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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Transportation is one of the !ey factors for the economy and society Therefore,transport policyma!ers have to create the policy framewor!s that re"uire the
transport sector to sustain energy with the three#dimensional ob$ective namely
ecology, economy and social acceptability In chapter %, the report discusses about
international experiences on reduction of energy use in transportation sector There
are many methods and policies to reduce energy consumption in transport sector,
however only several of them that are suitable to be used in Malaysia are elaborated
in this chapter Those include fuel economy standard for motor vehicle, fuel economylabels, fuel switching, fuel taxation, emission abatement, further improvements to
vehicles which have been implemented in other developed as well as developing
countries The study found that many policies can be implemented directly in
Malaysia while some others must be modified to ma!e it suitable for this country
&or example fuel economy label guide program can be directly implemented
however fuel economy standard must be modified because Malaysia has its local
vehicle manufacturers that have to be protected
'missions in the transportation sector produce adverse effects on the
environment that influent human health, organism growth, climatic changes and so
on The (yoto protocol by the )nited Nation &ramewor! *onvention on *limate
change +)N&** in December -../, prescribed legally binding greenhouse gas
emission target of about 01 below their -..2 level About -32 countries including
Malaysia now adopt this protocol The transportation sector is the main contributor
for emission in this country In order to calculate the potential emission by this
activity, the types of fuel use should be identified The study found that there are no
radical changes of fuel use for transportation sector in Malaysia The data showed
that fuel use are 041 petrol, 451 diesel, -41 AT&, 2 231 Natural Gas, and 2 241
electricity in year %222 It was pro$ected to be 531 petrol, 5%1 diesel, -%1 AT&,
2 %.1 Natural Gas and only 2 2/1 electricity in the year %2%2 The study found that
the transportation sector has contributed huge emissions in this country and the
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change on fuel type is necessary to change the emission These are discussed
intensively in chapter 4
The main part of the transport and energy investigations and pro$ections is
presented in *hapter 5 The first part of the chapter discusses a review of existing
data available from related authorities and transportation studies that were
underta!en to date 6opulation growth, socio#economic factors and energy use in
transportation sector have been considered &orecasting future transportation growth
based on population growth and socio#economic factors up to %2 years is presented
*onsideration of relationship between transportation trips production and energyconsumption is elaborated &ormulation of a model for forecasting energy
consumption by transportation sector and model validation that ta!es into
consideration the correlation coefficient is discussed in detail &urthermore, the uses
of the model to analy7e energy consumption based on the modal split scenarios are
also presented This topic is discussed in *hapter 0
Due to rapid economic growth, the usage of fuel especially petrol and diesel for
transportation sector has increased tremendously As a result, the government is
encouraging the use of alternative fuels in the transportation sector 8ne of the
proposals is to use natural gas +NG as an alternative fuel and proposing a suitable
policy for it 9tudy on natural gas vehicle +NG: has been underta!en to identify the
deficiency and to improve the previous policies This study involved respondents
+consumers from public transports +taxi drivers, taxi and bus companies and owners
of pump stations to identify their opinion about the policy Data collection to
identify an overview of the current status of NG: development including mar!et
activities and the future prospects of NG: in Malaysia are conducted by interviewing
respondents
Malaysia has been experiencing a dramatic increase in the number of vehicles
and this is pro$ected to be higher in the future due to rising income per capita
*hapter 3 focuses on the potential implementation of fuel economy standards for
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motor vehicles in Malaysia The fuel economy standard is developed based on the
