Philosophy of Religion

reason, faith, belief and doubt

George MatthewsSpring 2015

Perspectives on Religion

F From inside: what religious beliefs or practices should Iadhere to as someone aware of the mystery of life anddeath?

F From outside: how can we understand religion asdisinterested observers?

] religious studies: what are the practices, beliefs andhistories of various religions?

] sociology: how do religions work as institutionsexpressing shared values and how do they relate to othersocial institutions?

] psychology: what is going on in the mind when peoplehave religious beliefs or engage in religious practices?

] philosophy: can religious thinking be rationally justified?

Perspectives on Religion

F From inside: what religious beliefs or practices should Iadhere to as someone aware of the mystery of life anddeath?

F From outside: how can we understand religion asdisinterested observers?

] religious studies: what are the practices, beliefs andhistories of various religions?

] sociology: how do religions work as institutionsexpressing shared values and how do they relate to othersocial institutions?

] psychology: what is going on in the mind when peoplehave religious beliefs or engage in religious practices?

] philosophy: can religious thinking be rationally justified?

Perspectives on Religion

F From inside: what religious beliefs or practices should Iadhere to as someone aware of the mystery of life anddeath?

F From outside: how can we understand religion asdisinterested observers?

] religious studies: what are the practices, beliefs andhistories of various religions?

] sociology: how do religions work as institutionsexpressing shared values and how do they relate to othersocial institutions?

] psychology: what is going on in the mind when peoplehave religious beliefs or engage in religious practices?

] philosophy: can religious thinking be rationally justified?

Perspectives on Religion

F From inside: what religious beliefs or practices should Iadhere to as someone aware of the mystery of life anddeath?

F From outside: how can we understand religion asdisinterested observers?

] religious studies: what are the practices, beliefs andhistories of various religions?

] sociology: how do religions work as institutionsexpressing shared values and how do they relate to othersocial institutions?

] psychology: what is going on in the mind when peoplehave religious beliefs or engage in religious practices?

] philosophy: can religious thinking be rationally justified?

Perspectives on Religion

F From inside: what religious beliefs or practices should Iadhere to as someone aware of the mystery of life anddeath?

F From outside: how can we understand religion asdisinterested observers?

] religious studies: what are the practices, beliefs andhistories of various religions?

] sociology: how do religions work as institutionsexpressing shared values and how do they relate to othersocial institutions?

] psychology: what is going on in the mind when peoplehave religious beliefs or engage in religious practices?

] philosophy: can religious thinking be rationally justified?

Perspectives on Religion

F From inside: what religious beliefs or practices should Iadhere to as someone aware of the mystery of life anddeath?

F From outside: how can we understand religion asdisinterested observers?

] religious studies: what are the practices, beliefs andhistories of various religions?

] sociology: how do religions work as institutionsexpressing shared values and how do they relate to othersocial institutions?

] psychology: what is going on in the mind when peoplehave religious beliefs or engage in religious practices?

] philosophy: can religious thinking be rationally justified?

Perspectives on Religion

F From inside: what religious beliefs or practices should Iadhere to as someone aware of the mystery of life anddeath?

F From outside: how can we understand religion asdisinterested observers?

] religious studies: what are the practices, beliefs andhistories of various religions?

] sociology: how do religions work as institutionsexpressing shared values and how do they relate to othersocial institutions?

] psychology: what is going on in the mind when peoplehave religious beliefs or engage in religious practices?

] philosophy: can religious thinking be rationally justified?

Perspectives on Religion

F From inside: what religious beliefs or practices should Iadhere to as someone aware of the mystery of life anddeath?

F From outside: how can we understand religion asdisinterested observers?

] religious studies: what are the practices, beliefs andhistories of various religions?

] sociology: how do religions work as institutionsexpressing shared values and how do they relate to othersocial institutions?

] psychology: what is going on in the mind when peoplehave religious beliefs or engage in religious practices?

