Date post: | 05-Apr-2018 |
Category: |
Documents |
Upload: | totok-prawitosari |
View: | 215 times |
Download: | 0 times |
of 26
8/2/2019 026 - Watershed Concepts Consolidated Extracts-Ori
1/26
SerialNo.:026 WBSNo.150
WatershedTopicRelatedExtracts,(a collection assembled by EGSLP)
January2009
ProducedorReproducedby:
ForTheBenefitofRuralDevelopmentPractitioners
8/2/2019 026 - Watershed Concepts Consolidated Extracts-Ori
2/26
P a g e |1
NOTETOREADERS
ThewordWatershedcanmeanmanythingstomanypeople.Thatmanythingsorpartsofit,canprobably
informthedevelopmentpractitionerwhenapproachtodevelopmentisdelineatedbythewatershedconcept.
It is with this idea in mind that EGSLP is striving to reduce Poverty through Environmental Sustainable
LivelihoodopportunitiesandWellBeingforPoorRuralMen,Women,BoysandGirlsinSelectedwatersheds
InthepresentdocumentEGSLPproposestothereaderextractsfromdocumentsrelatedtotheWatershedso
that thoseconcerned withEGSLP,are informed from thesame documents environment. Hopefully thiswill
contribute to a shared vision between EGSLP Stakeholders, and thus make EGSLP implementation better
informedandefficient.
EGSLPdoesnotpretendthattheseriesofextractsiscomplete;northatisitwellbalancedevenifEGSLPtried
to.We leavetothejudgmentof individualreaderstodecideontheusageofthisdocument,butadamantly
encourageruraldevelopmentpractitionerstoreadthroughitisatleastonce.Wehavehighlightedsomeofthe
textsforthoseinarush,whenreading.
EGSLPhasassembledtheextractsfromtheperspectiveof:
1. SustainableAgriculture,togetherwithEnvironmentandRuralDevelopment Page22. MethodsofInquiryforRuralSystemsAppraisal Page83. LandDegradationandSustainability Page154. ManagementforSustainableFarmingSystems Page205. RuralDevelopment Page236. ProjectPlanning,MonitoringandEvaluation Page25
8/2/2019 026 - Watershed Concepts Consolidated Extracts-Ori
3/26
P a g e |2
FromPublicationsonSustainableAgriculture,togetherwithEnvironment
andRuralDevelopment
TheAgroecosystemOneresponsetothechallengeofcomplexityistoapplysystemsanalysiswithintheconceptoftheagro
ecosystem, which includes ecological and socioeconomic components (field, farm, household, village,
watershed, regional production area, national and international levels) and related livelihoods, such as
agroforestryandcoastalfisheries
Withintheagroecosystem,fourmanagementobjectivesareimportant
1. Agriculturalsustainability theabilitytomaintainproductivity,whetherof field, farm,ornation, inthefaceofchangingdemands
2. Productivityoutputofproductperunitofresourceinput3. Stabilityconstancyofproductivityinthefaceofnormalfluctuationsandenvironmentalcycles4. Equityevennessofaccesstoanddistributionoftheproductivityoftheagriculturalsystemamong
its
human
beneficiaries
(U4/2)
ParticipatoryResourceManagementResource conservation programmes such aswatershedmanagement, or soil and water conservation
projects, offer important opportunities to incorporate community participation. Rural people usually
understandtheirlocalenvironmentandtheinteractionsbetweencomponentsinagroecologicalsystems
far better than outsiders. Participation therefore allows people's resource management skills and
experience to be used to their full potential. Participation is also important in resource management
becausechanges inthe localenvironmentwillaffecteveryone inthecommunity.Fosteringbroadbased
participationisthereforeimportantforsustainableresourcemanagement,asitbringstogetherallthose
affected,andenablesthemtocontributetotheinceptionanddesignofconservationprogrammes.Thisis
animportantsteptowardsmoreamoreequitableprocessofdevelopment.
CommunityWatershedManagementCommunity watershed development programmes involve a more complex and comprehensive
programmeofruralresourceconservationwork.Ratherthanfocusingonaspecificresource,localpeople
cometogethertodecideonastrategytosustainthequalityofallcommunalresources(i.e.commonland,
surfaceandgroundwater,andforests)throughoutthelocalregion.Naturalresourcemanagementinthis
contextistackledsystematically,consideringalllinkagesanddownstreameffects.Suchprogrammesmay
entail major soil conservation work, extensive tree planting, andcareful water management systems.
What ismore,whilethewatershed 'boundary'mayberestrictedtoonepartofasinglevalley, itcould
extendtoincludeseveralconnectedcatchmentsfeedingintoagreatersystem.
Thus, community watershed management programmes may, in fact, cover a number of villages,
necessitatingwidercooperationbetweencommunities.Thescaleofactivitywilltoagreatextenthavean
impactonthedegreeofparticipationpossiblewithintheseprogrammes.Itwillalsohaveaneffectonthe
number and size of the institutions set up to manage the activities. Generally speaking, the larger the
watershedarea,thelessthe likelihoodoffullparticipationas largerinstitutionswilltendtoemergeand
thesewillcomprisethoseclaimingtorepresentthepeople.Thisrelationship isbynomeans inevitable.
AdditionaldiscussionofthistopiccanbefoundinNewHorizons:TheEconomic,SocialanEnvironmental
ImpactsofParticipatoryWatershedDevelopment.
SUSTAINABLEAGRICULTURESYSTEMSTorepeat;enhancingthesustainability ofagriculture involvesbothregeneratingtheagricultural system
itselfandrevitalisingruralcommunities.Theprioritiesforsustainability willvaryfromregiontoregion,but
willinvolveaddressingtherelevantlocalenvironmental, economicandequityconcerns.
8/2/2019 026 - Watershed Concepts Consolidated Extracts-Ori
4/26
P a g e |3
SAREDapproachescantherefore incorporateanarrayof initiatives,reflectingboththediversityof local
needsandthevarietyofresources,knowledgeandskillsfoundaroundtheworld.Ratherthanadoptinga
standardisedmodel,as in industrialagriculture,SAREDapproachesareflexible,andconstructedaround
the particular features of individual watersheds, communities and landscapes. These methods also
empower the individuals within rural communities,by reenforcing their roleas active decision makers
withintheiragroecosystems.
Oneofthekeyelementsofasustainableruraleconomyisdiversification bothonfarmandintherural
economy overall. Onfarm diversification involves the incorporation of multiple elements into the
production system, such as mixed cropping practices, treecrop combinations, livestockcrop
combinations,orotherstrategiessuchasaquacultureandsilvopastoralsystems.
SoilConservationandWaterManagementSystemsTheprincipaltechniquesdescribedforsoilconservationandwatermanagementinclude:
Conservationtillage Contourfarming Theuseofmulchesandcovercrops Theuseofsilttrapsandgullyfields Waterconservationmeasuresandharvesting Landdrainageforsalineandwaterloggedsoils Raisedbeds FishproductioninirrigationwaterForsuchprogrammestobesuccessfulandsustainedfarmersmustbeseenaspartofthesolutionrather
than the problem; local knowledge and skills must be at the core of these programmes and local
organisations reinforced through a process of participatory planning that is both interactive and
empowering.
Inresponsetothesetechnical,socialandeconomicfailures,recentyearshaveseenthegrowthof
participatory
watershed
development
programmes.
These
differ
from
conventional
approaches
in
that:
Localcommunitiesarefullyinvolved Theroleofexternalsupportorganisationsareasfacilitatorsofanalysisandacatalystforaction Farmertofarmerextensionisakeyprocessforinformationexchangeandscalingup Technologiesselectedandcropsencourageddependontheindividualneedsoffarmers Emphasisisonthesustainabilityandequityofimprovements.Theseinitiativestendtoaddressaneedwithinalargerregionforcoordinatedstrategiesbetween
communitiestoconservetheircommonresources;i.e.thesoilandwaterinparticularmicrocatchments.
Thismayincludereforestation,agreementsabouttheuseanddistributionofirrigationwater,andon
farmsoilandwaterconservationmeasures
Findings
Related
to
Joint
Watershed
Development
Technologies
Redirect incentives:Linking financialandfood inducementstopreselectedconservationmeasuresmust
cease. Incentives are effective only in certain situations when they are decided in consultation with
communities
Innovation: The capacity of individuals and institutions to innovate and experiment must be actively
encouraged.
Biologicalmeasures:Amuchgreateremphasisisneededonadaptingandapplyingbiologicalmeasuresfor
soil and water conservation, such as green manures, cover crops, mulching, composting and reduced
tillage.
8/2/2019 026 - Watershed Concepts Consolidated Extracts-Ori
5/26
P a g e |4
Participatorytechnologydevelopmentandadaptiveresearchshouldbecomeanintegralpartofwatershed
managementprogrammes.Onwatershedresearchwouldbeanappropriateapproach (usingonfarm
researchasamodel).
Processand
Methods
Farmertofarmerextensionandexperimentationshould be an integralpart ofwatershedmanagement
programmesiftheyaretobesustainableandaretoencouragescalingup.
Flexibility:External institutions must be flexibleand responsive, and ready to learnwith farmers. Every
farmhasitsownsignature.Athoroughlydesignedandpreplannedprojectisnotagoodproject.
Confidencebuilding: The pace of programmes and projects must be slow in order to build motivation,
confidenceandrapportamongstallthegroupsinvolved.
Decentralisation: The villagebased management of programme funds and planning are important pre
requisitesforsustainablewatershedmanagement.
Impactsand
Indicators
Adaptationversusadoption: Impact indicatorsshould focusonadaptationoftechnologiesandpractices
byfarmers,ratherthanonadoptionoftechnologies.
Equity.Muchgreatereffortsareneededtoaddressequityissuesifthepoorestandmostmarginalisedin
anysocietyarenottobemissed.
Selfevaluationenrichesthe learningprocess in institutions.It leadstogreaterhonestyaboutwhatdoes
anddoesnotwork,particularly if localpeoplesmeasuresofwhatconstitutessuccessareused.What is
neededisawidespreadtransitiontowardslearningorganizations,usingimpactanalysisastheimpetus
forimprovement.
InterInstitutional
Arrangements
Widespread training and competence building is needed to encourage and sustain a participatory
approachtojointwatershedmanagement,especiallyinbureaucraciesanduniversities.
Jointapproachesincreasethecontactsandlinkagesbetweenfarmersandexternalinstitutions,improving
thelikelihoodofpoliciesandpracticesemergingthatsatisfyallstakeholders.
Clear roles: There is a need to clarify the roles of the different institutions, such as governments and
NGOs,involvedindevelopingjointwatershedmanagement.
