicescanrsquottravelmuchparticularlyinapoliceshyrichcountrylikePakistanwithouttheldquohostrdquoservicesknowingaboutitAnofficerwho tries togonativepretending tobe a trueshybelieving radicalMuslim searching for brothers in the causewillmake a fool ofhimselfquickly
UndercoveroperationsareaproblematicformofanticrimeactivityforanotherreasonaswellThelogicofcostshydiscriminatingsignalsinclinesundercoveragentstogobeyondinnocentpretensionsandsupportinishytiativesof thesamekinda truecriminalor terroristwouldundertakeSincelawshyenforcementagenciesareunderpressuretokeeptheiragentssafetheypushfordiscretiontobegrantedtothemAndsometimestheundercoveragentsthemselvesunbeknownsttotheiremployerschoosetobreakthelawbecausetheyworryabouttheircredibilityintheeyesof the host group and the consequences if they are discoveredThememoirsofundercoveragentsandspiesarerepletewiththisdilemma
According to incomplete calculations there were about 6500agents provocateurs and other political investigations specialistsoperatinginvariouspoliticalpartiesandorganizationsintheRusshy
26 c h a p t e r 1
sianEmpireatthestartofthetwentiethcenturythepoliceandgendarmesoftensetprioritiesthemselvesattimesevenattheriskofthelivesofhighshyrankinggovernmentofficialsandmembersoftheimperialfamilyMattersconcerningthesecurityofthesecretagentswereoftoppriorityandmaintainingthestrongpositionsofagentswithintheterroristorganizationsof theSocialistshyRevolushytionarieswasconsideredmore important thanpreventingassassishynationsevenagainstofficialsofthegovernment75
AfamouscasewasthatofEvnoAzefanagentwhooperatedinrevolushytionary circles for aboutfifteen years From 1893on hewas a policeagentAsastudentinaGermanpolytechnicschoolhetooktheinitiashytiveofofferinghisservicestothepolicedepartmentat therateof50rublespermonth afterwhichhe attachedhimself to a foreigngroupcallingitselftheUnionofRussianSocialistshyRevolutionariesHeknewaboutthemajorityofterroristactsbeingplannedbytheSRsbuthedidnotalwaysreporttohisbossesaboutthemNeverthelessthepolicepaidhimwellforhisservices76
EpisodesofthiskindarenotrestrictedtopredemocraticsocietiesAnilluminatingcaseoccurredinCanadaAtitspeakin1993theHeritageFront was the largest and bestshyorganized neoshyNazi group in Canadaboastingacontactlistof1800namesGrantBristowcofounderandaleadingmemberofthiswhiteracistgroupturnedouttobeapaidinshyformantoftheCanadianSecurityIntelligenceServiceldquoBristoworchesshytrated aharassment campaign that terrorizedFront enemies harboredleadinginternationalracistsinhisownhomeinclearviolationofbothCSISrulesandtheImmigrationActandassistedintheFrontrsquosinfiltrashytionoftheReformPartyrdquo77ldquoCSISmoleGrantBristowwasanlsquoagentprovocateurrsquowhowithhisspymastersbrokeCanadianlawsandinternalCSISregulationsagroupofMPshaveconcludedBristowrsquosleadershyshiproleinthewhiteracistHeritageFrontthereportsuggestsmay have led to the very events that caused CSIS to keep him in place for several more yearsrdquo78 An inquiry by the Security Intelligence Review CommitteeintotheaffairplayeddowntheaccusationsbutitisclearfromthereportthattherewereseriousbreachesForinstanceontheissueofharassment
27 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
of antiracistmilitants and Jewish communitymembers thedocumentconcludesthatldquoanyinformantwhoenterstheHeritageFrontorasimishylargrouphastomaintainhiscredibilitywithhisassociatesotherwisehewouldnot remain a trustedmember for longThe questionwewerefacedwithwaswhethertheCSISsource[GrantBristow]hadremainedwithintheboundsofappropriatebehaviourwhiletryingtomaintainhiscredibilityTheanswerwearrivedatwasthatin certain circumstances he had not[emphasisintheoriginal]rdquo79
Eveniftheyareonlysupposedtocollectinformationoncriminalorsubversiveactivitiesspiesmayendupproducingmoreofsuchactivitieson theirown initiativeThey tend tobecomeagentsprovocateursnotnecessarilyfortheconspiratorialreasonswhyJosephConradrsquosprotagoshynistinThe Secret Agentdoes(VerlocwasinthepayofanunnamedforshyeignembassythatwantedtopersuadetheBritishtotakeatougherlineagainsttheanarchistsandusedhisdimshywittednephewtostageanldquoanarshychistrdquobombingattack)buttypicallyonlyoutoffearofnotbeingcredshyibleenoughandofriskingtheirlivesThecoststhatmaketheirsignalscredibleintheeyesoftheirtargetsareafterallldquoonlyrdquothoseofbreakinglegalconstraintsTheymayneverbecaughtgiventheintrinsicopacityofwhattheydoandifcaughttheyarenotsolikelytobepunishedcershytainlynotbydeathAndontheothersideoftheequationtheyhavetoconsider the personal costs of failing to persuadeWhen onersquos life isthreatened thecostsofbreakingthe lawmaysuddenlyappear smallerthanthoseofobeyingitThesetofthosewhoarereadytorisktheirlifesacrificetheirfamilyanddeceivedangerouscriminalsforlongperiodsoftimewhileatthesametimeremainingstrictlyalawshyabidingcitizenmustbeextremelysmall
ThisraisesaninterestingquandaryforthecriminalsorterroristswhoaretryingtotestthebonafidesofothersForbyincreasingtheseverityofthepunishmentmetedoutagainstundercoveragentswhoarediscovshyered they encourage the latter to afford costly signals that once disshyplayedmaymakeitimpossibleforthebadguystosaywhethertheposhytentialrecruitsareundercoveragentsinthefirstplace
undercover agentmayfind it preferable to refrain from swallowing itevenatthecostofrevealinghistruetypeforhedoesnotwanttobreakthelawBycontrasttherealcriminalwhowantstodealwiththedrugdealersmayprefertopaythecostofthephysicalillnesscausedbyswalshylowing forhe isentirelyateasewithbreaking the lawThekeyextracost that discriminates between the real criminal and the undercoveragentisthecostofbreakingthelawwhichthemimicfaceswhilethegenuinearticledoesnotAharsherpunishmenthowevercanreversetheequationandmakeitcheaperfortheundercoveragenttoswallowratherthannot swallowevenat thecostofbreaking the lawandthusmakehimbehaviorallyindistinguishablefromtherealcriminalWhenadminshyisteredunder the threatof theharsherpunishment the testno longerseparatesonetypefromtheotherByfailingtoappreciatethisquandaryandthreateningdeathagainstthosewhorefusetoswallowthedrugthedealers fail to realize that theyaredeactivating thevery sourceof thereliabilityoftheirtestforunderthatthreattheagentsarenowallowed(andwouldinanycasefeelinclined)toswallowthedrug
CONCLUSIONS
OncesomeoneintentoncrimeidentifiesapotentialpartnerasabonafidecriminalhehassolvedoneproblemonlytolandinanotherequallydifficultoneHenowhastoestablishwhetherhispartnerisnotjustacrookbutanhonorableoneAfterHughGrantexposedhimselfDivineknewthathewasnotanundercovercopforshebelievedthatcopsdonotdothatYetshestilldidnotknowwhatkindofacustomerhewasProstitutesareconstantlyonguardagainstrobbersorpervertswhoposeasordinarycustomers80AnyonewhoworksoutsidethelawismoreexshyposedthanordinarybusinessmentobecomingthepreyofothercrimishynalswhomimicbeingacriminalofthehonestsortAstreetshydrugdealerwhosuccessfullyadvertises tocustomersmayalsoattract robberswhopretend to be customers in order to get close to the dealers and robthem81Acriminalhastobeonguardagainstbothkindsofmimicslawshyenforcementagentsandcriminalsofthewrongsort