] philosophy: can religious thinking be rationally justified?

What philosophers ask about religion

What philosophers ask about religion

1. Does God exist? If so in what sense – as separatefrom nature, identical with nature, or in some otherway?

2. Do any “spiritual things” such as gods, souls,disembodied spirits, demons or ghosts exist or is theuniverse and everything in it purely material stuff?

3. What does the existence of evil in the world implyabout the existence or non-existence of God?

metaphysical questions

What philosophers ask about religion

1. Does God exist? If so in what sense – as separatefrom nature, identical with nature, or in some otherway?

2. Do any “spiritual things” such as gods, souls,disembodied spirits, demons or ghosts exist or is theuniverse and everything in it purely material stuff?

3. What does the existence of evil in the world implyabout the existence or non-existence of God?

metaphysical questions

What philosophers ask about religion

1. Does God exist? If so in what sense – as separatefrom nature, identical with nature, or in some otherway?

2. Do any “spiritual things” such as gods, souls,disembodied spirits, demons or ghosts exist or is theuniverse and everything in it purely material stuff?

3. What does the existence of evil in the world implyabout the existence or non-existence of God?

metaphysical questions

What philosophers ask about religion

1. Does God exist? If so in what sense – as separatefrom nature, identical with nature, or in some otherway?

2. Do any “spiritual things” such as gods, souls,disembodied spirits, demons or ghosts exist or is theuniverse and everything in it purely material stuff?

3. What does the existence of evil in the world implyabout the existence or non-existence of God?

metaphysical questions

What philosophers ask about religion

1. What evidence might establish the existence of aGod?

2. What is the relation between reason and faith ingeneral and what does this tell us about religion?

3. Does religious experience warrant religious belief?

4. Are religious explanations of natural phenomena incompetition with scientific explanations?

epistemological questions

What philosophers ask about religion

1. What evidence might establish the existence of aGod?

2. What is the relation between reason and faith ingeneral and what does this tell us about religion?

3. Does religious experience warrant religious belief?

4. Are religious explanations of natural phenomena incompetition with scientific explanations?

epistemological questions

What philosophers ask about religion

1. What evidence might establish the existence of aGod?

2. What is the relation between reason and faith ingeneral and what does this tell us about religion?

3. Does religious experience warrant religious belief?

4. Are religious explanations of natural phenomena incompetition with scientific explanations?

epistemological questions

What philosophers ask about religion

1. What evidence might establish the existence of aGod?

2. What is the relation between reason and faith ingeneral and what does this tell us about religion?

3. Does religious experience warrant religious belief?

4. Are religious explanations of natural phenomena incompetition with scientific explanations?

epistemological questions

What philosophers ask about religion

1. What evidence might establish the existence of aGod?

2. What is the relation between reason and faith ingeneral and what does this tell us about religion?

3. Does religious experience warrant religious belief?

4. Are religious explanations of natural phenomena incompetition with scientific explanations?

epistemological questions

What philosophers ask about religion

1. Are religious beliefs or institutions necessary for socialorder?

2. Can we have morality without religion?

3. Is religion a purely private matter or should it play apublic role in modern societies?

value-theory questions

What philosophers ask about religion

1. Are religious beliefs or institutions necessary for socialorder?

2. Can we have morality without religion?

3. Is religion a purely private matter or should it play apublic role in modern societies?

value-theory questions

What philosophers ask about religion

1. Are religious beliefs or institutions necessary for socialorder?

2. Can we have morality without religion?

3. Is religion a purely private matter or should it play apublic role in modern societies?

value-theory questions

What philosophers ask about religion

1. Are religious beliefs or institutions necessary for socialorder?

2. Can we have morality without religion?

3. Is religion a purely private matter or should it play apublic role in modern societies?

value-theory questions

Varieties of Religious Belief

Is there such a thing as God or the gods?