Intervillagefederations:Sustainablewatersheddevelopment requires thedevelopmentofstrong inter
villageinstitutionsorfederations.
Policies
Policyreform:Mostnationalandinternationalagriculturalandruralpoliciesdonotprovideafavourable
climatefortheimplementation oftheapproachestowatersheddevelopmentdescribedhere.
Appropriate support: If authorities are to hand responsibility for complex, costly and conflictridden
problemsbacktolocalpeople,thismustbeaccompaniedbyadequatefinancialandinstitutionalsupport.
Equityandlivelihoods.Thepolicyfocusshouldnotbesolelyonnaturalresourcemanagement,butshould
alsoencompasslivelihoodsecurity,equityandinstitutionaldevelopment.
ChallengesfortheFuture.
Soilandwaterconservationpracticesbasedon imposed technological interventionshavenotdelivered
the environmental or economic benefits they promised. The practice of designing and implementing
interventionswithoutinvolvinglocalpeoplecanonlysucceedwithcoercion.Suchenforcedresponsesmay
8/2/2019 026 - Watershed Concepts Consolidated Extracts-Ori
6/26
P a g e |5
appear technically appropriate but are commonly rejected by local people when external pressure is
removed.
Community watershed management approaches are not, however, without disadvantages. Onedrawback
is
the
danger
of
marginal
or
weaker
groups
within
these
communities
being
excluded
from
the
decisionmakingandmanagementprocess.Theinterestsofthesegroupsmaybeoverlookedincollective
agreements,andtheymaysufferasaresult.Also,differentcommunities,orevengroupswithinthesame
communities, may have different resource management concerns and requirements. This may require
carefulnegotiationandbargaining.Ifnosettlementcanbereached,itcouldbenecessaryforanexternal
(i.e.regionalgovernmentorNGO)institutiontoresolvethedispute.
Finally, it is the responsibility of state, provincial and national governments to ensure thatwatershed
management arrangements do not come into conflict with wider regional objectives. Especially in the
context of river systems, governments should ensure that downstream areas are not overadversely
affectedbycommunities'actionsinupstreamcatchments.
Participatory
Watershed
Development:
It
is
in
response
to
the
technical,
social
and
economic
failures
of
manypastefforts insoilandwaterconservation,Participatorywatersheddevelopmentdiffers fromthe
conventional approachinthat:
o Local communities are fully involved in the analysis of their own soil and water conservationproblems.Decisionsaremadewiththeiractiveparticipation.
o Theroleoftheexternalsupportorganisationisasafacilitatorofanalysisandacatalystforaction,buildingonthelocalknowledge,needsandopportunitiesofthecommunities.
o Farmertofarmerextensionisakeyprocess.o Project staff does not take a blueprint approach. Technologies selected and crops encouraged
dependonthe individualneedsof farmers.Theoverriding featuremustthereforebe flexibility
rightthroughfromtheplanninganddesignstagetotheexecutionstage..Theemphasisisonthe
sustainabilityandequityofimprovements,ratherthanonshorttermbenefits.
DefininganAppropriateScale(Thewatershedscale)Whilepoliticalandadministrativedecentralisation isessentialforsustainableplanning,theyareonlypart
of theprocess.Decentralisation isalso aboutmaking planning more relevant to local agroecosystems,
and thus more in line with the needs of rural people. Planning must therefore occur at a scale where
community/resource interactionscanbelookedatholisticallyandsystematically. Thismeansshiftingthe
focusofplanningfromarbitrarypoliticalboundariestonaturallydefinedgeographicalregions.
Onesuchgeographically distinctareacommonlyused,asalocusofplanningisthewatershed.Watershed
management impliesthemanagementofruralresourceswithintheparametersofacatchmentsystem.
Dependingonthesizeofthewatershedboundaries,planningatthisscalemayincludeavalley,amicro
catchment,astreamsystem,oranentirewatershed.Mostlikely,itwillentailsomecombinationofthese,
withoverlappingscalesofplanningactivity.
The most crucial level of watershed management is at the community and microcatchment levels.
Communities need to be aware of the impact of their actions on neighbouring people. For instance,
deforestationtomeetfuelwoodneeds inonecommunitymaycause increasedsoilerosiononhillsides,
leading to siltation of local waterways and negative impacts on downstream users (i.e. by clogging up
irrigationcanalsorincreasingthesedimentcontentinwatersupplies).Similarlyexcessnitrogeninputsto
thesoilfromagricultureorlivestockcanleadtonitratepollutioningroundwater,threateningthequality
of localdrinkingwaterandharmingaquatic life inregional lakes.Bydevelopingaplanningprocessthat
looks at these interactions systematically, communities can work together to decide on a strategy to
sustain the quality of communal regional resources, including land, surface and groundwater, and
forests). Watershed planning therefore involves a comprehensive programme of rural resource
conservation work, in which natural resource management is tackled systematically, considering all
linkages.
8/2/2019 026 - Watershed Concepts Consolidated Extracts-Ori
7/26
P a g e |6
Integral to this is the involvement of local people in the design and implementation of resource
management programmes. The scale of the watershed system will have a considerable impact on the
degreeofparticipationpossiblewithintheseplanningstructures.Itwillalsohaveaneffectonthenumber
andsizeoftheinstitutionsrequiredtomanagetheprogrammes.
Generally speaking it will be the case that, the larger the watershed area, the less the degree of
participation (as larger institutions will tend to emerge, run via representatives speaking on behalf of
largergroupsofpeople).Howeverthisisnotinevitable.Thewatershedbasedplanningapproachrequires
strengtheninglocalinstitutional capacity,soastocreateaplanningagencycapableofunderstandingand
dealingwiththecomplexitiesofthewatershedecosystemanddeterminingtheneedsformanagement,
labourandotherinputs.
ManagingWatershedsFocusonpeople. Watershed management is often defined biophysically: planting trees, building check
dams,stabilisinggullies,controllingtorrents,managingrunoff.However,watershedproblemsarearesult
ofhuman disturbances in efforts to earn their livelihood. Therefore,people must be the focal point of
watershedmanagementprogrammesandinnovationsshouldbeplannedwiththeirneedsinmind.
Accountabilityofprojectworkers.Projectworkersaregenerallyaccountabletotheirsupervisorsforcrop
failuresorcheckdambursts,butnottofarmers,whohavecontributedsignificantamountsoftime,faith
andresources.
Stakeholdersperspective. The key to success is to involve farmers as stakeholders. Their involvement
should not be limited only to problem identification, but should also include implementation and
evaluation.
Quantifiable indicators are often physical and generally do not relate to the watershed as a whole.
Forestersareevaluatedforthenumberoftreesplanted,agronomistsforincreasesinyield,engineersfor
thenumberofcheckdamsbuilt.Alltheseareeasymeasures,visibleandappreciatedbybothdonorsand
supervisors. However, the number of trees that survive is more important than the total number of
saplingsplanted.Storagefacilitiesmustaccompanyyieldincreases.Improvedvarietiesbringinnewpests
sopesticidesmustbemadeavailablelocally.
Need for social expertise. Technicians often dominate programme staffs. It is crucial that a staff
anthropologistorsociologistbeinvolvedintheplanningprocesstoaccessunderrepresentedgroupsand
encouragetheirparticipationandensurethedistributionofprojectactivitiesandbenefits.
Holistic approach. Some donors finance only limited activities, such as irrigation or agro forestry, but
watershedprogrammesneedaholisticapproach.Forexample, farmers inWestNepalwanteddrinking
watersuppliesintheirvillageandrenovationofleakingschoolroofs.Theyrefusedtoparticipateinproject
activities unless these issues were included. The funding agency must be flexible to accommodate
unforeseencircumstances.
Indigenous knowledge. Local people are often not consulted for their expertise. While the goal of
watershedmanagementprogrammes is longterm,projectsaregenerallyshortterm.The firstphaseof
the project must produce tangible results. Fastgrowing tree species replace slow growing locally
availableandadaptedtrees.Highyieldingvarietiesreplacelowyieldingbutstablelocaloneswithgreater
market andstoragevalues. Indigenous systemsmay notwork ineverysituation,but the integration of
localandexternaltechnologiescanresultinappropriatesolutions.
Project evaluation. Evaluation methods currently used by many governmental, bilateral and non
governmental organisationsmustbereconsidered.Directorsareoftenevaluatedonthebasisofmoney
spentand/orthenumberofnewprojectsstarted.Bigscaleprojectsmay lookeconomicallyattractive,
butsmallscaleprojects,ifimplementedcarefully,maybemoreequitable.
8/2/2019 026 - Watershed Concepts Consolidated Extracts-Ori
8/26
P a g e |7
CocoordinatingNationalPolicyInordertoestablishtheprinciplesthatwillguidepolicyoverthe longterm it isvitalthatgovernments
have a clear concept of what sustainability means for their country that can also offer suggestions for
specific
courses
of
action.
Within such strategies, governments need to state which activities will receive support and which will
incur penalties or costs. This means setting out policies for sustainable development, applicable at
national,regionalandlocallevels.Bydoingthis,governmentsaresendingoutsignalstopublicemployees,
privatebusiness,localcommunitiesandothers,thattheyarecommittedtotheprinciplesofsustainability
While national policies are central to the success of SARED, many of the challenges facing rural
communities find their root in local or regional issues. For this reason, it is important that a coherent
national framework and strong leadership is complemented by devolution of power and a political
environment that supports local initiatives. Analysis of decisionmaking activities also needs to be
nested by scale. This clarifies the connection between action and impact at all levels from field, to
farm, to village, towatershed, to state, to nation. In turn, this allows the vertical integration of policy
analysisandactionatalllevels.
8/2/2019 026 - Watershed Concepts Consolidated Extracts-Ori
9/26
P a g e |8
FromPublicationsonMethodsofInquiryforRuralSystemsAppraisal
Agroecosystems maybetakenasusefulunitsofstudyfortheanalysisofagricultureandtheassessmentofits sustainability. Before we can discuss the methodologies for agroecosystems appraisal we need to
revisewhatanagroecosystemisandwhatitcontains
o Itselementsandcomponentso Itishowitbehaves,theinteractionsandpropertieso Itisthestructuralarrangementsandcontext,thewatershedorregion
Agroecosystemsdefined
Asystemmaybedefinedasacollectionofinterrelatedcomponents(subsystems)whichsharecommon
purposesorfunctions,andhaveacommonboundary.
Partsorcomponentsofasystemincludethefollowing:
o context/environmento boundarieslimitso componentso elements
Interactionbetweencomponents
o inputs/resourceso products/impact
Interactions'havebeenhighlightedbecauseitistheinvestigationofthesethatdistinguishthoseformsof
enquirythathavea'systems'oragroecosystemsfocusfromotherscientificwork.