29 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
Ifhonestywerethoughttobeatraitofcertaincriminalsandnotothshyersinordertoestablishwhetherapotentialpartnerishonestonecouldfollowthesamestrategyoneusesforidentifyingwhethersomeoneisacriminal tobeginwithThe samekindof costly signalswouldbe reshyquiredforcriminalstopersuadeoneanotherthattheywerethehonesttypeIncertaincasesthegametheyplayisindeedoneofsignalingtheirtypeHowever inmost circumstancescriminals tend to thinkofeachotherasbeingof justonetypenamelythedishonestoneandbelievethatgivenhalfachancetheywilltakeadvantageofeachotherTheonlyway inwhich they can comealmost toldquotrustrdquo eachother enough tocooperateisthereforenotbysignalingtheirtypebuteitherbyenforcshyingtheirpartnersrsquohonestywiththethreatofsomekindofretaliationormoregenerallybyputtingthemselvesandtheirpartnersinaconditionwherebyldquohonestyrdquo rather thancheating is theirbest courseof actionwhatevertheirtypeIshallexploresomeofthestrategiestheyadoptinchapters2and3
23 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
In a short biography ofBonanno familymembersmdashposted on theInternetforawhilethenremovedmdashLeftywasdescribedasldquothebiggestidiotinthehistoryofLaCosaNostraHisblindgreedandlackofinshystinctwerefelthardintheAmericanmafiardquoAndyetLeftywascarefulevenyearsafterDonniehadbeenacceptedasaconnectedguyDonniewasassistedbyotherundercoveragentsoneofwhomwasldquoRossirdquoTotestwhetherRossiwasanundercoveragentLeftydeliberatelyldquolostrdquoaplaneticketthatRossihadbookedonhisowncreditcardforLefty(thiswasacovertwayofpayingprotectiontoLefty)ldquoBypretendingtolosetheticketLeftywantedtoseehowRossi reactedIfhewasanagentLeftyreasonedhewouldgetnervousbecausehewouldprobablyhavetoaccount for the ticket tohisofficeplushewouldbeworried thatsomebodylsquointheunderworldbusinessrsquomightmeanwhilefindtheticketandcheckouttheAmericanExpressnumbertoseeifitwasagovernshymentnumberrdquo69
WhenitwasfinallyrevealedthatDonniewasanundercoveragentthemobsterswereshockedanddidnotbelieveittillDonnieactuallytestishyfied in court against them His operation managed to send many ofthemmostlymembersoftheBonannofamilytojail71
ThemobsterslearnedtheirlessonandincreasedthepriceofthetestsNow not just one butldquotwo mafiosi have to vouch for the proposedmemberrdquoldquoTheyhavetosaytheyhaveknowntheproposedmemberifnotsincechildhoodthenatleastforfifteentotwentyyearsrdquo72Accordshying to theFBI theyalso resumeda traditionalpractice thathadbeenabandonedldquoaproposedmembermustlsquomakehisbonesrsquoorkillsomeonebeforehecanbecomeamadeguyTheyhavedonesobecause no agent
24 c h a p t e r 1
would commit murder while posing as a bad guyrdquo73Murderisreallyapershyfectlydiscriminatingsignalofbeingabadguyasignalthatnoundershycover agentnot evenonebelonging to a rather lax lawshyenforcementagencycouldafford
Thisentryrequirementmdashwhichshowshowcriminalactscanbepershypetratednotmerelyfortheirimmediateinstrumentalvaluebutalsofortheir signaling valuemdashhad never been explicitly removed but it wasno longerusedwithgreat determination In truthDominickldquoSonnyBlackrdquoNapolitanowhoeventuallybecameDonniersquosmainmentorandplannedtoproposeDonnieformembershiphadaskedDonnietomurshydersomeoneldquoHegavemeacontractsothatIwouldhavethatcredenshytialwhenheputmynameuprdquoButtheopportunitytocarryitoutdidnotariseforAnthonyBrunoIndelicatotheintendedvictimwentsucshycessfullyintohidingDonnieshowedthathewasdoingallhecouldtotrackIndelicatodownanditwasnotthoughttobehisfaultwhenhefailedThusalthoughhedidnotcarryoutthekillinghestillmanagedtoshowhiswillingnesstodoitandafewmonthslaterSonnyputhisnameforwardformembershipAtthatpointtheFBIdecidedtostoptheoperationandDonnieresumedonceagainhisrealidentity
Undercoveragentsmdashwhohavetopersuadethegrouptheyaimtoinfilshytrateof theircriminalcredentialsmdasharea serious threat forunlikesolomimicstheycandrawontheresourcesofstateagenciesandcanaffordcomplexmimicryactswhichinvolveposingforgingcredentialstrainshyingandfundsStill itcanbenear impossibleto infiltrategroupsproshytected by an array of features that cannot be successfully imitatedmdashwhichinotherwordsperfectlydistinguishtherealfromthephonyFor
EvenaMuslimCIAofficerwithnativeshylanguageabilities(andtheAgencyaccordingtoseveralactiveshydutycaseofficershasveryfewoperativesfromMiddleEasternbackgrounds)coulddolittlemorein thisenvironment [PeshawarPakistan] thanablondblueshyeyedallshyAmericanCaseofficerscannotlongescapetheembassiesandconsulates in which they serveA US official overseasphotoshygraphedandregisteredwiththelocalintelligenceandsecuritysershyvicescanrsquottravelmuchparticularlyinapoliceshyrichcountrylikePakistanwithouttheldquohostrdquoservicesknowingaboutitAnofficerwho tries togonativepretending tobe a trueshybelieving radicalMuslim searching for brothers in the causewillmake a fool ofhimselfquickly
UndercoveroperationsareaproblematicformofanticrimeactivityforanotherreasonaswellThelogicofcostshydiscriminatingsignalsinclinesundercoveragentstogobeyondinnocentpretensionsandsupportinishytiativesof thesamekinda truecriminalor terroristwouldundertakeSincelawshyenforcementagenciesareunderpressuretokeeptheiragentssafetheypushfordiscretiontobegrantedtothemAndsometimestheundercoveragentsthemselvesunbeknownsttotheiremployerschoosetobreakthelawbecausetheyworryabouttheircredibilityintheeyesof the host group and the consequences if they are discoveredThememoirsofundercoveragentsandspiesarerepletewiththisdilemma
According to incomplete calculations there were about 6500agents provocateurs and other political investigations specialistsoperatinginvariouspoliticalpartiesandorganizationsintheRusshy
26 c h a p t e r 1
sianEmpireatthestartofthetwentiethcenturythepoliceandgendarmesoftensetprioritiesthemselvesattimesevenattheriskofthelivesofhighshyrankinggovernmentofficialsandmembersoftheimperialfamilyMattersconcerningthesecurityofthesecretagentswereoftoppriorityandmaintainingthestrongpositionsofagentswithintheterroristorganizationsof theSocialistshyRevolushytionarieswasconsideredmore important thanpreventingassassishynationsevenagainstofficialsofthegovernment75
AfamouscasewasthatofEvnoAzefanagentwhooperatedinrevolushytionary circles for aboutfifteen years From 1893on hewas a policeagentAsastudentinaGermanpolytechnicschoolhetooktheinitiashytiveofofferinghisservicestothepolicedepartmentat therateof50rublespermonth afterwhichhe attachedhimself to a foreigngroupcallingitselftheUnionofRussianSocialistshyRevolutionariesHeknewaboutthemajorityofterroristactsbeingplannedbytheSRsbuthedidnotalwaysreporttohisbossesaboutthemNeverthelessthepolicepaidhimwellforhisservices76