Varieties of Religious Belief

Is there such a thing as God or the gods?

Varieties of Religious Belief

Is there such a thing as God or the gods?

Yes.

This general answer defines whatit means to be THEIST.

Varieties of Religious Belief

Is there such a thing as God or the gods?

Yes.

A singleGod exists.monotheism

This is what we often thinkof when we think of religion –the idea that there is one all-powerful God, an idea commonto Judaism, Christianity andIslam.

Varieties of Religious Belief

Is there such a thing as God or the gods?

Yes.

A singleGod exists.monotheism

Thereare many

gods.

polytheism

Historically monotheism grew out ofpolytheism. Polytheism is alive andwell in India in the form of Hinduism.

Varieties of Religious Belief

Is there such a thing as God or the gods?

Yes.

A singleGod exists.monotheism

Thereare many

gods.

polytheism

An impersonalcreator

God exists.deism

Deism was popular duringthe Enlightenment and manyfounders of the AmericanRepublic were deists.

Varieties of Religious Belief

Is there such a thing as God or the gods?

Yes.

A singleGod exists.monotheism

Thereare many

gods.

polytheism

An impersonalcreator

God exists.deism

God is inall things.

pantheism

Pantheism is related to animism,or the ancient idea that all thingshave spirits.

Varieties of Religious Belief

Is there such a thing as God or the gods?

Yes.

A singleGod exists.monotheism

Thereare many

gods.

polytheism

An impersonalcreator

God exists.deism

God is inall things.

pantheism

No.

God doesnot exist.atheism

You might think that a negativeconclusion like this cannot beproved, but the argument fromevil tries to do so.

Varieties of Religious Belief

Is there such a thing as God or the gods?

Yes.

A singleGod exists.monotheism

Thereare many

gods.

polytheism

An impersonalcreator

God exists.deism

God is inall things.

pantheism

No.

God doesnot exist.atheism

Maybe.

We don’t orcan’t know ifGod exists.agnosticism

Is this the most reasonable position totake, or are there strong arguments infavor of or against belief? Buddhismmight be considered an agnosticreligion.

Classic Arguments for Theism

Classic Arguments for Theism

St. Thomas Aquinas1225 – 1274

Classic Arguments for Theism

St. Thomas Aquinas1225 – 1274

God is evident in basicfacts about the worldof our experience.

Classic Arguments for Theism

St. Thomas Aquinas1225 – 1274

God is evident in basicfacts about the worldof our experience.

St. Thomas Aquinas was an important figurein the history of the Catholic Church. Hecombined the conceptual framework of Greekphilosophy, especially Aristotle, with the corebeliefs of Medieval Christianity. His ideascontinue to provide the basis for contemporaryCatholic philosophy and theology.

Classic Arguments for Theism

St. Thomas Aquinas1225 – 1274

God is evident in basicfacts about the worldof our experience.

Whatever exists has a cause.

The universe as a whole exists.

So there must be a cause for theuniverse existing and this cause isGod.

the cosmological argument

Classic Arguments for Theism

Whatever exists has a cause.

The universe as a whole exists.

So there must be a cause for theuniverse existing and this cause isGod.

the cosmological argument

This argument is VALID, but is itSOUND? Are the premises true?

Classic Arguments for Theism

Whatever exists has a cause.

The universe as a whole exists.

So there must be a cause for theuniverse existing and this cause isGod.

the cosmological argument

Does everything have to have acause?

Classic Arguments for Theism

Whatever exists has a cause.

The universe as a whole exists.

So there must be a cause for theuniverse existing and this cause isGod.

the cosmological argument

According to quantum physicsmaybe not since some things canjust happen.

Classic Arguments for Theism

Whatever exists has a cause.

The universe as a whole exists.

So there must be a cause for theuniverse existing and this cause isGod.

the cosmological argument

Is there any reason why the universecould not have existed forever?

Classic Arguments for Theism

Whatever exists has a cause.