An
ecosystem
is
a
collection
(temporal
and/or
spatial)
of
physical
and
biological
components
that
act
as
system.
Anagroecosystemisanecosystemmanagedbyhumankindforanagriculturalpurpose(s)orfunction(s).
Hence,whenweconsidertheagroecosystem,asdistinctfromtheecosystem,weexplicitlyemphasiseits
human components and, consequently, the social, cultural and economic aspects of agroecosystem
management. Here, the interactions between the components are of primary importance and these
includecollectiveactionandconflictbetweeninterestgroups.DavidWaltnerToewspaperhelpsuswitha
morecompletedefinitionofagroecosystems. Agroecosystemsareregionallydefinedentities,managed
forthepurposeofproducingfood,fibreandotheragriculturalproducts,comprisingdomesticated(U1/1)
Hence,wemayconsideranagroecosystemtobeafieldwhereaparticularcroprotationispractised,orafarm,orawatershedthatcontainsseveralfarmsandcommunities.(U1/3)
Fromtheinteractionbetweenthecomponentsoftheagroecosystem,betheyindividualplantsortrees,animals,people,farms,orwatersheds;thereemergesaglobalproperty.Thenatureoftheglobalproperty
inalllikelihood isnotpredictablefromwhatweknowofthecomponents.Theemergentpropertyhasa
feedbackimpactuponthebehaviorofthecomponents.
This tellusabout the wayweshouldappraise anagroecosystem' sustainability that It is impossible to
appraisethesustainabilityofanagroecosystembylookingatitscomponentpartsinisolation.Wehaveto
lookatthewholesystemand,moreimportantly,theinteractionsbetweentheparts,howtheimpactsof
thedifferentcomponentpartsaffecttheglobalstructure,andhowtheemergentpropertiesfeedbackand
affectthebehaviorofthecomponentparts.
8/2/2019 026 - Watershed Concepts Consolidated Extracts-Ori
10/26
P a g e |9
Aswemoveuptheagroecosystems'hierarchy,forexample,fromcroptofarmtowatershed,andlookatchanges over time (a week, a year, a decade), the complexity increases. To implement changes in
agriculturalandnaturalresourcesmanagementtowardsacertaingoal isanenormouschallenge.When
the goal is multifaceted and its attainment signifies making difficult tradeoffs, as is the case with
sustainable
agriculture,
the
challenge
takes
on
Herculean
proportions
Toachievethechangesnecessarytoimprovethesustainability ofagriculture,theconceptsofwhatisand
what isnotmoresustainablehave tobeexploredbythedifferentactors (stakeholders) intheprocess.
Consensusastowhicharetheimportantissuesofsustainability needstobereached.Thisdoesnotimply
thatagreementhastobefoundovertheresolutionofeachissue,onlythattheimportantissuesshouldbe
identified,categorizedandrankedintermsoftheirrelevancetodifferentgeographicdimensions,thetime
scaleoverwhichtheyoperateandtherelationshipofoneissuetoanother.Collaborativeexperimentation
intotheissuescanthenbecarriedouttofindsolutions.
Twoofthemainsocialgroups involvedasagentsofchange inagricultureandnaturalresourceuseare
farmers and enquirers, both social and technical. A requirement for coherent attempts at change is a
mutualunderstandingoftheperspectivesheldbybothsectors.Mechanismsbywhichthiscanbebrought
about do not abound. However, within the rural development initiatives of less developed countries
various systems of rural inquiry have been proved to be successful in the characterization of agro
ecosystems, research priority setting, and the participatory development of appropriate technology.
Theseexperiencesmightusefullybetakenadvantageof,inanumberofways,byfarmersandresearchers
elsewhereworkingonissuesofagricultural sustainability.Theobjectivewouldbetofacilitatetheflowsof
informationandknowledgethroughexistingnetworksandnewonesthatmightbeestablished,sothat
crosssectoralattemptscanbemadetoevaluatechangesintechnologies.
Theattainmentofasustainableuseofnaturalresources foragricultureandotheractivitieswillrequire
negotiationbetweentheownersofnaturalresources,theusersandother interestedparties. Inquisitive
dialogue, which is the key component of appraisal, has the potential to inform the arbitration process
amongst stakeholders that is required for decisions to be taken about agricultural change and natural
resourceuse.Pivotaltotheengagementorinteractionbetweeninsidersandoutsidersiscommunication.
Dialogueisrequiredifasynergybetweentheknowledgeofinsidersandthatofoutsidersistobesought.
(U1/8)
Perhapsmorethananyother issue, linkage emergesascentralto thequestionofhow institutionsandorganizationscanstructurethemselvestobestfacilitatesustainableagriculture.Thisispartlybecauseof
thenatureoftheproblem,thatistosay,thesystemicnatureofthewaythat,agroecosystemsfunction,
and the way that the sustainability of one farmers field is linked not only to the functioning of the
watershed, but also to government price policy. Therefore in order to respond to the challenge of
supporting the individual farmer in adopting, adapting and continuing with more sustainable practices,
andtocreatemarketconditionsandserviceprovisions in linewithsustainability objectives, institutions
andorganizationsmustbepreparedtooperateonseveraldifferentlevels.
Whenwelookedatthedifferenttypesofinstitutionsandorganizationsthatoperateinthisfield,wesaw
thatinrealitythisoftenmeansthatoneinstitutioncannotberesponsibleforeverything,sorelationships
betweeninstitutions linkage isanimportantfactorinsuccessfullycarryingoutthiskindofwork.Aswe
haveseen,oftenthiswillmean lookingathow institutionsandorganizationsrelateto localpeople,and
evaluatingandadaptingmethodsof inquiry. Italsomeans lookingathow institutionsandorganizations
learn from other sources, and how they disseminate information. Finally, it means examining how
institutionsandorganizationsparticularlylargeonesworkinternally,andhowtheyaremanaged.
ClassificationofAgroecosystems.Eachregionhasauniquesetofagroecosystemsthatresultfromlocalvariations in climate, soil, economic relations, social structure, and history. Thus, a survey of the agro
ecosystemsofaregionisboundtoyieldcommercialandsubsistenceagricultures, usinghighorlowlevels
of technology depending on the availability of land, capital, and labor. In tropical environments it is
possibletorecognizesevenmaintypesofagricultural systems
8/2/2019 026 - Watershed Concepts Consolidated Extracts-Ori
11/26
P a g e |10
1. Shiftingcultivationsystems2. Semipermanentrainfedcultivationsystems3. Permanentrainfedcultivationsystems4. Arableirrigationsystems5. Perennialcropsystems6. Grazingsystems7. Systemswithregulatedleyfarming(alternatingarablecroppingandsownpasture)LandscapeEcologicalConceptsandAgroecosystems.Landscapeecologyprinciplesareincreasinglybeing
applied to many agricultural planning issues because of the relevance of this regional approach to the
planning process in landscape design and to improve the ecology and variety of the landscape, the
dispersalofspeciesthroughthatlandscape,andthecoordinationofnaturalconservationandagricultural
management. The following concepts of landscape ecology have much relevance to the design and
managementofagroecosystems:
HierarchyinLandscapes.Landscapesoperateatdifferentlevelsinvolvingcomplexesofdifferentelements.
On the one hand, one can study a whole catchmentorwatershed or, on the other hand, within that
landscape
one
can
examine
structures
such
as
an
agricultural
field,
woodland
and
its
surrounding
land
coversandtheirrelationships.
Gradients. Landscapes involve gradual changes and ecotones. It is recognized that many ecological
elements donot showsharp boundaries betweeneach other; rather, they grade gradually in time and
space.
Biodiversity.Withthe increasedpressureonseminaturalhabitats,therehasbeenmuchconcernabout
biodiversity.Itisabasicconceptinthemanagementoflandscapesandinplanning.
Metapopulation.Thisrepresentstheconceptoftheinterrelationships betweensubpopulations inmoreor
lessisolatedpatcheswithinalandscape
Resources
commonly
found
in
an
agro
ecosystem
are
into
four
categories:
NaturalResources.Naturalresourcesarethegivenelementsofland,water,climate,andnatural
vegetationthatareexploitedbythefarmerforagricultural production.
HumanResources.Thehumanresourcesconsistofthepeoplewholiveandworkwithinthefarmanduse
itsresourcesforagriculturalproduction,basedontheirtraditionaloreconomicincentives.
CapitalResources.Capitalresourcesarethegoodsandservicescreated,purchased,orborrowedbythe
peopleassociatedwiththefarmtofacilitatetheirexploitationofnaturalresourcesforagricultural
production.
ProductionResources.Productionresourcesincludetheagriculturaloutputofthefarmsuchascropsand
livestock.Thesebecomecapitalresourceswhensold,andresidues(crops,manure)arenutrientinputs
reinvestedinthesystem.
EcologicalProcessesintheAgroecosystem.
Energetic Processes: Energy enters an agro ecosystem as sunlight and undergoes numerous physical
transformations. Biologicalenergy istransferred intoplantsbyphotosynthesis (primaryproduction)and
fromoneorganismtoanotherthroughthefoodweb(consumption).Althoughsunlight istheonlymajor
sourceofenergy input inmostnaturalecosystems,humanandanimal labor,mechanizedenergy inputs
(suchasplowingwithatractor),andtheenergycontentofintroducedchemicals(manures,fertilizers,and
pesticides)arealsosignificant.Humanenergyshapesthestructureoftheagroecosystem,Biogeochemical
Processes:Themajorbiogeochemical inputs intoanagroecosystemarethenutrientsreleasedfromthe
soil,fixationofatmosphericnitrogenbylegumes,nonsymbioticnitrogenfixing(particularlyimportantin
rice growing), nutrients in rainfall and runof water, fertilizer, and nutrients in purchased human food,
stock
feed,
or
animal
manure.
8/2/2019 026 - Watershed Concepts Consolidated Extracts-Ori
12/26
P a g e |11
The importantoutputs includenutrients incropsand livestockconsumedonorexportedfromthefarm.