EpisodesofthiskindarenotrestrictedtopredemocraticsocietiesAnilluminatingcaseoccurredinCanadaAtitspeakin1993theHeritageFront was the largest and bestshyorganized neoshyNazi group in Canadaboastingacontactlistof1800namesGrantBristowcofounderandaleadingmemberofthiswhiteracistgroupturnedouttobeapaidinshyformantoftheCanadianSecurityIntelligenceServiceldquoBristoworchesshytrated aharassment campaign that terrorizedFront enemies harboredleadinginternationalracistsinhisownhomeinclearviolationofbothCSISrulesandtheImmigrationActandassistedintheFrontrsquosinfiltrashytionoftheReformPartyrdquo77ldquoCSISmoleGrantBristowwasanlsquoagentprovocateurrsquowhowithhisspymastersbrokeCanadianlawsandinternalCSISregulationsagroupofMPshaveconcludedBristowrsquosleadershyshiproleinthewhiteracistHeritageFrontthereportsuggestsmay have led to the very events that caused CSIS to keep him in place for several more yearsrdquo78 An inquiry by the Security Intelligence Review CommitteeintotheaffairplayeddowntheaccusationsbutitisclearfromthereportthattherewereseriousbreachesForinstanceontheissueofharassment
27 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
of antiracistmilitants and Jewish communitymembers thedocumentconcludesthatldquoanyinformantwhoenterstheHeritageFrontorasimishylargrouphastomaintainhiscredibilitywithhisassociatesotherwisehewouldnot remain a trustedmember for longThe questionwewerefacedwithwaswhethertheCSISsource[GrantBristow]hadremainedwithintheboundsofappropriatebehaviourwhiletryingtomaintainhiscredibilityTheanswerwearrivedatwasthatin certain circumstances he had not[emphasisintheoriginal]rdquo79
Eveniftheyareonlysupposedtocollectinformationoncriminalorsubversiveactivitiesspiesmayendupproducingmoreofsuchactivitieson theirown initiativeThey tend tobecomeagentsprovocateursnotnecessarilyfortheconspiratorialreasonswhyJosephConradrsquosprotagoshynistinThe Secret Agentdoes(VerlocwasinthepayofanunnamedforshyeignembassythatwantedtopersuadetheBritishtotakeatougherlineagainsttheanarchistsandusedhisdimshywittednephewtostageanldquoanarshychistrdquobombingattack)buttypicallyonlyoutoffearofnotbeingcredshyibleenoughandofriskingtheirlivesThecoststhatmaketheirsignalscredibleintheeyesoftheirtargetsareafterallldquoonlyrdquothoseofbreakinglegalconstraintsTheymayneverbecaughtgiventheintrinsicopacityofwhattheydoandifcaughttheyarenotsolikelytobepunishedcershytainlynotbydeathAndontheothersideoftheequationtheyhavetoconsider the personal costs of failing to persuadeWhen onersquos life isthreatened thecostsofbreakingthe lawmaysuddenlyappear smallerthanthoseofobeyingitThesetofthosewhoarereadytorisktheirlifesacrificetheirfamilyanddeceivedangerouscriminalsforlongperiodsoftimewhileatthesametimeremainingstrictlyalawshyabidingcitizenmustbeextremelysmall
ThisraisesaninterestingquandaryforthecriminalsorterroristswhoaretryingtotestthebonafidesofothersForbyincreasingtheseverityofthepunishmentmetedoutagainstundercoveragentswhoarediscovshyered they encourage the latter to afford costly signals that once disshyplayedmaymakeitimpossibleforthebadguystosaywhethertheposhytentialrecruitsareundercoveragentsinthefirstplace
undercover agentmayfind it preferable to refrain from swallowing itevenatthecostofrevealinghistruetypeforhedoesnotwanttobreakthelawBycontrasttherealcriminalwhowantstodealwiththedrugdealersmayprefertopaythecostofthephysicalillnesscausedbyswalshylowing forhe isentirelyateasewithbreaking the lawThekeyextracost that discriminates between the real criminal and the undercoveragentisthecostofbreakingthelawwhichthemimicfaceswhilethegenuinearticledoesnotAharsherpunishmenthowevercanreversetheequationandmakeitcheaperfortheundercoveragenttoswallowratherthannot swallowevenat thecostofbreaking the lawandthusmakehimbehaviorallyindistinguishablefromtherealcriminalWhenadminshyisteredunder the threatof theharsherpunishment the testno longerseparatesonetypefromtheotherByfailingtoappreciatethisquandaryandthreateningdeathagainstthosewhorefusetoswallowthedrugthedealers fail to realize that theyaredeactivating thevery sourceof thereliabilityoftheirtestforunderthatthreattheagentsarenowallowed(andwouldinanycasefeelinclined)toswallowthedrug
CONCLUSIONS
OncesomeoneintentoncrimeidentifiesapotentialpartnerasabonafidecriminalhehassolvedoneproblemonlytolandinanotherequallydifficultoneHenowhastoestablishwhetherhispartnerisnotjustacrookbutanhonorableoneAfterHughGrantexposedhimselfDivineknewthathewasnotanundercovercopforshebelievedthatcopsdonotdothatYetshestilldidnotknowwhatkindofacustomerhewasProstitutesareconstantlyonguardagainstrobbersorpervertswhoposeasordinarycustomers80AnyonewhoworksoutsidethelawismoreexshyposedthanordinarybusinessmentobecomingthepreyofothercrimishynalswhomimicbeingacriminalofthehonestsortAstreetshydrugdealerwhosuccessfullyadvertises tocustomersmayalsoattract robberswhopretend to be customers in order to get close to the dealers and robthem81Acriminalhastobeonguardagainstbothkindsofmimicslawshyenforcementagentsandcriminalsofthewrongsort
29 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
Ifhonestywerethoughttobeatraitofcertaincriminalsandnotothshyersinordertoestablishwhetherapotentialpartnerishonestonecouldfollowthesamestrategyoneusesforidentifyingwhethersomeoneisacriminal tobeginwithThe samekindof costly signalswouldbe reshyquiredforcriminalstopersuadeoneanotherthattheywerethehonesttypeIncertaincasesthegametheyplayisindeedoneofsignalingtheirtypeHowever inmost circumstancescriminals tend to thinkofeachotherasbeingof justonetypenamelythedishonestoneandbelievethatgivenhalfachancetheywilltakeadvantageofeachotherTheonlyway inwhich they can comealmost toldquotrustrdquo eachother enough tocooperateisthereforenotbysignalingtheirtypebuteitherbyenforcshyingtheirpartnersrsquohonestywiththethreatofsomekindofretaliationormoregenerallybyputtingthemselvesandtheirpartnersinaconditionwherebyldquohonestyrdquo rather thancheating is theirbest courseof actionwhatevertheirtypeIshallexploresomeofthestrategiestheyadoptinchapters2and3
24 c h a p t e r 1
would commit murder while posing as a bad guyrdquo73Murderisreallyapershyfectlydiscriminatingsignalofbeingabadguyasignalthatnoundershycover agentnot evenonebelonging to a rather lax lawshyenforcementagencycouldafford