The universe as a whole exists.

So there must be a cause for theuniverse existing and this cause isGod.

the cosmological argument

Even given that the universe has acause, why must this cause be God?

Classic Arguments for Theism

Classic Arguments for Theism

William Paleyc. 1743 – 1805

Classic Arguments for Theism

William Paleyc. 1743 – 1805

The work of Godis evident in thecomplexity of thenatural world.

Classic Arguments for Theism

William Paleyc. 1743 – 1805

The work of Godis evident in thecomplexity of thenatural world.

William Paley was an influentialEnglish Protestant minister of the18th Century. His arguments arestill popular among contemporary“creationists” and backers of“intelligent design theory.”

Classic Arguments for Theism

William Paleyc. 1743 – 1805

The work of Godis evident in thecomplexity of thenatural world.

If we found a watch on a deserted islandwe would conclude that it was designedby an intelligent person.

Likewise with living organisms – theytoo are best explained by a designer

Thus a God who designed and createdliving organisms must exist.

the teleological argument

Classic Arguments for Theism

If we found a watch on a deserted islandwe would conclude that it was designedby an intelligent person.

Likewise with living organisms – theytoo are best explained by a designer

Thus a God who designed and createdliving organisms must exist.

the teleological argument

This is an “argument to thebest explanation” which claimsthat the best explanation forthe complexity of living things isthat there is a God who createdthem.

Classic Arguments for Theism

If we found a watch on a deserted islandwe would conclude that it was designedby an intelligent person.

Likewise with living organisms – theytoo are best explained by a designer

Thus a God who designed and createdliving organisms must exist.

the teleological argument

To see whether this is true weneed to know whether there areother workable explanations.

Classic Arguments for Theism

If we found a watch on a deserted islandwe would conclude that it was designedby an intelligent person.

Likewise with living organisms – theytoo are best explained by a designer

Thus a God who designed and createdliving organisms must exist.

the teleological argument

Charles Darwin argued thatthere is a better explanation –evolution by natural selection.

Classic Arguments for Theism

Classic Arguments for Theism

St. Anselmc. 1033 – 1101

Classic Arguments for Theism

St. Anselmc. 1033 – 1101

Reason alone canconvince us tobelieve that Godexists.

Classic Arguments for Theism

St. Anselmc. 1033 – 1101

Reason alone canconvince us tobelieve that Godexists.

Anselm of Canterbury was born in Francebut ascended through the ranks of theMedieval Church to become Archbishopof Canterbury, the head of the Church inEngland. His philosophical work was anearly attempt to systematize Churchdoctrine and establish it on a rationalbasis.

Classic Arguments for Theism

St. Anselmc. 1033 – 1101

Reason alone canconvince us tobelieve that Godexists.

We can imagine a perfect being.

If this being did not exist, itwould lack something and thusnot be perfect.

Thus a perfect being (God) mustexist.

the ontological argument

Classic Arguments for Theism

We can imagine a perfect being.

If this being did not exist, itwould lack something and thusnot be perfect.

Thus a perfect being (God) mustexist.

the ontological argument

This argument is an example of areductio ad absurdum in that itclaims that the opposite of what itis trying to prove – the non-existenceof a being defined as perfect – makesno sense.

Classic Arguments for Theism

We can imagine a perfect being.

If this being did not exist, itwould lack something and thusnot be perfect.

Thus a perfect being (God) mustexist.

the ontological argument

This argument seems to be cheating –can we really conclude anything aboutreality based just on our definition ofthe concept “perfect being?”

Classic Arguments for Theism

We can imagine a perfect being.

If this being did not exist, itwould lack something and thusnot be perfect.

Thus a perfect being (God) mustexist.

the ontological argument

Is existence really a feature ofthings in the way this argumentseems to require?

Classic Arguments for Theism

We can imagine a perfect being.

If this being did not exist, itwould lack something and thusnot be perfect.