Other outputs or losses are associated with leaching beyond the root zone, denitrification and
volatilization of nitrogen, losses of nitrogen and sulfur to the atmosphere when vegetation is burned,
nutrientslostinsoilerosioncausedbyrunofforwind,andnutrientsinhumanorlivestockexcretathatare
lost from the farm. There is also biogeochemical storage, including the fertilizer stored and manure
accumulated, together with the nutrients in the soil root zone, the standing crop, vegetation, and
livestock.Inthecourseofproductionandconsumption,mineralnutrientsmovecyclicallythroughanagro
ecosystem.Optimizationofbiogeochemical processesrequiresthedevelopmentofoptimalsoilstructure
andfertility,whichdependson:
Regularinputoforganicresidues,
Asufficientlevelofmicrobialactivitytotriggerdecayoforganicmaterials
Conditionsthatensurecontinualactivityofearthwormsandothersoilstabilizingagents
Aprotectivecoveringofvegetation
Hydrological Processes: Water is a fundamental part of all agricultural systems. In addition to its
physiologicalrole,wateraffectsinputsofnutrientstooandlossesfromthesystemthroughleachingand
erosion.
Water
enters
an
agro
ecosystem
asprecipitation,
run
on,
and
irrigation
water;
it
is
lost
through
evaporation,transpiration, runoff,anddrainagebeyondtheeffectiverootzoneofplants.
SuccessionalProcesses:Succession, theprocessbywhichorganismsoccupyasiteandgradually change
environmentalconditionssothatotherspeciescanreplacetheoriginal inhabitants, isradicallychanged
with modern agriculture. Agricultural fields usually represent secondary successional stages where an
existingcommunity isdisruptedbydeforestationandplowing,andby maintainingasimple,manmade
communityatthesite.
BioticRegulationProcesses:Controllingsuccession(plantinvasionandcompetition)andprotectingagainst
insectpestsanddiseasesaremajor problems in maintainingproduction continuity inagro ecosystems!
Farmershaveusedseveralapproachesuniversally. Thesearenoaction,preventiveaction(useofresistant
crop varieties, manipulation of planting dates, row spacing, modifying access of pests to plants), or
successive
action
(chemical
pesticides,
biological
control,
cultural
techniques).
Ecological
strategies
of
pest
management generally employ a combination of all three approaches, aiming at making the field less
attractive to pests, making the environment unsuitable to pests but favorable to natural enemies,
interfering with the movement of pests from croptocrop or attracting pests away from crops.
Scientists that perceive the agro ecosystem as a result of the co evolution between social and natural
processes state that the above ecological processes run parallel and are interdependent with a
socioeconomic flow,as the developmentand or adoptionof farmingsystemsand technologies are the
result of interactions between farmers and their knowledge and their biophysical and socioeconomic
environments. It is the understanding of this co evolution and pattern of parallel flows and
interdependencies that provides the basis for study and the design of sustainable agro ecosystems.
(R1.1/315)
LowExternalInputSustainableAgriculture(LEISA)approachpresupposesaworkshopenvironmentthatallowsformultidisciplinarilyandreducesprofessional biases.Theanalysisismadeaccordingtopatterns
discerned in time.Space flowsanddecisionstobeable finallytoqualify thepropertiesof the landuse
system(atvariouslevels.includingcrop,farm,watershedandvillage),productivity,sustainability,stability
andequitability,whichareindicatorsofitsperformance.Itisnecessarytostressthedifferencebetween
ecological farmingat farm levelandecological farmingat landscape level,thisbeingunderstoodasthe
wholeofsocialformsoffarming inabiogeographyunit.Onmanycurrentfarms inEuropethatclaimto
practiceecologicalfarming,emphasisislaidonthesubstitutionofconventionalinputswithorganicones.
Reflected.e.g.inthedefinitiontheUSDAusesfororganicfarming.
Organic farming is a production system which avoids or broadly excludes the use of synthetic
fertilizers, pesticides, growth regulators and additives in the concentrates. As far as possible, the
organic
farming
systems
are
based
on
crop
rotations,
agricultural
sub
products,
manure,
legumes
plants,greenmanures,organicwastes,mineralrocksandbiologicalpestcontrol,inordertomaintain
8/2/2019 026 - Watershed Concepts Consolidated Extracts-Ori
13/26
P a g e |12
theproductivityofbothsoilandcrop,tosupplynutrientstotheplantsandtocontrolinsects,weeds
anddiseases(USDA.1980)
This interpretation of ecological farming, however, is not sustainable on a landscape level, where the
aggregatedandsynergiceffectsofeconomicandagricultural individualpracticesbecomevisible.Atthe
sametime,thisinterpretation ofecologicalagriculturepermitscapitalistproductionstructurestoenterin
ecologicalfarming,whereastheseparadoxically, areattheheartofthecurrentenvironmental crisisashas
been argued by Gonzalez de Molina and Sevilla Guzman (1993).) One farm may produce ecological
horticulturalproductsusinganimalmanurepurchasedinthearea,butifallfarmersweretobasetheirsoil
fertility on purchased manure, in many cases there would be not enough of it locally if there is no
communicationbetween,thefarmers,sothatadependenceonnutrientsfromoutsidetheareawouldbe
created.Forthisreason,theagroecologicaldesignofa farmshouldaimatdevelopingaselfregulating
capacity with respect to pest control and flows of nutrients and energy, while at the same time
acknowledgingtheneedforanadequatecoordinationofcomplementaryactivitiesofcolleaguefarmers.
(R2.1/xxx)
Attheoutsettheidentificationofsystemsandtheirboundariesissubjectiveandtentative.Thebiologicalandchemicophysicalboundariesareoftenfairlyclear.Thericefieldisboundedbyadyke,thevalleyby
the extent of thewatershed. But the cultural and socioeconomic boundaries are more extensive. For
example, defining a farm household solely in terms of the farm itself, the land that is cultivated or
otherwiseexploited,isfrequentlyinadequate.Amemberofthefarmhouseholdmaybederivingincome
fromfaraway;thesaleofproducemaydependondistantmarkets,andthefarmer'sgoalsandvaluesmay
beinfluencedbypoliticalorreligiousmovementsofacomplexorigin.
Transects are particularly useful in defining system boundaries and in identifying problem area. In theanalysisofNortheastThailandagroecosystemstherecognitionoftheminiwatershedagroecosystem,its
subdivisions pinpointed the role of the upper paddy as generators of instability in rice production
(R7.7/66)Addiagram
Overthepastdecade, the inadequacyofsoilandwaterconservation (SWC) initiativeshasstimulatedasearchforalternativesthathavecenteredonparticipatorywatersheddevelopmentcommoninthepast.
However,theprocessofseekingappropriateandeffectiveformsoffarmerparticipation iscomplexand
timeconsuming,requiringmuchskilfulfacilitationanddevolutionofpower.Theserequirementspresent
aseriesoforganizational challenges,sinceplanning,funding,implementation,andevaluationofactivities
needtobemodified.Thepolicyenvironmentinwhichsuchchangestakeplacealsoinfluencestheviability
of approaches that are more farmercentered. Will the effort that is needed to make this work be
worthwhile, and lead to more sustainable, environmentally sound, and socially inclusive forms of
agriculture?Assessing themeritsofparticipatoryapproaches tosoilandwaterconservation isdifficult.
Thecomplexityofbiophysicalprocesses,thedifficultyofassessingexternalities,andthefuzzinessofthe
notion of participation make monitoring and evaluation an arduous task. The range of factors that
influencethesuccessofaparticipatoryprocessmakescausallinkstenuousatbest.Thechoiceofpotential
indicatorspresentsaveritableminefield.How,then,toknowwhatworks?(R9.3/211)
Forexample,intheVictorGraeffwatershedinRioGrandedoSui,Brazil,theclearingofforestsandcleantillingofagricultural fieldsreduced infiltrationratessixtimestoonly0.2mmperhouranderosionrates
stood at 5.8 tons per acre (Busscher et.aJ., 1996). The loss of resource base is generally being taken
seriouslybygovernments,asprovenbythemanyexternalinterventionstheworldoverthathasfocused
ontheconservationofsoilandwater.(R9.3/212)
Fundamental Shifts: But progress has been made in redefining soil and water conservation. There isincreasingrecognitionthat,forexample:
o engineeringbased soil conservation deals with symptoms and not with causes of landdegradation;
o imposedSWCprogramsrarelyhavealastingimpact;
8/2/2019 026 - Watershed Concepts Consolidated Extracts-Ori
14/26
P a g e |13
o Soil conservation is not usually perceived by rural people as their most pressing problem, butdecreasingproductivityoftenis.
Thealternativeapproachestoparticipatorywatersheddevelopment,or"totalcatchmentmanagement"
(Martin,1991),thataretakingrootsarecharacterizedbythreesignificantdifferences:
1.Adoptingthe(micro)watershedastheunitofanalysisandintervention;
2.Placinglocalmenandwomenatthecentreoftheinterventions;
3.Focusingonsoilandwaterconservationastheinteractionofsocialandbiophysicalsystems.
Consciouslycreatingopportunitiesforfarmerstohaveasayinthedesign,implementation,maintenance,
andevaluationofcatchmentplanningisperhapsthemostsignificanttransformationinSWC.Butallthree
features are closely related. Adopting awatershed perspective creates the imperative to work with,
groups of farmers and/or communities in a coordinated manner. And working with farmers requires a
solidunderstandingofsocialprocessesinwhichtheiragriculturalactivitiesareinserted(Cornwall,et.a/.,
1993). Itmeanspayingattentiontoboth localandexternal institutionsandsocialstructuresthatdesign
implementandmanagetheinterventions. This,inturn,callsforanintersectoralapproachtocatchment
managementandpolicychanges(R9/allpagesexcellentreadingonwatershedmanagement)
ConventionalApproachestoEvaluationofSoilandWaterConservationConventionalevaluationapproachestoSWCviewtheirobjectlargelyasabiophysicalprocess.Astheyare
not imbuedwith theprinciplesofparticipatorywatersheddevelopment, they ignoresociopoliticaland
institutionalprocesses. Impactstudieshave tended to focusonerosionproductivity linksbut theseare
notoriouslydifficulttoestablish.ThreecommonconventionalevaluationapproachesappliedtotheSWC
sectorinclude:
1. 'With/withoutcomparison',whichcomparesproductionorproductivityofareaswithSWCmeasures,tothatofareaswithoutmeasures;
2. Measurementoftheeconomicbenefitsofdownstreameffectsinwithandwithoutcases3. Multicriteriaanalysis,whichallowsvariablesorcriteriatobeexpressedintheirownunit,
ratherthanforcedintoacommonquantitativeunit,resultinginatypeofpairwise
comparisonofthedifferentcriteria.
Thesethreeapproachesrequirelargeamountsofquantitativedataandconsiderableeconomicexpertise.
As thiswill inevitablyexcludenoneconomists, theseapproachesare thereforeof limitedvalue inmost
situations of selfevaluation. The object of valuation is generally determined by outsiders (often
economists) and must generally be quantifiable. Only a narrow spectrum" of causal relationships are
assessed,oftenbasedontenuousassumptions.Qualitativecriteria,suchasincreased localmanagement
capacityorfarmers' increased independencefrommonopolymarkets,playnorole insuchassessments.