Thisentryrequirementmdashwhichshowshowcriminalactscanbepershypetratednotmerelyfortheirimmediateinstrumentalvaluebutalsofortheir signaling valuemdashhad never been explicitly removed but it wasno longerusedwithgreat determination In truthDominickldquoSonnyBlackrdquoNapolitanowhoeventuallybecameDonniersquosmainmentorandplannedtoproposeDonnieformembershiphadaskedDonnietomurshydersomeoneldquoHegavemeacontractsothatIwouldhavethatcredenshytialwhenheputmynameuprdquoButtheopportunitytocarryitoutdidnotariseforAnthonyBrunoIndelicatotheintendedvictimwentsucshycessfullyintohidingDonnieshowedthathewasdoingallhecouldtotrackIndelicatodownanditwasnotthoughttobehisfaultwhenhefailedThusalthoughhedidnotcarryoutthekillinghestillmanagedtoshowhiswillingnesstodoitandafewmonthslaterSonnyputhisnameforwardformembershipAtthatpointtheFBIdecidedtostoptheoperationandDonnieresumedonceagainhisrealidentity
Undercoveragentsmdashwhohavetopersuadethegrouptheyaimtoinfilshytrateof theircriminalcredentialsmdasharea serious threat forunlikesolomimicstheycandrawontheresourcesofstateagenciesandcanaffordcomplexmimicryactswhichinvolveposingforgingcredentialstrainshyingandfundsStill itcanbenear impossibleto infiltrategroupsproshytected by an array of features that cannot be successfully imitatedmdashwhichinotherwordsperfectlydistinguishtherealfromthephonyFor
EvenaMuslimCIAofficerwithnativeshylanguageabilities(andtheAgencyaccordingtoseveralactiveshydutycaseofficershasveryfewoperativesfromMiddleEasternbackgrounds)coulddolittlemorein thisenvironment [PeshawarPakistan] thanablondblueshyeyedallshyAmericanCaseofficerscannotlongescapetheembassiesandconsulates in which they serveA US official overseasphotoshygraphedandregisteredwiththelocalintelligenceandsecuritysershyvicescanrsquottravelmuchparticularlyinapoliceshyrichcountrylikePakistanwithouttheldquohostrdquoservicesknowingaboutitAnofficerwho tries togonativepretending tobe a trueshybelieving radicalMuslim searching for brothers in the causewillmake a fool ofhimselfquickly
UndercoveroperationsareaproblematicformofanticrimeactivityforanotherreasonaswellThelogicofcostshydiscriminatingsignalsinclinesundercoveragentstogobeyondinnocentpretensionsandsupportinishytiativesof thesamekinda truecriminalor terroristwouldundertakeSincelawshyenforcementagenciesareunderpressuretokeeptheiragentssafetheypushfordiscretiontobegrantedtothemAndsometimestheundercoveragentsthemselvesunbeknownsttotheiremployerschoosetobreakthelawbecausetheyworryabouttheircredibilityintheeyesof the host group and the consequences if they are discoveredThememoirsofundercoveragentsandspiesarerepletewiththisdilemma
According to incomplete calculations there were about 6500agents provocateurs and other political investigations specialistsoperatinginvariouspoliticalpartiesandorganizationsintheRusshy
26 c h a p t e r 1
sianEmpireatthestartofthetwentiethcenturythepoliceandgendarmesoftensetprioritiesthemselvesattimesevenattheriskofthelivesofhighshyrankinggovernmentofficialsandmembersoftheimperialfamilyMattersconcerningthesecurityofthesecretagentswereoftoppriorityandmaintainingthestrongpositionsofagentswithintheterroristorganizationsof theSocialistshyRevolushytionarieswasconsideredmore important thanpreventingassassishynationsevenagainstofficialsofthegovernment75
AfamouscasewasthatofEvnoAzefanagentwhooperatedinrevolushytionary circles for aboutfifteen years From 1893on hewas a policeagentAsastudentinaGermanpolytechnicschoolhetooktheinitiashytiveofofferinghisservicestothepolicedepartmentat therateof50rublespermonth afterwhichhe attachedhimself to a foreigngroupcallingitselftheUnionofRussianSocialistshyRevolutionariesHeknewaboutthemajorityofterroristactsbeingplannedbytheSRsbuthedidnotalwaysreporttohisbossesaboutthemNeverthelessthepolicepaidhimwellforhisservices76
EpisodesofthiskindarenotrestrictedtopredemocraticsocietiesAnilluminatingcaseoccurredinCanadaAtitspeakin1993theHeritageFront was the largest and bestshyorganized neoshyNazi group in Canadaboastingacontactlistof1800namesGrantBristowcofounderandaleadingmemberofthiswhiteracistgroupturnedouttobeapaidinshyformantoftheCanadianSecurityIntelligenceServiceldquoBristoworchesshytrated aharassment campaign that terrorizedFront enemies harboredleadinginternationalracistsinhisownhomeinclearviolationofbothCSISrulesandtheImmigrationActandassistedintheFrontrsquosinfiltrashytionoftheReformPartyrdquo77ldquoCSISmoleGrantBristowwasanlsquoagentprovocateurrsquowhowithhisspymastersbrokeCanadianlawsandinternalCSISregulationsagroupofMPshaveconcludedBristowrsquosleadershyshiproleinthewhiteracistHeritageFrontthereportsuggestsmay have led to the very events that caused CSIS to keep him in place for several more yearsrdquo78 An inquiry by the Security Intelligence Review CommitteeintotheaffairplayeddowntheaccusationsbutitisclearfromthereportthattherewereseriousbreachesForinstanceontheissueofharassment
27 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
of antiracistmilitants and Jewish communitymembers thedocumentconcludesthatldquoanyinformantwhoenterstheHeritageFrontorasimishylargrouphastomaintainhiscredibilitywithhisassociatesotherwisehewouldnot remain a trustedmember for longThe questionwewerefacedwithwaswhethertheCSISsource[GrantBristow]hadremainedwithintheboundsofappropriatebehaviourwhiletryingtomaintainhiscredibilityTheanswerwearrivedatwasthatin certain circumstances he had not[emphasisintheoriginal]rdquo79
Eveniftheyareonlysupposedtocollectinformationoncriminalorsubversiveactivitiesspiesmayendupproducingmoreofsuchactivitieson theirown initiativeThey tend tobecomeagentsprovocateursnotnecessarilyfortheconspiratorialreasonswhyJosephConradrsquosprotagoshynistinThe Secret Agentdoes(VerlocwasinthepayofanunnamedforshyeignembassythatwantedtopersuadetheBritishtotakeatougherlineagainsttheanarchistsandusedhisdimshywittednephewtostageanldquoanarshychistrdquobombingattack)buttypicallyonlyoutoffearofnotbeingcredshyibleenoughandofriskingtheirlivesThecoststhatmaketheirsignalscredibleintheeyesoftheirtargetsareafterallldquoonlyrdquothoseofbreakinglegalconstraintsTheymayneverbecaughtgiventheintrinsicopacityofwhattheydoandifcaughttheyarenotsolikelytobepunishedcershytainlynotbydeathAndontheothersideoftheequationtheyhavetoconsider the personal costs of failing to persuadeWhen onersquos life isthreatened thecostsofbreakingthe lawmaysuddenlyappear smallerthanthoseofobeyingitThesetofthosewhoarereadytorisktheirlifesacrificetheirfamilyanddeceivedangerouscriminalsforlongperiodsoftimewhileatthesametimeremainingstrictlyalawshyabidingcitizenmustbeextremelysmall
ThisraisesaninterestingquandaryforthecriminalsorterroristswhoaretryingtotestthebonafidesofothersForbyincreasingtheseverityofthepunishmentmetedoutagainstundercoveragentswhoarediscovshyered they encourage the latter to afford costly signals that once disshyplayedmaymakeitimpossibleforthebadguystosaywhethertheposhytentialrecruitsareundercoveragentsinthefirstplace