Thus a perfect being (God) mustexist.

the ontological argument

What does this very abstract idea ofa perfect being have to do with theGod of religion?

An Argument for Atheism

An Argument for Atheism

David Humec. 1711 – 1776

An Argument for Atheism

David Humec. 1711 – 1776

What can we reallyknow based on theavailable evidence?

An Argument for Atheism

David Humec. 1711 – 1776

What can we reallyknow based on theavailable evidence?

David Hume was a major figure in theScottish Enlightenment. He sought toapply the scientific method to the studyof human knowledge. This often led himto skeptical conclusions about how muchwe really can claim to know. He is nowrecognized as a pioneer in cognitivepsychology as well being an influentialphilosopher.

An Argument for Atheism

David Humec. 1711 – 1776

What can we reallyknow based on theavailable evidence?

If there is an all-powerful, all-knowing and all-good God, thenevil should not exist.

But there clearly is evil in theworld.

This gives us a strong reason todoubt the existence of such aGod.

the argument from evil

An Argument for Atheism

If there is an all-powerful, all-knowing and all-good God, thenevil should not exist.

But there clearly is evil in theworld.

This gives us a strong reason todoubt the existence of such aGod.

the argument from evil

This argument is VALID, but is itSOUND? Are the premises true?

An Argument for Atheism

If there is an all-powerful, all-knowing and all-good God, thenevil should not exist.

But there clearly is evil in theworld.

This gives us a strong reason todoubt the existence of such aGod.

the argument from evil

The existence of evil could be explainedaway if God either couldn’t do anythingabout it, did not know or did not careto stop it.

An Argument for Atheism

If there is an all-powerful, all-knowing and all-good God, thenevil should not exist.

But there clearly is evil in theworld.

This gives us a strong reason todoubt the existence of such aGod.

the argument from evil

The fact of undeserved evil, suchas childhood disease, presents a bigchallenge to the theist.

An Argument for Atheism

If there is an all-powerful, all-knowing and all-good God, thenevil should not exist.

But there clearly is evil in theworld.

This gives us a strong reason todoubt the existence of such aGod.

the argument from evil

The theist must respond by showingthat there is a good reason for evilin the world.

An Argument for Atheism

If there is an all-powerful, all-knowing and all-good God, thenevil should not exist.

But there clearly is evil in theworld.

This gives us a strong reason todoubt the existence of such aGod.

the argument from evil

The most popular defense of God isthe appeal to free will - God made usfree to choose good or evil and thisrequires evil in the world.

An Alternate Argument for Theism

An Alternate Argument for Theism

Blaise Pascal1623 – 1662

An Alternate Argument for Theism

Blaise Pascal1623 – 1662

We are allcompelled togamble.

An Alternate Argument for Theism

Blaise Pascal1623 – 1662

We are allcompelled togamble.

Blaise Pascal was a mathematician anddeeply religious philosopher. He wasone of the inventors of probability theoryand applied probabalistic reasoning to thequestion of religious belief.

An Alternate Argument for Theism

Blaise Pascal1623 – 1662

We are allcompelled togamble.

We have no conclusive evidence for theexistence or non-existence of God.

But the risk of not believing in caseGod exists –punishment in hell– far out-weighs whatever benefit we might getfrom not believing should God not exist.

Thus we have a strong reason to believethat God exists.

Pascal’s wager

An Alternate Argument for Theism

We have no conclusive evidence for theexistence or non-existence of God.

But the risk of not believing in caseGod exists –punishment in hell– far out-weighs whatever benefit we might getfrom not believing should God not exist.

Thus we have a strong reason to believethat God exists.

Pascal’s wager

This argument is a practicalargument which looks at thepotential payoffs of belief asopposed to unbelief.

An Alternate Argument for Theism

We have no conclusive evidence for theexistence or non-existence of God.