These approaches focus on the biophysical aspects of SWC, and do not usually include the social
structuresandinstitutionsthatsustainmeasures.
Conventionalevaluationsareinadequatefor assessingparticipatorywatershedprogramsbecauseof:
1. Objectivesunhelpfulforlocallearning,insteadfocusingonaccountabilityneedsofexternalactors(eg.funders);
2. Inappropriatetimingastheyarenotcarriedoutregularly,thusmissingopportunitiestoadjustactivities;
3. Inadequateindicatorswhichfocusonshorttermbiophysicalmeasuresandsomeoperationalaspectsexcludingtheprocessofcommunityparticipation.
4. Wrongimplementers,withevaluationcarriedoutbydonorsordonorinitiatedexternalexpertsthuslimitingtheextentoflocallearning
5. Exclusivemethodologiesbasedonwrittenformsandquestionnaires,notconducivetotheinclusionoffarmersinthecrucialanalysisstage.
6. Limitedfeedbackofevaluationfindingsandrelateddecisions,thushinderingthespreadofessentiallessons.
Few SWC projects emphasize farmercentered processes as essential for project success. Nor do theyemphasizethisinevaluations. Inconventionalprojectimplementation andevaluationalike,theproductis
8/2/2019 026 - Watershed Concepts Consolidated Extracts-Ori
15/26
P a g e |14
the focus and is divorced from the process. Assessing participatory watershed development requires
paying attention to the process itself, and that is best carried out with those who are involved. The
experiences from Latin America presented here are rooted in this principle: the necessity for social
processesoftransformationbethey individualorcollective, inresourcemanagement.SWC isembraced
as an integral element of sustainable agriculture and rural development strategy, rather than as a
separate,technicalelementinapolicyorresourcemanagementstrategy.(R9Continued)
ParticipatoryEvaluationofWatershedDevelopmentSelfevaluation and participatory monitoring (PME, 'Participatory Monitoring and Evaluation', and PIM,
Participatory Impact Monitoring) are alternative approaches to conventional evaluation. Their point of
departure is improving the internal learning process and the planning and implementation of
interventions.Evaluationinthiscontextmeansemphasizingitsvalueasatoolfororganizationallearning,
rather than the control and accountability it is usually associated with. Monitoring becomes an
opportunitytoreflectandadjust. Researches inawiderangeofcountrieshavefoundthatlearningwas
generally weak. Selfmonitoring experiences take a fundamentally different approach to conventional
approaches to monitoring. If the object of evaluation changes, as in the shift from erosion control to
participatorywatersheddevelopment,evaluationapproachesneedtobeadjustedaccordingly.Translating
this to the SWC sector means redesigning the monitoring process to take into account both thesocio
political and biophysical systems in which measures are nested. It means involving stakeholders in the
monitoringandevaluationdesignandanalysis,andseekingawiderrangeofindicatorsofsuccessbeyond
those ofproductivity andexternalities. Itcalls forensuring that findingsare passed to thosewho have
been involved and can benefit from them. However, participatory monitoring and evaluation of
participatoryprocessesfacesmanypracticalandconceptualchallenges,partlyduetothecomplexityand
diverseinterpretationsoftheterm'participation'. (R9Continued)
8/2/2019 026 - Watershed Concepts Consolidated Extracts-Ori
16/26
P a g e |15
FromPublicationsonLandDegradationandSustainability
FAO(1977)Guidelinesforwatershedmanagement.ConservationGuideI,RomeU4/10 It is impracticable to estimate mean soil loss by erosion over large areas with any accuracy by any
feasible programme of experimental work. In the United States, an empirical model (RUSLE) gives
reasonable longterm prediction for very small, uniform areas. Processbased models should be
appropriateworldwideandbemoreeasilybeadaptedbothtothewatershedscaleandtothestudyof
single storms. Their development, as exemplified by WEPP has proved frustratingly difficult. In the
meantime,theoriginalUSLEstillprovidesausefulchecklistoftheenvironmentalfactorswhichinfluence
theincidenceofsoilerosionbywater.(U5/17)
Allproperty institutionsrepresentdifferentwaysofhandlingthe 'externality'problem.Anexternality isthe outcomeexperienced by others of the actions of someone else. For example, one person may cut
down trees on a steep watershed and cause landslides and gullying
onagriculturallandbelow,inflictingcostsonthosewhoworkthatland.
Governmentpolicyandpastoral landuse insouthwest Iran. JournalofAridEnvironments,Vol 4,pages253267)tracestheeffortsoftheShahof Iran'sgovernmenttomanageandcontrolthepasturesofthe
Qashqu'aipastoralists.Landreform,privatisationoflargetractsofcommonpastureforirrigationprojects,
huntingpreservesfortheShah'srelatives,watershedprotectionandotherschemesallencroachedupon
theirpastoralCPRs.Theauthoritiesdisruptedtheprinciplesofreciprocityandlocaldisputesettlementby
fixingtheidentityandnumberofhouseholdsusingeachsectionofthepastures.Theyalsodestroyedthe
flexibility of the previous arrangements which allowed a variety of migratory patterns in response to
variableecological,economic,politicalandsocialconditions.(U15/12)
Thetopographiccatchment/watershed,withthepeople itcontains,hasgenerallybeenstatedtobethelogically optimum unit for programme planning, and for demonstrating the effects of technical
recommendations. (U18/16)
Boserupgivesexplicitattentionto environmentaldegradation,but insuchawayas tosuggest that insomecasessoilerosionactuallyinducesdesirableagriculturalinnovations.Inhermostrecentbook(1981:
50) she gives examples where the destruction of top soils in the reaches of a watershed, through
population'pressureleadingtodestabilisingagriculturalpractices,hadinducedintensiveagricultureinthe
valleyfloorswhichhadbeenfertilisedbytheremovaloftopsoilsfurtherupvalley.Shequotesexamplesof
environmentaldeteriorationinChinaforexamplewhichstartedtobeacutebetweenAD,15001750and
which induced long distance transport of nightsoil, labour intensive digging of river silts, widespread
terracing, and recycling of residues and wastes. The ability of modern technology to cope with the
problemofsoilerosionissummarisedthus:'Growingpopulationsmayinparthavedestroyedmoreland
thantheyimproved,butitmakeslittlesensetoprojectpasttrendsintothefuture,sinceweknowmore
and more about methods of land preservation and are able by means of modern methods, to reclaim
muchland;whichourancestorshavemadesterile.'(Boserup.1981:22)(R1.2/12)
In1984 thepopulationofNepalwas inexcessof16millionpeople.Two thirdsof these live in thehillyregionswhere thecarrying capacity is lowand theconsequentpressureon landhas inevitably ledto
mismanagement of natural resources. Man induced erosion caused by over grazing and deforestation,
coupledwithmasswastingduetothenatural instabilityof theunconsolidated rockmaterialandsteep
slopes, has advanced the degradation ofwatershed conditions. The fragile state of Nepal's ecological.
state is well recognised and only through the coordinated efforts of government projects
anddepartments,usingcomprehensiveresourceinformation,cantheproblemsbeaddressed.(R2.6/87)
Slope is the only levelthree object, merging climate, soil, and management information with atopographic description.The slope is the level ar which erosion is computed, and is a complete site
description roughly equivalent to that produced by RUSLE 1.04. Levelfour objects include slope
comparisons and combinations. These are awatershed (a, combined set of slopes, each weighted in
proportiontotheareaitrepresents),terraces(aseriesofhydraulicallyseparateslopesononelandform),
and
a
spreadsheet
of
slope
(R5.2/272)
8/2/2019 026 - Watershed Concepts Consolidated Extracts-Ori
17/26
P a g e |16
The world's average yield of sediment and solutes by rivers is equivalent to a lowering of the earth'ssurfaceby3cmevery1000yearsor42tJ(km2yr).Thedenudationratesare27,35,45,63,96,and600
t/km2/yr)forAfrica,Europe,Australia,SouthAmerica,NorthAmerica,andAsia,respectively(Gregoryand
Walling,1973).Globalmapsoferosionrateshavebeenpreparedbyusingthisapproach(Fournier,1960;
Strakhov,
1967;
Walling,
1984).