undercover agentmayfind it preferable to refrain from swallowing itevenatthecostofrevealinghistruetypeforhedoesnotwanttobreakthelawBycontrasttherealcriminalwhowantstodealwiththedrugdealersmayprefertopaythecostofthephysicalillnesscausedbyswalshylowing forhe isentirelyateasewithbreaking the lawThekeyextracost that discriminates between the real criminal and the undercoveragentisthecostofbreakingthelawwhichthemimicfaceswhilethegenuinearticledoesnotAharsherpunishmenthowevercanreversetheequationandmakeitcheaperfortheundercoveragenttoswallowratherthannot swallowevenat thecostofbreaking the lawandthusmakehimbehaviorallyindistinguishablefromtherealcriminalWhenadminshyisteredunder the threatof theharsherpunishment the testno longerseparatesonetypefromtheotherByfailingtoappreciatethisquandaryandthreateningdeathagainstthosewhorefusetoswallowthedrugthedealers fail to realize that theyaredeactivating thevery sourceof thereliabilityoftheirtestforunderthatthreattheagentsarenowallowed(andwouldinanycasefeelinclined)toswallowthedrug
CONCLUSIONS
OncesomeoneintentoncrimeidentifiesapotentialpartnerasabonafidecriminalhehassolvedoneproblemonlytolandinanotherequallydifficultoneHenowhastoestablishwhetherhispartnerisnotjustacrookbutanhonorableoneAfterHughGrantexposedhimselfDivineknewthathewasnotanundercovercopforshebelievedthatcopsdonotdothatYetshestilldidnotknowwhatkindofacustomerhewasProstitutesareconstantlyonguardagainstrobbersorpervertswhoposeasordinarycustomers80AnyonewhoworksoutsidethelawismoreexshyposedthanordinarybusinessmentobecomingthepreyofothercrimishynalswhomimicbeingacriminalofthehonestsortAstreetshydrugdealerwhosuccessfullyadvertises tocustomersmayalsoattract robberswhopretend to be customers in order to get close to the dealers and robthem81Acriminalhastobeonguardagainstbothkindsofmimicslawshyenforcementagentsandcriminalsofthewrongsort
29 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
Ifhonestywerethoughttobeatraitofcertaincriminalsandnotothshyersinordertoestablishwhetherapotentialpartnerishonestonecouldfollowthesamestrategyoneusesforidentifyingwhethersomeoneisacriminal tobeginwithThe samekindof costly signalswouldbe reshyquiredforcriminalstopersuadeoneanotherthattheywerethehonesttypeIncertaincasesthegametheyplayisindeedoneofsignalingtheirtypeHowever inmost circumstancescriminals tend to thinkofeachotherasbeingof justonetypenamelythedishonestoneandbelievethatgivenhalfachancetheywilltakeadvantageofeachotherTheonlyway inwhich they can comealmost toldquotrustrdquo eachother enough tocooperateisthereforenotbysignalingtheirtypebuteitherbyenforcshyingtheirpartnersrsquohonestywiththethreatofsomekindofretaliationormoregenerallybyputtingthemselvesandtheirpartnersinaconditionwherebyldquohonestyrdquo rather thancheating is theirbest courseof actionwhatevertheirtypeIshallexploresomeofthestrategiestheyadoptinchapters2and3
EvenaMuslimCIAofficerwithnativeshylanguageabilities(andtheAgencyaccordingtoseveralactiveshydutycaseofficershasveryfewoperativesfromMiddleEasternbackgrounds)coulddolittlemorein thisenvironment [PeshawarPakistan] thanablondblueshyeyedallshyAmericanCaseofficerscannotlongescapetheembassiesandconsulates in which they serveA US official overseasphotoshygraphedandregisteredwiththelocalintelligenceandsecuritysershyvicescanrsquottravelmuchparticularlyinapoliceshyrichcountrylikePakistanwithouttheldquohostrdquoservicesknowingaboutitAnofficerwho tries togonativepretending tobe a trueshybelieving radicalMuslim searching for brothers in the causewillmake a fool ofhimselfquickly
UndercoveroperationsareaproblematicformofanticrimeactivityforanotherreasonaswellThelogicofcostshydiscriminatingsignalsinclinesundercoveragentstogobeyondinnocentpretensionsandsupportinishytiativesof thesamekinda truecriminalor terroristwouldundertakeSincelawshyenforcementagenciesareunderpressuretokeeptheiragentssafetheypushfordiscretiontobegrantedtothemAndsometimestheundercoveragentsthemselvesunbeknownsttotheiremployerschoosetobreakthelawbecausetheyworryabouttheircredibilityintheeyesof the host group and the consequences if they are discoveredThememoirsofundercoveragentsandspiesarerepletewiththisdilemma
According to incomplete calculations there were about 6500agents provocateurs and other political investigations specialistsoperatinginvariouspoliticalpartiesandorganizationsintheRusshy
26 c h a p t e r 1
sianEmpireatthestartofthetwentiethcenturythepoliceandgendarmesoftensetprioritiesthemselvesattimesevenattheriskofthelivesofhighshyrankinggovernmentofficialsandmembersoftheimperialfamilyMattersconcerningthesecurityofthesecretagentswereoftoppriorityandmaintainingthestrongpositionsofagentswithintheterroristorganizationsof theSocialistshyRevolushytionarieswasconsideredmore important thanpreventingassassishynationsevenagainstofficialsofthegovernment75
AfamouscasewasthatofEvnoAzefanagentwhooperatedinrevolushytionary circles for aboutfifteen years From 1893on hewas a policeagentAsastudentinaGermanpolytechnicschoolhetooktheinitiashytiveofofferinghisservicestothepolicedepartmentat therateof50rublespermonth afterwhichhe attachedhimself to a foreigngroupcallingitselftheUnionofRussianSocialistshyRevolutionariesHeknewaboutthemajorityofterroristactsbeingplannedbytheSRsbuthedidnotalwaysreporttohisbossesaboutthemNeverthelessthepolicepaidhimwellforhisservices76
EpisodesofthiskindarenotrestrictedtopredemocraticsocietiesAnilluminatingcaseoccurredinCanadaAtitspeakin1993theHeritageFront was the largest and bestshyorganized neoshyNazi group in Canadaboastingacontactlistof1800namesGrantBristowcofounderandaleadingmemberofthiswhiteracistgroupturnedouttobeapaidinshyformantoftheCanadianSecurityIntelligenceServiceldquoBristoworchesshytrated aharassment campaign that terrorizedFront enemies harboredleadinginternationalracistsinhisownhomeinclearviolationofbothCSISrulesandtheImmigrationActandassistedintheFrontrsquosinfiltrashytionoftheReformPartyrdquo77ldquoCSISmoleGrantBristowwasanlsquoagentprovocateurrsquowhowithhisspymastersbrokeCanadianlawsandinternalCSISregulationsagroupofMPshaveconcludedBristowrsquosleadershyshiproleinthewhiteracistHeritageFrontthereportsuggestsmay have led to the very events that caused CSIS to keep him in place for several more yearsrdquo78 An inquiry by the Security Intelligence Review CommitteeintotheaffairplayeddowntheaccusationsbutitisclearfromthereportthattherewereseriousbreachesForinstanceontheissueofharassment
27 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
of antiracistmilitants and Jewish communitymembers thedocumentconcludesthatldquoanyinformantwhoenterstheHeritageFrontorasimishylargrouphastomaintainhiscredibilitywithhisassociatesotherwisehewouldnot remain a trustedmember for longThe questionwewerefacedwithwaswhethertheCSISsource[GrantBristow]hadremainedwithintheboundsofappropriatebehaviourwhiletryingtomaintainhiscredibilityTheanswerwearrivedatwasthatin certain circumstances he had not[emphasisintheoriginal]rdquo79