fuel consumption data that is obtained from manufacturers and other related sources
;ith the increasing number of vehicles, fuel economy standards are one of the highlyeffective policies for decreasing energy use in the transportation sector &uel
economy standards are also capable of reducing air pollution In this study, the
potential efficiency improvements of vehicles are analy7ed by using the engineering#
economic analysis Meanwhile the possible efficiency improvement of motor
vehicles in reducing the fuel consumption in the transportation sector in the future is
examined by relating the energy, economical and environmental impacts
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CONTENTS
'C'*)TI:' 9)MMA@? iiA*(N8; 'DGM'NT9 v*8NT'NT9 viI9T 8& &IG)@'9 xI9T 8& TAB '9 xiv
N8M'N* AT)@'9 xxii
*
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0 % - Natural Gas @eserves -5E0 % % Natural Gas @eserve in Malaysia -0-0 % 4 Natural Gas :ehicle in Malaysia and 8ther *ountries -04
0 % 5 Number of :ehicles in Malaysia -030 % 0 6rice of 8il and Natural Gas in Malaysia -32
0 4 Methodology -320 4 - 6rimary Data *ollection -3-0 4 % 9econdary Data *ollection -350 4 4 *onducting 'conomic Analysis -33
0 5 @esults and Discussions -3/0 5 - 6rediction for Number of 6ublic Transport in Malaysia -3/0 5 % 6ublic Transportation -3/0 5 4 *ompanies and Managers of 6ump 9tation -/50 5 5 'conomic Analysis -/3
0 0 *onclusions and 9uggestions -/.0 0 - *onclusions -/.0 0 % 9uggestions -E-
*
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LIST OF FIGURES
No Description 6age- - &inal energy use by sector in %22% of 44%.2 !toe 4- % &inal consumption for petroleum product in %22% of %2,340 !toe E- 4 6ercentage of transportation sector energy use based on fuel types
in %22% of -4,55- !toe E% - Austrian draft fuel economy label 43% % Australian draft fuel consumption labels 4/% 4 *anadian fuel economy label 4E% 5 Danish draft fuel consumption label 4.% 0 9wedish fuel economy label 52
% 3 9wiss draft fuel economy label 5-% / )9 fuel consumption label 5%% E )( fuel economy label 54% . 'nvironmental information guide 554 - 6redicted energy demand based on percentage fuel mix for
transportation sector in Malaysia 0.4 % 6attern of *8 % and *8 emissions production by transportation
sector in Malaysia 3-4 4 6attern of 98 % and N8 x emissions production by transportation
sector in Malaysia 3-5 - &ederal highway view towards (uala umpur /45 % Motori7ation rates in Malaysia from -..- to %22% /55 4 Trends of private cars and public transport vehicles /E5 5 Integrated rail services in (lang :alley E%5 0 @T passengers per day E45 3 6ar! Jn ride at @T station E45 / 6roportion of passenger by modes .45 E 9catter#plot of observed vs modeled passenger car volumes
+method - -2.5 . 9catter#plot of observed vs modeled bus volumes +method - --25 -2 9catter#plot of observed vs modeled commercial vehicle
+method - ---5 -- 9catter#plot of observed vs modeled passenger car volumes
+method % --45 -% 9catter#plot of observed vs modeled bus volumes +method % --55 -4 9catter#plot of observed vs modeled commercial vehicle
+method % --05 -5 9catter#plot of observed vs modeled passenger car +method 4 --.5 -0 9catter#plot of observed vs modeled bus +method 4 -%2
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5 -3 9catter#plot of observed vs modeled commercial vehicle
+method 4 -%-5 -/ &orecasted petrol consumption by road transport sector +liter day -455 -E &orecasted diesel consumption by road transport sector +liter day -455 -. &orecasted petrol consumption by road transport sector +!toe year -435 %2 &orecasted diesel consumption by road transport sector +!toe year -4/5 %- &orecasted energy used in transportation sector +do nothing -4.5 %% &orecasted energy used in transportation sector +do something -520 - 6ercentage of vehicles by type -0E0 % Increasing number of vehicles in Malaysia +-.E/ H %22% -0.0 4 Number of public transport +bus and taxi from the year -.E/ to
%22% -0.3 - Impact of design option changes on prices and &'9 for class I
+*ity %4E3 % 6aybac! period and life cycle cost for class I +city %4.3 4 Impact of design option changes on prices and &'9 for class I
+
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3 -. Impact of design option changes on prices and &'9 for % stro!e
motorcycle +method % %0%3 %2 6aybac! period and life cycle cost for % stro!e motorcycle
+method % %0%3 %- Impact of design option changes on prices and &'9 for 5 stro!e
motorcycle %043 %% 6aybac! period and life cycle cost for motorcycles 5 stro!es %053 %4 Impact of design option changes on prices and &'9 for medium