This
type
of
global,
or
regional,
rate
of
erosion
is
computed
by
using
the
techniquesofmeasurementsofwaterrunoffandsedimenttransportinstream,rivers,andlargedrainage
basins.Thebasicprincipleinvolvesmonitoringsedimenttransportratespastapointintheriverchannel
atthewatershedoutlet.(R5.3/185)
DickinsonWT,WallGJ&RudraRP(1990)forModelBuildingforPredictingandManagingSoilErosionandTransport. InSoil Erosionon Agricultural Land endsBoardman J, Foster IDL& Dearing JA, Wiley, pages
421423
OtherCausesofSalinization:Soilscanbemadesaline intwootherwaysthatarenotdirectlyconnectedwithirrigation.First,incoastalorestuarineareas,seawatermayencroachintothesubsoilwhenexcessive
usewellshas loweredthe(fresh)watertable.OmanandYemenaresufferingfromthiskindofproblem
and, according to Mark Speece of the University of Arizona and Justin Wilkinson of the University of
Chicago:"Theaquiferbecomespollutedwithsaltwater,soilsbecomesalinized,thelandlosesitscapacity
foragriculturalproduction,andthedesertmovesin.AlongtheBarinahcoastinOman...datepalmgroves
aredyingbecauseofsalinizedwater,eventhoughthedatepalmisarelativelysalttoleranttree"(Speece
andWilkinson1982).Thesecondtypeofproblemoccurswherethedeforestationofwatershedsleadsto
saline seepage. Replacing trees in upland areas with crops like wheat (which have a lower
evapotranspiration rate)reducestheamountofwatertransferredfromthegroundintotheatmosphere,
andcauseswatertobuildup inthesoil.Someofthiswaterwillrunoffunderground,but indoingso it
dissolvessalts (suchassodium.chloride)outofthesoilandbecomessaline.Lowlandareasnowreceive
morewaterthanpreviously,andwithoutadequatedrainagetheycanbecome increasinglywaterlogged
andsalinized.Theriversintowhichthesalinewatereventuallyflowsalsobecomesaltier,and croplands
irrigatedbywaterfromtheseriversarethereforeatriskofsalinization.Salineseepageisamajorproblem
inAustralia,increasingthesalinityofrivers(R6.2/93)
The reasons why theseclaims may have widespread substance are that transnational companies oftenhavesuperiortechnicalknowledgebothoftheareainvolvedandoftheloggingindustry.Theirnegotiatorshavevery largepersonal stakes in the matter it' pays them to be well informed andnegotiate in the
strongestpossiblemannertomaximizeprofits,toretainmaximumcontroltodothisandmaintainitinthe
future. They face government bureaucrats who do not have direct personal gain (or loss) as an extra
motivation,whosesystemofadministrationmaybe'imperfectlyopen'(Leslie1980)inthatinconsistencies
in government policies and incomplete information face the government negotiator. Incomplete
information upon the actual volume of timber of various types, upon the probable costs to local
inhabitantsandtoothersinthesamewatershedsthroughreducedproductionasaresultoffloodingand
siltation,andtheinabilitytocoordinatethenegotiator'sposition(R9.3/174)
Thereareothercircumstancesinwhichaccumulationpossibilitiesmaybethreatenedbysoilerosionandtheseconcernhydroelectricandirrigationschemeswheresmallfarmersintheaffectedwatershedsmay
acceleratesiltationofreservoirsandthedesignofturbinesandeventhedamstructureitself.Ifthisisthe
case, then it is the interests of the industrial bourgeoisie who will use the electrical power, and other
farmers (in thecaseofa canal irrigationproject).Many examples arecitedbyGrainger in Java (where
slashandburncultivatorsthreatentheirrigationcanalsintheSoloRivercatchment),inthePhilippines(in
theAgnocatchment),inIndiaandPakistanwherealargenumberofdamsforpowerandirrigationhave
sufferedseriously fromsavage floods,siltationand reduced livesof reservoirs (CES1982),and inBrazil
particularlyfortheTucurnihydroelectricschemeto provideelectricityforproposedaluminumsmelting
operationsatTrombetas).Herethepoliticalcalculusismorecomplexthaninthecaseofatransnational
companybecausethereisnoquestionoftransferringcapitalelsewherethedam isbyitsnaturefixed in
locationandalargefixedinvestmenthastobemade.(R9.3/145)
ThelongertermpotentialofPRAcanalreadybeindicatedbypracticalapplications.Anillustrativelistcaninclude:
Participatory
watershed
planning
and
management
(including
rapid
catchment
analysis
(Pretty,
1990),Degradedforestassessment,protection,nurseriesandplanting,Identification ofcreditneeds,
sourcesandinterventions, Healthandnutritionassessments,Planningthelocationofwatersupplies,
8/2/2019 026 - Watershed Concepts Consolidated Extracts-Ori
18/26
P a g e |17
Assessmentsofbiogaspotentialsandactions,Selectingpoorpeopleforaprogram,anddeselectingthe
lesspoor,Rehabilitation ofsmallscalegravityflowirrigation,Preparingvillageresourcemanagement
plans(NES/undated),Participatorytrialsofcropvarieties,Identifyingnonagriculturalincomeearning
opportunities,Investigatingmarketsandsmallholdermarketingpotentials,Assessinganddealingwith
emergencysituations,Empoweringwomen,Orientationforstudents,NGOworkers,governmentstaff,
anduniversityandtraininginstitutestafftowardsacultureofopenlearning,andParticipatoryevaluation
ofprogrammesandplanningthenextphase.(R11.2/225)
ExtractfromaparticipatoryimpactstudyandselfevaluationofthecatchmentapproachoftheMinistryofAgricultureofKenya(1996).RecentstudiesfromKenyaandelsewhere indicatethatwhereparticipatory
approachesareadoptedbygovernmentsandnongovernmentorganizationsincatchmentorwatershed
management for soil and water, conservation, then significant economic, environmental, and social
benefitscanbeachieved(cf.,Hinchcliffetal.1995;Bunch1990;Campbell(Campbell1994);Hudsonand
Cheatle 1993; Lobo and KochendoerferLucius 1992; Pretty 1995); In Kenya, evidence is growing that
these kinds of impacts result from the Catchment Approach. For example, a recentcomparison of two
catchments inTransNzoia,oneplannedwiththeCatchmentApproachandPRAandtheotherwiththe
T&V Approach, found very significant differences (Ekbom 1992) (Table 1). Crop yields and returns per
persondayhavegrownmorerapidlyonthefarmsinthecommunity(R11.3)
So it is with soil. The value of soil depends on the supply and demand for a little more or less soil inspecific locations,atspecifictimes.Akilogramofsoil forapottedhouseplantmaycostseveraldollars.
BillionsoftonesofsoilmaywashoutoftheAmazonbasintotheseaandnotmakeanydifference,except
tofish.Asthisexampleindicates,erosionmayincertaincircumstancesbebeneficial.Peoplewhodonot
liketheAswandamprotestthatitstopstheflowof'rich,sedimentladen,floodwaters'ontoagricultural
land. In addition to the fact that the 'rich alluvial plains' that feed most of the world were created by
geologicalerosion,agoodpartoftheagriculturallandinmountainousareasofAsiahasbeencreatedby
sedimenttrapsandsedimentdepositionthroughirrigation,sometimesabettedbydeliberatedestruction
ofgroundcover inthewatershedtoacceleratenaturalratesoferosion.Asagoodsceptichasobserved:
Soilerosion isanaturalprocesswhichmerelyreflectstheremovalofwaterandsoil fromuplandsites
wherebothare,atbest, indifferentlyusedandtheirredeploymenton lowlandsiteswherebothcanbe
utilizedmoreefficiently.(authorunknown,citedinSoemitro,AnwarandPawobo1983)(R13.2/85)
Wateryield.Conventionalwisdomisthattheyieldofwaterfromawatershedwillincreasewithclearingorthinningofforests,aconversionfromdeeptoshallowrootedspecies,orachangeinvegetationcover
fromspecieswithhightothosewith low interceptioncapacities.Localsoilsandclimaticconditionswill
also have an effect. Experiments have shown that a given (10%) reduction in the following kinds of
vegetation cover could produce the following increases in annual water yield (in mm.): conifer and
eucalyptforest40(range2065);deciduoushardwood25(range6(0);andshrub10(range120)(quoted
in FAO, 1987). These results illustrate the potential effects on downstream water supply from such
actions as afforestation. It should, however, be noted that most of them have been drawn up in
temperateconditions,hencetheneedforduescientificcautionintheirwiderapplication.(R13.2/18)
Onsiteandoffsitebenefitsfromwatershedconservation Onsiteeffects:
o Avoided losses in crop yields from soil, erosion, loss of soil depth and fertility, or loss of landthroughgulleyerosion;
o alternatively, savingsinfertilizertomaintainyieldsonerodedsoil;o Valueofwoodproductsfromtreeplanting(timber,poles,fuelwood,forage,fruit,etc.);o Value of enhanced livestockproducts from rescuedor improved pasture, or from fodder from
trees(meat,milk,wool,dung)
o Increased crop yields from 'ecological' benefits of a managed mixed regime (increased soilorganicmatter,moresoilmoistureretention,shading,etc)
Ofsite:o Irrigationbenefits;valueofcropspreservedthroughreductionofsedimentationinreservoirsand
channels;
8/2/2019 026 - Watershed Concepts Consolidated Extracts-Ori
19/26
P a g e |18
o alternatively, reducedcostofmaintainingandcleaningreservoirs,channelsandworks;outputssavedfrompreservingexistingwaterregime;
o Hydroelectricpowerbenefits;'byavoidingreservoirsiltation,extendingthelifeofahydropowerscheme,especially itsability to generatedryseasonpower; oravoidingcostof raising levelof
dam,withallthatimpliesforextrainundation;
o oravoidingcostofalternativegeneratingcapacity;plussavingsinrepairsandcleaningofturbinesandintakeworks;
o Flooddamageavoided;alternatively, savingsincostoffloodpreventionworks,orreducedcostofroadsandbridgemaintenance;
o Gains to fisheries; less silting and turbidity in reservoirs and rivers and morelevel1 yearroundflows.
o Avoideddamagetoproductivityofcoastalwatersandmangrovesystems;o Navigation benefits from more predictable river channels; or reduced dredging costs, both in
riversystemandininshorecoastalwaters;
o Benefits to domestic water quantity and quality; avoidance of need to resite intake worksthroughriversiltingandchangesinchannels;
o Tourismandrecreationbenefitspreservedandenhanced.(R13.2/76)
Theactualandthe ideal,hereaselsewhere,willrarelycorrespondexactly.Butan idealsoughtbysomePRA practitioners is a process in which people, and especially the weaker and poorer, are enabled to
collate, present and analyze information, making explicit and adding to what they already know. This
happens,forexample,throughparticipatorymappingofawatershedwherethemapisusedbyvillagers
to plot current conditions and plan actions, and is retained by them for monitoring action taken and
changes;orthroughmappingandsurveyingdegradedforest,decidinghowtoprotectitandwhattoplant,
andthenmanagingtheresource;orthroughmatrixscoringforvarietiesofacropwhichenablesthemto
specify the characteristics of a "wish" variety they would like. The aim is to enable people to present,
share,analyzeandaugmenttheirknowledgeasthestartofaprocess.Theultimateoutput isenhanced
knowledge
and
competence,
an
ability
to
make
demands,
and
to
sustain
action.
Instead
of
imposing
and
extracting,PRAisthendesignedtoempower.(U14.1/266)
Policyreformfornaturalresourceconservation:Irrigationandpesticides:River impoundmentshavehadvaried and serious impacts. Reservoirs have displaced whole communities, flooded valuable crop and
forest lands, threatened critical ecosystems, and wiped out ariadromous fish populations. Below the
dams,thedownstreamflowofsedimentsisinterrupted,affectingerosionratesofdeltasandriverbanks.
Although storage may reduce seasonal variations in river flows, disturbance of upperwatersheds and
irrigationdiversionscanalso increasefloodingandreduce,lowflows,whichconcentratespollutantsand
allowsseawatertomovefurtherupstream.Changesinoxygen,nutrient,mineral,,andsediment'content
of impoundedriversallaffectfishpopulations,eveninoffshorefisherieswithdeltaicspawninggrounds.