Eveniftheyareonlysupposedtocollectinformationoncriminalorsubversiveactivitiesspiesmayendupproducingmoreofsuchactivitieson theirown initiativeThey tend tobecomeagentsprovocateursnotnecessarilyfortheconspiratorialreasonswhyJosephConradrsquosprotagoshynistinThe Secret Agentdoes(VerlocwasinthepayofanunnamedforshyeignembassythatwantedtopersuadetheBritishtotakeatougherlineagainsttheanarchistsandusedhisdimshywittednephewtostageanldquoanarshychistrdquobombingattack)buttypicallyonlyoutoffearofnotbeingcredshyibleenoughandofriskingtheirlivesThecoststhatmaketheirsignalscredibleintheeyesoftheirtargetsareafterallldquoonlyrdquothoseofbreakinglegalconstraintsTheymayneverbecaughtgiventheintrinsicopacityofwhattheydoandifcaughttheyarenotsolikelytobepunishedcershytainlynotbydeathAndontheothersideoftheequationtheyhavetoconsider the personal costs of failing to persuadeWhen onersquos life isthreatened thecostsofbreakingthe lawmaysuddenlyappear smallerthanthoseofobeyingitThesetofthosewhoarereadytorisktheirlifesacrificetheirfamilyanddeceivedangerouscriminalsforlongperiodsoftimewhileatthesametimeremainingstrictlyalawshyabidingcitizenmustbeextremelysmall
ThisraisesaninterestingquandaryforthecriminalsorterroristswhoaretryingtotestthebonafidesofothersForbyincreasingtheseverityofthepunishmentmetedoutagainstundercoveragentswhoarediscovshyered they encourage the latter to afford costly signals that once disshyplayedmaymakeitimpossibleforthebadguystosaywhethertheposhytentialrecruitsareundercoveragentsinthefirstplace
undercover agentmayfind it preferable to refrain from swallowing itevenatthecostofrevealinghistruetypeforhedoesnotwanttobreakthelawBycontrasttherealcriminalwhowantstodealwiththedrugdealersmayprefertopaythecostofthephysicalillnesscausedbyswalshylowing forhe isentirelyateasewithbreaking the lawThekeyextracost that discriminates between the real criminal and the undercoveragentisthecostofbreakingthelawwhichthemimicfaceswhilethegenuinearticledoesnotAharsherpunishmenthowevercanreversetheequationandmakeitcheaperfortheundercoveragenttoswallowratherthannot swallowevenat thecostofbreaking the lawandthusmakehimbehaviorallyindistinguishablefromtherealcriminalWhenadminshyisteredunder the threatof theharsherpunishment the testno longerseparatesonetypefromtheotherByfailingtoappreciatethisquandaryandthreateningdeathagainstthosewhorefusetoswallowthedrugthedealers fail to realize that theyaredeactivating thevery sourceof thereliabilityoftheirtestforunderthatthreattheagentsarenowallowed(andwouldinanycasefeelinclined)toswallowthedrug
CONCLUSIONS
OncesomeoneintentoncrimeidentifiesapotentialpartnerasabonafidecriminalhehassolvedoneproblemonlytolandinanotherequallydifficultoneHenowhastoestablishwhetherhispartnerisnotjustacrookbutanhonorableoneAfterHughGrantexposedhimselfDivineknewthathewasnotanundercovercopforshebelievedthatcopsdonotdothatYetshestilldidnotknowwhatkindofacustomerhewasProstitutesareconstantlyonguardagainstrobbersorpervertswhoposeasordinarycustomers80AnyonewhoworksoutsidethelawismoreexshyposedthanordinarybusinessmentobecomingthepreyofothercrimishynalswhomimicbeingacriminalofthehonestsortAstreetshydrugdealerwhosuccessfullyadvertises tocustomersmayalsoattract robberswhopretend to be customers in order to get close to the dealers and robthem81Acriminalhastobeonguardagainstbothkindsofmimicslawshyenforcementagentsandcriminalsofthewrongsort
29 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
Ifhonestywerethoughttobeatraitofcertaincriminalsandnotothshyersinordertoestablishwhetherapotentialpartnerishonestonecouldfollowthesamestrategyoneusesforidentifyingwhethersomeoneisacriminal tobeginwithThe samekindof costly signalswouldbe reshyquiredforcriminalstopersuadeoneanotherthattheywerethehonesttypeIncertaincasesthegametheyplayisindeedoneofsignalingtheirtypeHowever inmost circumstancescriminals tend to thinkofeachotherasbeingof justonetypenamelythedishonestoneandbelievethatgivenhalfachancetheywilltakeadvantageofeachotherTheonlyway inwhich they can comealmost toldquotrustrdquo eachother enough tocooperateisthereforenotbysignalingtheirtypebuteitherbyenforcshyingtheirpartnersrsquohonestywiththethreatofsomekindofretaliationormoregenerallybyputtingthemselvesandtheirpartnersinaconditionwherebyldquohonestyrdquo rather thancheating is theirbest courseof actionwhatevertheirtypeIshallexploresomeofthestrategiestheyadoptinchapters2and3
26 c h a p t e r 1
sianEmpireatthestartofthetwentiethcenturythepoliceandgendarmesoftensetprioritiesthemselvesattimesevenattheriskofthelivesofhighshyrankinggovernmentofficialsandmembersoftheimperialfamilyMattersconcerningthesecurityofthesecretagentswereoftoppriorityandmaintainingthestrongpositionsofagentswithintheterroristorganizationsof theSocialistshyRevolushytionarieswasconsideredmore important thanpreventingassassishynationsevenagainstofficialsofthegovernment75
AfamouscasewasthatofEvnoAzefanagentwhooperatedinrevolushytionary circles for aboutfifteen years From 1893on hewas a policeagentAsastudentinaGermanpolytechnicschoolhetooktheinitiashytiveofofferinghisservicestothepolicedepartmentat therateof50rublespermonth afterwhichhe attachedhimself to a foreigngroupcallingitselftheUnionofRussianSocialistshyRevolutionariesHeknewaboutthemajorityofterroristactsbeingplannedbytheSRsbuthedidnotalwaysreporttohisbossesaboutthemNeverthelessthepolicepaidhimwellforhisservices76
EpisodesofthiskindarenotrestrictedtopredemocraticsocietiesAnilluminatingcaseoccurredinCanadaAtitspeakin1993theHeritageFront was the largest and bestshyorganized neoshyNazi group in Canadaboastingacontactlistof1800namesGrantBristowcofounderandaleadingmemberofthiswhiteracistgroupturnedouttobeapaidinshyformantoftheCanadianSecurityIntelligenceServiceldquoBristoworchesshytrated aharassment campaign that terrorizedFront enemies harboredleadinginternationalracistsinhisownhomeinclearviolationofbothCSISrulesandtheImmigrationActandassistedintheFrontrsquosinfiltrashytionoftheReformPartyrdquo77ldquoCSISmoleGrantBristowwasanlsquoagentprovocateurrsquowhowithhisspymastersbrokeCanadianlawsandinternalCSISregulationsagroupofMPshaveconcludedBristowrsquosleadershyshiproleinthewhiteracistHeritageFrontthereportsuggestsmay have led to the very events that caused CSIS to keep him in place for several more yearsrdquo78 An inquiry by the Security Intelligence Review CommitteeintotheaffairplayeddowntheaccusationsbutitisclearfromthereportthattherewereseriousbreachesForinstanceontheissueofharassment
27 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