duty lorry +class % K 4 %003 %5 6aybac! period and life cycle cost for medium duty lorry
+class % K 4 %00
3 %0 Impact of design option changes on prices and &'9 for medium
duty lorry +class 5 # 3 %0/3 %3 6aybac! period and life cycle cost for medium duty lorry
+class 5 H 3 %0/3 %/ Impact of design option changes on prices and &'9 for heavy duty
lorry +class / K E %0.3 %E 6aybac! period and life cycle cost for heavy duty lorry
+class / K E %0.3 %. Impact of design option changes on prices and &'9 for busses %3-3 42 6aybac! period and life cycle cost for busses %3-3 4- 6ro$ected fuel savings for cars %343 4% &uel consumption with and without standards +9TD vs BA) for
cars %353 44 6ro$ected fuel savings for motorcycles %303 45 &uel consumption with and without standards +9TD vs BA) for
motorcycles %333 40 6ro$ected fuel savings for medium duty lorry +class % K 4 %3/
3 43 &uel consumption with and without standards +9TD vs BA) formedium duty lorry +class % K 4 %3E
3 4/ 6ro$ected fuel savings for busses %3.3 4E &uel consumption with and without standards +9TD vs BA) for
busses %/23 A- *ar growth in Malaysia %E43 A% Motorcycle growth in Malaysia %E43 A4 orry growth in Malaysia %E53 A5 Bus growth in Malaysia %E5
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LIST OF TABLES
No Description 6age% - 'xamples of transport regulations in selected countries 42% % 'xamples of transport voluntary agreement program in selected
countries
4-
% 4 'mission limits for new cars 4%% 5 &uel economy labelling schemes in selected countries 454 - &inal energy use by transportation sector 0-4 % Transportation sector energy use based on fuel types 044 4 *8 %, 98 %, N8 x and *8 emission from fossil fuel per GF energy
use by transportation sector 054 5 6redicted energy demand and fuel mix of transportation sector in
Malaysia 0E4 0 6otential emissions production by transportation sector in
Malaysia
3%
5 - Mode classification scheme 3.5 % Number of motocars and motori7ation rates in Malaysia from
-..- to %22% /45 4 Number of motorcycles and motori7ation rates from -..- to %22% /05 5 Number of buses, commercial and other vehicles
from 1991 to 2002
..
/3
5 0 Proportion of private cars and public transport
vehicles from 1991 to 2002
..
//
5 3 9ummary of road mileage in Malaysia /.5 / (TMB passengers and freight traffic from year -..% to %22% E25 E @ail passengers from -..E to %22% E5
5 . Air traffic at public#use airports in Malaysia from year -..- to%22% E0
5 -2 Air passengers traffic at public#use airports in Malaysia from year
-..2 to %22% E35 -- International air passenger#!m data of ( IA E/5 -% Domestic air passenger#!m data of ( IA EE5 -4 Air passenger#!m data of (ota (inabalu airport E.5 -5 Air passenger#!m data of (uching airport .25 -0 Air passenger#!m data of 6enang airport .25 -3 Air passenger#!m data of ang!awi airport .-
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5 -/ Total cargo throughput by ports from year -..- to %22% .%5 -E Number of new vehicle registration based on fuel type .55 -. Malaysia population from -..- to %22% .0
5 %2 Gross domestic products +GD6 from -..- to %22% .35 %- 'mployment in all sectors from -..- to %22% ./5 %% Trip production regression model -2-5 %4 General e"uation fro the trip generation attraction model +macro
level -2%5 %5 General e"uation fro the trip generation attraction model +micro
level -2%5 %0 Average vehicle occupancy and load factor -245 %3 Average daily trip production rates by vehicle type in Malaysia -245 %/ Number of vehicles forecasting models in Malaysia -255 %E Modal share in the (uala umpur metropolitan area -205 %. 6ro$ected populations, %220 H %2%2 -235 42 6ro$ected employment from year %220 to %2%2 -235 4- 6ro$ected gross domestic product +GD6 from year %220 to %2%2 -2/5 4% 8bserved vs modeled passenger car volumes +method - -2.5 44 8bserved vs modeled bus volumes +method - --25 45 8bserved vs modeled commercial veh +method - ---5 40 8bserved vs modeled passenger car volumes +method % --%5 43 8bserved vs modeled bus volumes +method % --45 4/ 8bserved vs modeled commercial vehicle +method % --55 4E No of cars, busses and commercial vehicle year -..- to %22% --35 4. No of daily rail passenger year -..E to %22% --35 52 No of daily air passenger --/5 5- Method 4 regression model --E5 5% 8bserved vs modeled passenger car volumes +method 4 --.5 54 8bserved vs modeled bus volumes +method 4 -%25 55 8bserved vs modeled commercial vehicle +method 4 -%-5 50 Trips generation models -%45 53 &orecasted no of passengers by type of modes -%55 5/ &orecasted modal split by type of modes -%05 5E &uture modal split scenarios -%3