Many of these environmental effects are complex and exceedingly, difficult to predict in advance, and
theyhavegenerallynotbeenadequatelyincorporatedintoprojectplanningorthecalculationofexpected
economicbenefitsandcosts.Theenvironmentalimpactsandperformanceproblemsofirrigationsystems
areconnected.For example,moreefficientuse ofwater would reduceexcessiveseepage intoaquifers
and risks of waterlogging. More efficient use would also reduce the apparent need for additional
largescale, increasinglycostlyexpansions,andtheenvironmentaleffectsof further river impoundments
anddiversions.(R14.3)
Everyyearmorethan11millionhectaresof forestsarecleared forotheruses,and inmostdevelopingcountriesdeforestationisaccelerating.Inlastcentury,theforestedareaindevelopingcountrieshasfallen
byhalf,withsevereenvironmentalconsequences. Inthe tropics, forestclearance leavesonlydegraded
soils that are unsuitable for sustained agricultural production. Inwatersheds, deforestation increases
erosion, flooding,andsedimentation. Insemiaridareas, itrobsthesoilofessentialorganicmatterand
shelterfromwindandwatererosion.Moreover,inthetropics,lossofforestareasthreatensthesurvival
ofuncountedspeciesofanimalsandplants.(R17.2)
8/2/2019 026 - Watershed Concepts Consolidated Extracts-Ori
20/26
P a g e |19
One of the most widely recognised environmental problems in the humid tropics is the loss of forestresources, with consequent watershed degradation, soil erosion and nutrient depletion. Strategies
intendedtoconserveforestshaveincludedregulationoflogging,reforestation,banningforestsettlement,
andprohibitingshiftingcultivation.However,continuedsettlement intheuplandsbysmall farmershas
made
it
necessary
to
seek
environmental
sustainability
within
a
context
of
agricultural
land
use.
As
a
result
research and development projects in the uplands are now trying to work with farmers to improve
croppingsystemsandresourcemanagement.(R17.7)
Astudyofthereasonforthesuccessorfailureofsoilconservationprojects:oneisthescaleoftheprojectTherecordsuggeststhatprojectswhichhaveasignificantcomponentoftechnicalassistance,tendtobe
more effective when small. The reason is that one or two international experts find it easy to work
themselves into the local institution, whereas projects which have a large international staff tend to
remainmore independent,moreseparate,and lessapproachable intheeyesofthe localofficers.There
areexamplesoftechnicalassistanceprogrammeswhicharesoheavilystaffedwithexpatriatesthatthey
dominatethelocalagenciesandinhibittheirgrowthanddevelopment.In1973theWorldBankannounced
new directions for agricultural lending specifically to target the poor which automatically led to a shift
towardsagricultural lending.Howeverthemain instrumentsselectedtohelpexecutethenewstrategy,
area development and integrated rural development projects, have a poor performance record. The
Bank'stwelfthauditreportsthatthiswas largelybecauseofoveroptimisticassumptionsaboutavailable
technologiesforrainfedsmallholderagriculture. Theredoesseemtobestatisticalevidencethatoverthe
six years 19801985 the success rate of Bank projects has declined as the average size of projects has
increased. The present move away from multipledonor, multiplepurpose, multiplesector projects
reducestheaveragesizeofprojects.
Anotherissueaffectingthescaleofsoilconservationprojectsiswhethertheyshouldbeapproachedona
catchment (watershed) basis, or should the emphasis be placed on the individual farm and farmer, or
shouldprojectsbeplannedtocoincidewiththeadministrativeboundaries?Thisquestionwasaddressed
atthePuertoRicoWorkshoponConservationFarmingonSteepLands,1988,whereallthreeviewswere
supportedbydifferentparticipants. Afewyearsagotheconceptofwatershedplanningwasverypopular,
andsomecountries,forexampleLesotho,decidedthattheirwholesoilconservationprogrammeshould
be implemented through the catchment approach. Today support is more restrained, but as Sanders
pointed out: "In conclusion, it should perhaps. be said that if emphasis is placed on biological and
agronomic measures, rather than physical practices, to achieve soil and water conservation, these
approachesneednot.bemutuallyexclusive.Theaimmayultimatelybetotreatawholecatchment,but
thismaybestbedonebyworkingprogressivelyfromtheindividualfarmunits"(Sanders1988).(R17.8)
ASubSaharacase:Appropriateunitsforconservationplanning.Thetechnicalrangeandspatialscaleofconservationinterventionsinagivenlandscapemustbedeterminedwithcare.Thetechnocraticlanduse
planning which governments favoured in the 1960 and 1970s was rightly rejected in favour of a
conservation approach which stressed the on farm concerns, indigenous skills and local resources of
individual farmers.Butthismayleaveseriousgapsinoff farmresourceconservationwhichthreatenthe
gainsmadeinfieldsoilprotectionandcropproduction.Anyreturntocatchmentplanningorconventional
watershed
management
should
be
viewed
with
caution.
The
starting
point
should
remain
interventions
,
normally on crop land which directly affect rural people's income. Nevertheless, it will often be
appropriatetoselectotherinitiativesincommunalpropertymanagementtocomplementonfarmwork,
andto identifyotherunitsof interventionsuchasvillagegrazingareasoradministrative territories.This
requirementreinforcestheneedforcareful,extendedlocalplanninginconsultationwithresourceusers.
It emphasises the importance of understanding local resource management institutions. In the Sahel,
thesestructuresforvillagelandusemanagementmustoftenberevitalisedorcreatedanew.Elsewherein
subSaharanAfrica, indigenousinstitutionsmaycontinuetoofferaworkableplatformfornewinitiatives.
(R18.5)
8/2/2019 026 - Watershed Concepts Consolidated Extracts-Ori
21/26
P a g e |20
FromPublicationsonManagementforSustainableFarmingSystems
Agro ecosystems are less complex than natural systems in both structure and function, especially inmonocultures. Their structure is usually simpler both above and below ground, with fewer species
present. Despite this agro ecosystems are still very complex and in some ways more so than natural
ecosystems.Additionalsourcesofcomplexity?
o Consider awatershed which would naturally be forested. When converted to agriculture it isunlikely that all the forest will be felled and much of the diversity within the forest may be
preservedintheunfelledremnants.Also,itisunlikelythatallthefarmlandwillbeplantedtothe
samecrop.Eachfieldmayhaveasinglecrop,butarangeofcropswillbeplantedoverthewhole
watershed.Annualcropsandperennialplantingssuchasorchardswouldaddadditionalspatial
andtemporaldiversity.Fieldboundariesandhedgerowsareanothersourceofdiversity.
o People are an integral part of the agro ecosystem. Without them it could not persist. Humanmanagementdecisionsareafactornotfoundinnaturalsystems.Socialrelationsandinstitutions
havetobeconsideredinanalysisofagroecosystems.
o Economic factorsareanother forceatwork inagroecosystems,which doesnotaffectnaturalecosystems. Changes in prices of commodities directly affect what is produced and forceschangesinagroecosystems.Economicviabilityisanessentialcomponentofsustainability.
Thecomplexityofagroecosystemshastoberememberedwhenplanningchangesandnewdevelopments
infarmingsystems.(U3/3)
Soil productivity reflects the ability of the soil to tolerate intensive use without physical, chemical orbiologicaldegradation.Itisderivedfromacombinationofseveralotherindicators.Theseare;
o Nutrientholdingcapacityandcontamination,basedonphysicalandchemicalcharacteristicso Erosionratesdependonthemanagementoftheagroecosystemandtheamountandintensityof
rainfall.Erosion rates reflectawide rangeofmanagementpractices (e.g. thecroppingsystem,
conservationmeasuresemployed,useofcovercrops).The topmost layersof thesoilnormally
contribute
the
most
to
productivity,
having
better
structure,
nutrient
holding
capacity
and
most
biological activity. They are the first tobe lost by erosion. In principle, the rate of soil loss by
erosionshouldnotexceedtherateof formation,butwithcurrentpractices itveryoftendoes.
Soilerosionmayalsohavenegativeeffectwherethesoillostisredepositedassedimentfurther
downthewatershed.
o Themicrobialcomponentofthesoil isessentialforthemaintenanceofsoilfertility,drivingtherecyclingofnutrientsandactingasanutrientpool,especiallyfornitrogen.
SoilconservationtechniquesthatweresuccessfullyintroducedtotheVictorGraeffwatershedo (a)Soilconservationtechniquesusedwere
notillage improvedinfiltration
terraces
with
grass
covered
walls
covercropstoprovidemulch,protectthesoilfromwinterrains, andincreaseorganicmatterinthesoilleadingtoimprovedstructure
o (b)Amongthenontechnicalfactorsthatcontributedtothesuccessoftheprogramwere itwasbasedonanecologicalunit,awatershed there was support and involvement of the wider community, notjust farmers, and
everyonebenefited(egfromcleanerwaterandimprovedroads)
therewascooperationbetweenneighbourswhichfacilitatedefficient implementationoferosioncontrolmeasures(egterracescrossingboundaries)
institutional backingwasprovidedfromthebankswhichprovidedfundsforinvestment andpoliticalsupportwasgivenbythelocalgovernment
o (c) There has been diversification from row cropping into a more balanced production systemthatincludescattle,poultry,pigs,forestryandfisheriesenterpriseswhichshouldaddstabilityto
thesystem.
8/2/2019 026 - Watershed Concepts Consolidated Extracts-Ori
22/26
P a g e |21
o (d) The main, conclusion is that erosion control measures (and farming systems) have to beevaluatedandadaptedto localconditions.Probably,therearenosolutionsthatcanbeapplied
acrosswholeregionsorcountries.(U5/A5.6)
But
there
is
a
limit
to
what
individual
farmers
can
do.
They
are
affected
by
their
neighbours
actions
at
leasttosomeextent.Coordinationofactionsoveralargerareaisoftenneeded.Thewatershed(anarea
drained by a river and its tributaries) is a natural physical unit for management and an integrated
watershedmanagementplanmaybethebestwaytotackleproblemsofirrigation.Ifitistoworkwell,this
requires involvement and cooperation within and between communities and must consider the both
ecologicalandsocioeconomicenvironment. ItoftenneedssupportfromCentralGovernmenttoestablish
the legalbasisforsuchactions.TheMurrayDarlingBasinInitiative inAustralia isonerecentexampleof
thisapproach.However,adetailedlookatintegratedcatchmentmanagementisbeyondthescopeofthis
text.(U7/A7.5)
Consideragroecosystemsatthescaleofwatershedsordistricts.Howhasthecreationoftheagriculturallandscapeaffectednaturalecosystems?Youmayfindithelpfultothinkaboutyourowncountryorregion
and use this as an example to demonstrate more general trends. In general, three processes affecting
naturalecosystemstakeplacewhenanareaisconvertedtofarmland.
o Thepotentiallymostproductiveareas foragricultureareconverted first.Thismayaffectsomespeciesmorethanothersandupsettheoverallbalanceoftheecosystem.Forexample,treesand
plantsgrowingonalluvialplainsnexttoriversmaybenearlyeliminated,alongwiththecreatures
thatdependonthem.Theeffectcanbequitesubtle,ananimalorbirdmayuseanareaforonlya
shorttimeeachyear(e.g.forbreeding)butbeunabletosurvivewithoutit.
o The conversion to agricultural production often leaves patches of the original vegetationuntouched.Thisfragmentationofhabitatcanleadtoproblemsofsurvivalforsomespecies.
o The final result may be that the remnants of the original ecosystem become degraded, eitherthroughusebypeoplenearby(e.g.forcommonpastureorforhunting)orbecausetheyarenot
largeenoughtosupportviablepopulationsofplantsoranimals.(U9/13)
GLASOD soil scientists point out that stopping or reversing moderate soil degradation requires actionbeyond the scale of a farm. Watershed management, installation of catchment basins, and other soil
conservationmeasuresaretypicallyadoptedonaregionallevelbygovernments.(R5.2/11)
Froman intensivemonitoringprogramof28watershedsinOklahomaandTexas, it isclearthatreducedand no till management of both sorghum and wheat reduced N and P loss in runoff compared to
conventional tillageThelossofbioavailableparticulateP,asdeterminedbyNaOHextraction(Sharpleyet
al.,1991a), was also lower from conservation compared to conventional practices, although tillage
managementhadnoconsistenteffectonsolubleNandPloss.However,notillmanagementofsorghum
and,toalesserdegree,wheatreducednutrientlossesinrunofftolevelssimilartothosefromunfertilized
nativegrass(R6.5/92).