of antiracistmilitants and Jewish communitymembers thedocumentconcludesthatldquoanyinformantwhoenterstheHeritageFrontorasimishylargrouphastomaintainhiscredibilitywithhisassociatesotherwisehewouldnot remain a trustedmember for longThe questionwewerefacedwithwaswhethertheCSISsource[GrantBristow]hadremainedwithintheboundsofappropriatebehaviourwhiletryingtomaintainhiscredibilityTheanswerwearrivedatwasthatin certain circumstances he had not[emphasisintheoriginal]rdquo79
Eveniftheyareonlysupposedtocollectinformationoncriminalorsubversiveactivitiesspiesmayendupproducingmoreofsuchactivitieson theirown initiativeThey tend tobecomeagentsprovocateursnotnecessarilyfortheconspiratorialreasonswhyJosephConradrsquosprotagoshynistinThe Secret Agentdoes(VerlocwasinthepayofanunnamedforshyeignembassythatwantedtopersuadetheBritishtotakeatougherlineagainsttheanarchistsandusedhisdimshywittednephewtostageanldquoanarshychistrdquobombingattack)buttypicallyonlyoutoffearofnotbeingcredshyibleenoughandofriskingtheirlivesThecoststhatmaketheirsignalscredibleintheeyesoftheirtargetsareafterallldquoonlyrdquothoseofbreakinglegalconstraintsTheymayneverbecaughtgiventheintrinsicopacityofwhattheydoandifcaughttheyarenotsolikelytobepunishedcershytainlynotbydeathAndontheothersideoftheequationtheyhavetoconsider the personal costs of failing to persuadeWhen onersquos life isthreatened thecostsofbreakingthe lawmaysuddenlyappear smallerthanthoseofobeyingitThesetofthosewhoarereadytorisktheirlifesacrificetheirfamilyanddeceivedangerouscriminalsforlongperiodsoftimewhileatthesametimeremainingstrictlyalawshyabidingcitizenmustbeextremelysmall
ThisraisesaninterestingquandaryforthecriminalsorterroristswhoaretryingtotestthebonafidesofothersForbyincreasingtheseverityofthepunishmentmetedoutagainstundercoveragentswhoarediscovshyered they encourage the latter to afford costly signals that once disshyplayedmaymakeitimpossibleforthebadguystosaywhethertheposhytentialrecruitsareundercoveragentsinthefirstplace
undercover agentmayfind it preferable to refrain from swallowing itevenatthecostofrevealinghistruetypeforhedoesnotwanttobreakthelawBycontrasttherealcriminalwhowantstodealwiththedrugdealersmayprefertopaythecostofthephysicalillnesscausedbyswalshylowing forhe isentirelyateasewithbreaking the lawThekeyextracost that discriminates between the real criminal and the undercoveragentisthecostofbreakingthelawwhichthemimicfaceswhilethegenuinearticledoesnotAharsherpunishmenthowevercanreversetheequationandmakeitcheaperfortheundercoveragenttoswallowratherthannot swallowevenat thecostofbreaking the lawandthusmakehimbehaviorallyindistinguishablefromtherealcriminalWhenadminshyisteredunder the threatof theharsherpunishment the testno longerseparatesonetypefromtheotherByfailingtoappreciatethisquandaryandthreateningdeathagainstthosewhorefusetoswallowthedrugthedealers fail to realize that theyaredeactivating thevery sourceof thereliabilityoftheirtestforunderthatthreattheagentsarenowallowed(andwouldinanycasefeelinclined)toswallowthedrug
CONCLUSIONS
OncesomeoneintentoncrimeidentifiesapotentialpartnerasabonafidecriminalhehassolvedoneproblemonlytolandinanotherequallydifficultoneHenowhastoestablishwhetherhispartnerisnotjustacrookbutanhonorableoneAfterHughGrantexposedhimselfDivineknewthathewasnotanundercovercopforshebelievedthatcopsdonotdothatYetshestilldidnotknowwhatkindofacustomerhewasProstitutesareconstantlyonguardagainstrobbersorpervertswhoposeasordinarycustomers80AnyonewhoworksoutsidethelawismoreexshyposedthanordinarybusinessmentobecomingthepreyofothercrimishynalswhomimicbeingacriminalofthehonestsortAstreetshydrugdealerwhosuccessfullyadvertises tocustomersmayalsoattract robberswhopretend to be customers in order to get close to the dealers and robthem81Acriminalhastobeonguardagainstbothkindsofmimicslawshyenforcementagentsandcriminalsofthewrongsort
29 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
Ifhonestywerethoughttobeatraitofcertaincriminalsandnotothshyersinordertoestablishwhetherapotentialpartnerishonestonecouldfollowthesamestrategyoneusesforidentifyingwhethersomeoneisacriminal tobeginwithThe samekindof costly signalswouldbe reshyquiredforcriminalstopersuadeoneanotherthattheywerethehonesttypeIncertaincasesthegametheyplayisindeedoneofsignalingtheirtypeHowever inmost circumstancescriminals tend to thinkofeachotherasbeingof justonetypenamelythedishonestoneandbelievethatgivenhalfachancetheywilltakeadvantageofeachotherTheonlyway inwhich they can comealmost toldquotrustrdquo eachother enough tocooperateisthereforenotbysignalingtheirtypebuteitherbyenforcshyingtheirpartnersrsquohonestywiththethreatofsomekindofretaliationormoregenerallybyputtingthemselvesandtheirpartnersinaconditionwherebyldquohonestyrdquo rather thancheating is theirbest courseof actionwhatevertheirtypeIshallexploresomeofthestrategiestheyadoptinchapters2and3
27 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
of antiracistmilitants and Jewish communitymembers thedocumentconcludesthatldquoanyinformantwhoenterstheHeritageFrontorasimishylargrouphastomaintainhiscredibilitywithhisassociatesotherwisehewouldnot remain a trustedmember for longThe questionwewerefacedwithwaswhethertheCSISsource[GrantBristow]hadremainedwithintheboundsofappropriatebehaviourwhiletryingtomaintainhiscredibilityTheanswerwearrivedatwasthatin certain circumstances he had not[emphasisintheoriginal]rdquo79
Eveniftheyareonlysupposedtocollectinformationoncriminalorsubversiveactivitiesspiesmayendupproducingmoreofsuchactivitieson theirown initiativeThey tend tobecomeagentsprovocateursnotnecessarilyfortheconspiratorialreasonswhyJosephConradrsquosprotagoshynistinThe Secret Agentdoes(VerlocwasinthepayofanunnamedforshyeignembassythatwantedtopersuadetheBritishtotakeatougherlineagainsttheanarchistsandusedhisdimshywittednephewtostageanldquoanarshychistrdquobombingattack)buttypicallyonlyoutoffearofnotbeingcredshyibleenoughandofriskingtheirlivesThecoststhatmaketheirsignalscredibleintheeyesoftheirtargetsareafterallldquoonlyrdquothoseofbreakinglegalconstraintsTheymayneverbecaughtgiventheintrinsicopacityofwhattheydoandifcaughttheyarenotsolikelytobepunishedcershytainlynotbydeathAndontheothersideoftheequationtheyhavetoconsider the personal costs of failing to persuadeWhen onersquos life isthreatened thecostsofbreakingthe lawmaysuddenlyappear smallerthanthoseofobeyingitThesetofthosewhoarereadytorisktheirlifesacrificetheirfamilyanddeceivedangerouscriminalsforlongperiodsoftimewhileatthesametimeremainingstrictlyalawshyabidingcitizenmustbeextremelysmall
ThisraisesaninterestingquandaryforthecriminalsorterroristswhoaretryingtotestthebonafidesofothersForbyincreasingtheseverityofthepunishmentmetedoutagainstundercoveragentswhoarediscovshyered they encourage the latter to afford costly signals that once disshyplayedmaymakeitimpossibleforthebadguystosaywhethertheposhytentialrecruitsareundercoveragentsinthefirstplace