But the risk of not believing in caseGod exists –punishment in hell– far out-weighs whatever benefit we might getfrom not believing should God not exist.

Thus we have a strong reason to believethat God exists.

Pascal’s wager

Given the difficulties presentedby the other arguments, thisseems correct.

An Alternate Argument for Theism

We have no conclusive evidence for theexistence or non-existence of God.

But the risk of not believing in caseGod exists –punishment in hell– far out-weighs whatever benefit we might getfrom not believing should God not exist.

Thus we have a strong reason to believethat God exists.

Pascal’s wager

Even if the probability of God’sexistence is very low, the infinitepenalty involved in not believingshould God actually exist is toogreat to ignore.

An Alternate Argument for Theism

We have no conclusive evidence for theexistence or non-existence of God.

But the risk of not believing in caseGod exists –punishment in hell– far out-weighs whatever benefit we might getfrom not believing should God not exist.

Thus we have a strong reason to believethat God exists.

Pascal’s wager

Is this a reason to believe orjust a motive for believing? Andcan we believe whatever we maywant or feel the need to believe?

The Buddhist Perspective

The Buddhist Perspective

Siddhartha Gautamac. 563 – c. 483 BCE

The Buddhist Perspective

Siddhartha Gautamac. 563 – c. 483 BCE

What we believeabout ultimatequestions is lessimportant thanhow we live.

The Buddhist Perspective

Siddhartha Gautamac. 563 – c. 483 BCE

What we believeabout ultimatequestions is lessimportant thanhow we live.

Siddhartha Guatama, “the Buddha,” wasan Indian prince who left a comfortablelife to seek a solution to the humanpredicament. He claimed to find one ina way of life emphasizing self-knowledge,ethical action and contemplation of theimpermanent nature of things.

The Buddhist Perspective

Siddhartha Gautamac. 563 – c. 483 BCE

What we believeabout ultimatequestions is lessimportant thanhow we live.

Arguing about the nature of God, thesoul, life after death is like arguing aboutthe details of the arrow after having beenshot with one.

It is far more important to pull the arrowout than worry about who shot it andfrom how far away.

The same is true of religious practice –it is intended to overcome suffering notanswer ultimate questions.

the parable of the arrow

The Buddhist Perspective

Arguing about the nature of God, thesoul, life after death is like arguing aboutthe details of the arrow after having beenshot with one.

It is far more important to pull the arrowout than worry about who shot it andfrom how far away.

The same is true of religious practice –it is intended to overcome suffering notanswer ultimate questions.

the parable of the arrow

Buddhism is often considered to bea religion, but it is non-theistic inthat it holds that God or the godsare not relevant for resolving thedifficulties with being human.

The Buddhist Perspective

Arguing about the nature of God, thesoul, life after death is like arguing aboutthe details of the arrow after having beenshot with one.

It is far more important to pull the arrowout than worry about who shot it andfrom how far away.

The same is true of religious practice –it is intended to overcome suffering notanswer ultimate questions.

the parable of the arrow

Metaphysical questions may beinteresting, but perhaps they arebesides the point.

The Buddhist Perspective

Arguing about the nature of God, thesoul, life after death is like arguing aboutthe details of the arrow after having beenshot with one.

It is far more important to pull the arrowout than worry about who shot it andfrom how far away.

The same is true of religious practice –it is intended to overcome suffering notanswer ultimate questions.

the parable of the arrow

Human beings seek to get to theroot of the difficulties of living anddying. Religion is one response tothis.

The Buddhist Perspective

Arguing about the nature of God, thesoul, life after death is like arguing aboutthe details of the arrow after having beenshot with one.

It is far more important to pull the arrowout than worry about who shot it andfrom how far away.

The same is true of religious practice –it is intended to overcome suffering notanswer ultimate questions.

the parable of the arrow

In spite of its lack of concern forreligious belief, Buddhism shareswith other religions a sense of thesacredness and mystery of life.