Manyvariationsofwaterharvestingarepossible.Waterharvestingsystemscanbeclassifiedas follows(Reijntjes1986b):
o 1Systemswithanexternalcatchmentareaforcollectingrunoffwaterorfloodwaterfromsmallwatersheds
(i)Agriculturaluse,withoutanyspecialarrangements,ofnaturaldepressionswhererunoffwaterorfloodwater isconcentratedtemporarilyandwater infiltration isrelatively
high(traditional in,forexample,WestandEastAfrica).
(ii)Simpletechniquesforwaterspreadingand infiltrationbymeansof low,permeablebunds (ridges) ofstones,bundled sticks,crop residuesor fencesof livingplants along
contourlines(traditionalin,forexample,Mali).
(iii) Water pockets or pits: holes for seeding, collecting runoff and managing organicmatter(zaiinBurkinaFaso,covasinCape
(iv) Halfcircular or Vshaped ridges used mainly for tree planting and rangelandimprovement(new).
8/2/2019 026 - Watershed Concepts Consolidated Extracts-Ori
23/26
P a g e |22
(v)Watercollection:gradedbundsorfurrowsdivertrunofffromcropland,village landand wasteland to tanks located at a lower level; the water is used for supplementary
irrigation in dry periods or as full irrigation (traditional in India; new in, for example;
WestAfrica).
(vi)Runoff farming:runoffwater fromtreated (e.g.bysprayingchemicalsorclearinggravel stones to increase runoff) or untreated catchment areas is diverted to lower
lyingcropland(traditional in, forexample,IsraelandTunisia,
vii)Runonfarming:runoffwaterandsiltfromsmallwatershedsiscapturedbydamsinseasonal stream beds or diverted to cropland. In front of these dams, the silt forms
terraces which are used forfarming. The infiltrated water makes cropping possible
(traditionalin,forexample,IsraelandTunisia,jessour,
o 2Systemsforstorageandagriculturaluseoffloodwater(floodwaterfarming):makinguseoftherunoffconcentratedbynaturalwatershedsinseasonalorpermanentstreams.Thefloodwater
isdivertedfromitsnaturalchannelbydamsorbarragesandledtothecroplandwherethewater
iskeptimpoundedbyearthendamsaroundthefields.Theinfiltratedwaterisusedforfarming
(traditional in,forexample,theNileDeltabeforetheAswanDam;northIndia,aharsandkhadits;
southPakistan,sailabasandkurkabas).
o 3Systemswitha'withinfield'catchmentareacalled'insitu'waterharvestingor'microcatchments':
(i)Negarim: runoff fromasmall plot (micro orwithincatchment) iscapturedat oneside,whereitinfiltratesthesoilanddirectlycontributestotheavailablemoistureinthe
rooted profile of an individual productive tree or shrub (traditional in, for example,
Morocco;newin,forexample,Israel);
(ii)Contourridgesorbunds:thesamesystemas3 (iii),butinsteadofsmallplots,stripsareused.Cropscanbeseededinfrontofthebunds
where water infiltration is concentrated (relatively new in, for example, India and
Africa);
(R7.3/182)
8/2/2019 026 - Watershed Concepts Consolidated Extracts-Ori
24/26
P a g e |23
FromPublicationsonRuralDevelopment
Run by and paid for by rural communities, villageextensionists in Gujarat, India, offer services suchaswatershedplanningwhichareinhighdemand.Theserviceorganization,inthiscaseanNGO,actsasalow
profilefacilitator,providing initialtrainingandcapacitybuildingsupport,seedfundingformicroprojects
andlinkswithwidernetworksoftechnicalandresearchexpertise.1tisenvisagedthatsomeoftheseroles
willultimatelybetakenonbyafederatedbodyofvillageorganizations. (R1.4/198)
TheWorldConservationStrategy (WCS)waspreparedby IUCNwith financeprovidedbyUNEPand theWorldWildlifeFund.Itwaspublished in1980 inthenameofthesethree.Organizations. (IUCN1980).It
hadbeenpresentedtoFAOandUNESCO,andpublicationhadbeendelayedtoincludetheiramendments
(McCormick1986a).ItwasendorsedbytheEcosystemConservationGroup(IUCN1980).Inthewordsof
the Chairman of the WWF, Sir Peter Scott, the WCS was intended to show 'how conservation can
contributetothedevelopmentobjectivesofgovernments, industryandcommerce,organized laborand
the professions, as well as being the first time that development was suggested 'as a major means of
achievingconservation,TheWCSidentifiesthreeobjectivesforconservation;
o First, the maintenance of 'essential ecological processes' (Section 2). These are governed,supportedorstronglymoderatedbyecosystemsandareessential for foodproduction,health,
andotheraspectsofhumansurvivalandsustainabledevelopment'(par2.1).Theyarecalled, in
thenonecologicalshorthand adopted, 'lifesupport systems', and includeagricultural land and
soil, forests, and coastal and freshwater ecosystems. Threats include soil erosion, pesticide
resistance in insectpests,deforestation andassociatedsedimentation, andaquaticand littoral
pollution.
o The second objective is the preservation of genetic diversity, both the genetic material indifferentvarietiesoflocallyadaptedcropplantsorlivestockandinwildspecies(Section3).This
geneticdiversityisbothan'insurance'(forexampleagainstcropdiseases),andaninvestmentfor
thefuture(eg.cropbreedingorpharmaceuticals) (part3.2).
o TheWCS'sthirdobjectiveis'thesustainabledevelopmentofspeciesandecosystems'(Section4),particularly fisheries,wildspecieswhicharecropped, forestsandtimberresourcesandgrazing
land.
Theseobjectivesarethenbrokendownintoalistofpriorityrequirements(Sections57).Thesearedrawn
uponthebasisofcriteriaofsignificance(how important is it?),urgency(how fast is itgettingworse?),
andirreversibility (Section5).ThesearelistedinTable3.1.
Thefirsttwoobjectives,toconserveecologicalprocessesandgeneticdiversity,havearelativelymodest
fiveprioritieseach.Thefirstofthesebasicallydemandstherationalplanningandallocationoflanduses:
givingcropspriorityonthebest land(butnotonmarginal land),andsettingasideandcontrollingareas
such aswatersheds and littoral zones for appropriate management only. The conservation of genetic
diversity demands sitebased protection of ecosystems and the timely creation of banks of genetic
material.PerhapsundertheinfluenceoftheMABProgramme,anumberofthefamiliarneedsofnature
conservation for protection of the habitats of rare and unique species and typical ecosystems in
appropriatelyorganizedsystemsofreservesappearhere.(R12.2/30)
WorldBank'sforestrypolicy.Inits1978ForestryPolicyPapertheemphasisshiftedfromindustrialforestryand timber utilization toward social and rural development issues and environmental forestry. This
followed from the recognition of theproblem of timber undervaluation, acommon policy distortion in
many developing countries, as the source of deforestation and inappropriate land conversion. The
problemofencroachment inforests,associatedwithpovertyanddegradation,wasalso identifiedinthe
1978policypaperalthoughthiswasnotemphasized.Thismajorchangeinsectoralprioritiesledtoefforts
at"newstyle"forestryprojectsthatincorporatedwatershedmanagementandenvironmentalactivities.
The 1991 World Bank forest sector policy paper (World Bank 1991b) shifted the focus further and
identified the relationship between deforestation and poverty and population pressure as the primary
resourcemanagementconcern.(R12.6/89)
8/2/2019 026 - Watershed Concepts Consolidated Extracts-Ori
25/26
P a g e |24
Externalitiesarerecognizedasexceptionstotheefficiencypropositionsofeconomictheory.Recallthatthebodyofthistheoryisbasedonindividualagentsmaximizingtheirownutilityorprofits,withoutregard
totheimpacttheiractionsmayhaveontheutilityofothers.Indeed,itisassumedthatindividualactions
onlyaffectthesatisfactionofothers inaneutralwaythroughthepricemechanism. IfpersonAbuysa
pineapple,
this
does
not
stop
person
B
buying
a
pineapple
at
the
going
market
price,
although
if
many
peopledecidetobuypineapplesatthesametime,thepricemayrisetothedisadvantageofallconsumers
inthemarketforpineapples.
Thisfeatureoftheworkingofthemarketeconomy,wherebyinteractionsbetweenindividualstakeplace
entirely within the price mechanism, can be referred to as the internal nature of market exchanges.
However,thereexistsacategoryofeventsinamarketeconomywherebytheactionsofoneindividualor
enterprisedirectlyaffecttheutilityofothers,withoutreferencetoexchangeorprices.IfpersonAcreates
abonfireinhergarden,herneighborsincurthedisutilityofchokingonthesmokeasitdriftsacrosstheir
territory.Likewise,when the removalof forestcoveratawatershedcausesmore frequent flash floods
down river, the livelihoodsof farmers in thevalleybottomareadverselyaffectedwithout reference to
marketpricesorcosts.(R13.3/135)
8/2/2019 026 - Watershed Concepts Consolidated Extracts-Ori
26/26
P a g e |25
FromPublicationsonProjectPlanningMonitoringandEvaluation
FAO(1977)Guidelinesforwatershedmanagement.ConservationGuideI,RomeU4/10 Thereisneedforassistancetothefarmerstorecoverthegulliedareasthroughpracticalmeasuressuchas
wattling and staking. This work should be combined with an education campaign about the risks in
cultivatingsteepandunstableslopes.Themagnitudeoft