undercover agentmayfind it preferable to refrain from swallowing itevenatthecostofrevealinghistruetypeforhedoesnotwanttobreakthelawBycontrasttherealcriminalwhowantstodealwiththedrugdealersmayprefertopaythecostofthephysicalillnesscausedbyswalshylowing forhe isentirelyateasewithbreaking the lawThekeyextracost that discriminates between the real criminal and the undercoveragentisthecostofbreakingthelawwhichthemimicfaceswhilethegenuinearticledoesnotAharsherpunishmenthowevercanreversetheequationandmakeitcheaperfortheundercoveragenttoswallowratherthannot swallowevenat thecostofbreaking the lawandthusmakehimbehaviorallyindistinguishablefromtherealcriminalWhenadminshyisteredunder the threatof theharsherpunishment the testno longerseparatesonetypefromtheotherByfailingtoappreciatethisquandaryandthreateningdeathagainstthosewhorefusetoswallowthedrugthedealers fail to realize that theyaredeactivating thevery sourceof thereliabilityoftheirtestforunderthatthreattheagentsarenowallowed(andwouldinanycasefeelinclined)toswallowthedrug
CONCLUSIONS
OncesomeoneintentoncrimeidentifiesapotentialpartnerasabonafidecriminalhehassolvedoneproblemonlytolandinanotherequallydifficultoneHenowhastoestablishwhetherhispartnerisnotjustacrookbutanhonorableoneAfterHughGrantexposedhimselfDivineknewthathewasnotanundercovercopforshebelievedthatcopsdonotdothatYetshestilldidnotknowwhatkindofacustomerhewasProstitutesareconstantlyonguardagainstrobbersorpervertswhoposeasordinarycustomers80AnyonewhoworksoutsidethelawismoreexshyposedthanordinarybusinessmentobecomingthepreyofothercrimishynalswhomimicbeingacriminalofthehonestsortAstreetshydrugdealerwhosuccessfullyadvertises tocustomersmayalsoattract robberswhopretend to be customers in order to get close to the dealers and robthem81Acriminalhastobeonguardagainstbothkindsofmimicslawshyenforcementagentsandcriminalsofthewrongsort
29 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
Ifhonestywerethoughttobeatraitofcertaincriminalsandnotothshyersinordertoestablishwhetherapotentialpartnerishonestonecouldfollowthesamestrategyoneusesforidentifyingwhethersomeoneisacriminal tobeginwithThe samekindof costly signalswouldbe reshyquiredforcriminalstopersuadeoneanotherthattheywerethehonesttypeIncertaincasesthegametheyplayisindeedoneofsignalingtheirtypeHowever inmost circumstancescriminals tend to thinkofeachotherasbeingof justonetypenamelythedishonestoneandbelievethatgivenhalfachancetheywilltakeadvantageofeachotherTheonlyway inwhich they can comealmost toldquotrustrdquo eachother enough tocooperateisthereforenotbysignalingtheirtypebuteitherbyenforcshyingtheirpartnersrsquohonestywiththethreatofsomekindofretaliationormoregenerallybyputtingthemselvesandtheirpartnersinaconditionwherebyldquohonestyrdquo rather thancheating is theirbest courseof actionwhatevertheirtypeIshallexploresomeofthestrategiestheyadoptinchapters2and3
28 c h a p t e r 1
undercover agentmayfind it preferable to refrain from swallowing itevenatthecostofrevealinghistruetypeforhedoesnotwanttobreakthelawBycontrasttherealcriminalwhowantstodealwiththedrugdealersmayprefertopaythecostofthephysicalillnesscausedbyswalshylowing forhe isentirelyateasewithbreaking the lawThekeyextracost that discriminates between the real criminal and the undercoveragentisthecostofbreakingthelawwhichthemimicfaceswhilethegenuinearticledoesnotAharsherpunishmenthowevercanreversetheequationandmakeitcheaperfortheundercoveragenttoswallowratherthannot swallowevenat thecostofbreaking the lawandthusmakehimbehaviorallyindistinguishablefromtherealcriminalWhenadminshyisteredunder the threatof theharsherpunishment the testno longerseparatesonetypefromtheotherByfailingtoappreciatethisquandaryandthreateningdeathagainstthosewhorefusetoswallowthedrugthedealers fail to realize that theyaredeactivating thevery sourceof thereliabilityoftheirtestforunderthatthreattheagentsarenowallowed(andwouldinanycasefeelinclined)toswallowthedrug
CONCLUSIONS
OncesomeoneintentoncrimeidentifiesapotentialpartnerasabonafidecriminalhehassolvedoneproblemonlytolandinanotherequallydifficultoneHenowhastoestablishwhetherhispartnerisnotjustacrookbutanhonorableoneAfterHughGrantexposedhimselfDivineknewthathewasnotanundercovercopforshebelievedthatcopsdonotdothatYetshestilldidnotknowwhatkindofacustomerhewasProstitutesareconstantlyonguardagainstrobbersorpervertswhoposeasordinarycustomers80AnyonewhoworksoutsidethelawismoreexshyposedthanordinarybusinessmentobecomingthepreyofothercrimishynalswhomimicbeingacriminalofthehonestsortAstreetshydrugdealerwhosuccessfullyadvertises tocustomersmayalsoattract robberswhopretend to be customers in order to get close to the dealers and robthem81Acriminalhastobeonguardagainstbothkindsofmimicslawshyenforcementagentsandcriminalsofthewrongsort
29 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
Ifhonestywerethoughttobeatraitofcertaincriminalsandnotothshyersinordertoestablishwhetherapotentialpartnerishonestonecouldfollowthesamestrategyoneusesforidentifyingwhethersomeoneisacriminal tobeginwithThe samekindof costly signalswouldbe reshyquiredforcriminalstopersuadeoneanotherthattheywerethehonesttypeIncertaincasesthegametheyplayisindeedoneofsignalingtheirtypeHowever inmost circumstancescriminals tend to thinkofeachotherasbeingof justonetypenamelythedishonestoneandbelievethatgivenhalfachancetheywilltakeadvantageofeachotherTheonlyway inwhich they can comealmost toldquotrustrdquo eachother enough tocooperateisthereforenotbysignalingtheirtypebuteitherbyenforcshyingtheirpartnersrsquohonestywiththethreatofsomekindofretaliationormoregenerallybyputtingthemselvesandtheirpartnersinaconditionwherebyldquohonestyrdquo rather thancheating is theirbest courseof actionwhatevertheirtypeIshallexploresomeofthestrategiestheyadoptinchapters2and3
29 c r i m i n a l c r e d e n t i a l s
Ifhonestywerethoughttobeatraitofcertaincriminalsandnotothshyersinordertoestablishwhetherapotentialpartnerishonestonecouldfollowthesamestrategyoneusesforidentifyingwhethersomeoneisacriminal tobeginwithThe samekindof costly signalswouldbe reshyquiredforcriminalstopersuadeoneanotherthattheywerethehonesttypeIncertaincasesthegametheyplayisindeedoneofsignalingtheirtypeHowever inmost circumstancescriminals tend to thinkofeachotherasbeingof justonetypenamelythedishonestoneandbelievethatgivenhalfachancetheywilltakeadvantageofeachotherTheonlyway inwhich they can comealmost toldquotrustrdquo eachother enough tocooperateisthereforenotbysignalingtheirtypebuteitherbyenforcshyingtheirpartnersrsquohonestywiththethreatofsomekindofretaliationormoregenerallybyputtingthemselvesandtheirpartnersinaconditionwherebyldquohonestyrdquo rather thancheating is theirbest courseof actionwhatevertheirtypeIshallexploresomeofthestrategiestheyadoptinchapters2and3