5 5. &orecasted no of vehicles by type of modes +do nothing scenario -%/5 02 &orecasted no of vehicles by type of modes +do something
scenario -%/5 0- &orecasted trip generation rates by type of modes -%/5 0% Total vehicle#!m of the traffic +do nothing scenario -%E5 04 Total vehicle#!m of the traffic +do something scenario -%E5 05 9ummary statistics for passenger cars, -..2 H %222 -%.5 00 9ummary statistics for two#axle truc!s, -..2 H %222 -%.5 03 No of new vehicle registration based on fuel types -425 0/ 6roportion of new vehicle registration based on fuel types -425 0E &orecasted no of vehicles +do nothing scenario -4%
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medium duty lorry +class 5 # 3 %-03 -% 6otential increase in fuel economy and related price increase for
heavy duty lorry +class / K E %-33 -4 &'9 and incremental cost of design options for class I car %-E3 -5 &'9 and incremental cost of design options for class II %-.3 -0 &'9 and incremental cost of design options for class III %-.3 -3 &'9 and incremental cost of design options for class I: %%23 -/ &'9 and incremental cost of combined design options for class I
+*IT? %%23 -E &'9 and incremental cost of combined design options for class I
+
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motorcycle %043 05 ife#cycle cost and paybac! period calculation for medium duty
lorry +class % K 4 %053 00 ife#cycle cost and paybac! period calculation for medium duty
lorry +class 5 # 3 %033 03 ife#cycle cost and paybac! period calculation for heavy duty
lorry +class / K E %0E3 0/ ife#cycle cost and paybac! period calculation for busses %323 0E Input data for potential fuel saving of cars %3%3 0. The calculation of fuel savings for cars %343 32 Input data for potential fuel saving of motorcycles %353 3- The calculation of fuel savings for motorcycles %30
3 3% Input data for potential fuel saving of medium duty lorry +class % K 4 %33
3 34 The calculation of fuel savings for medium duty lorry
+class % K 4 %3/3 35 Input data for potential fuel saving of busses %3E3 30 The calculation of fuel savings for busses %3.3 33 The calculation result from the cost#benefit analysis for cars %/-
3 3/ The calculation result from the cost#benefit analysis for
motorcycle %/%3 3E The calculation result from the cost#benefit analysis for medium
duty lorry %/%3 3. The calculation result from the cost#benefit analysis for busses %/4
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NOMENCLATURES
9ymbols Description )nitvi AEI Annual efficiency improvement
AFC Annual fuel cost +@M
vi ANS Annuali7ed net savings in year i of vehicle +@M
vi AS Applicable stoc! in year i of vehicle
vi AS - Applicable stoc! in year i#- of vehicle
v s BFC Baseline fuel consumption in the year of standards
enacted for vehicle
+@M
vi BS Bill savings in year i of vehicle +@M
C Annual maintenance cost +@MC,k *onstant value* d Drag coefficient* g Natural gas consumption + iter !m* o The conventional fuel consumption before conversion + iter !mCRF The capital recovery factor
D Annual distance travel +!md Discount rate +1
ni ES 'nergy use in year i of fuel type n +!toe
F &uel consumption + iter -22!mn
p FE 'mission per unit energy of fuel type n +!g GFvi FS &uel savings in year i of vehicle +literv IC Incremental cost for the more efficient vehicle +@M
v s IIC Initial incremental cost for more efficient vehicle +@M
r L ife span of vehicles
+year LCC ife *ycle *ost +@M
Mg Maintenance cost of NG: +@M yearMo Maintenance cost before conversion +@M year
MPG 2 The base year fleet average fuel economy +- !m MPG TOT The potential new fleet average fuel economy +- !m N ife time of the appliance +year
vi Na Number of vehicles in year i
vi Na - Number of vehicles in year i#-vi NS Net savings in year i for vehicle +@M
OC Annual operating expenses +@M P &uel price +@M
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6 o 6rice of the conventional fuel +diesel or petrol +@M liter6 g 6rice of natural gas +@M liter
PAY 6aybac! period +year
PC Investment cost +@M( )vi ANS PV 6resent value of annuali7ed net saving in year i +@M PWF 6resent worth factor R &uel price +@Mr Discount rate +19 saving +@M year
v sSFC 9tandard fuel consumption of vehicle +liter yr
viSh 9hipments in year i of vehicle
viSSF 9hipment survival factor in year i of vehiclev
sTEI Total efficiency improvement of vehicle +1
iTM Total emission in year i +!g, Ton i )tili7ation increase
viFS Initial unit energy savings in year i of vehicle + iter yearv
sFS Initial unit fuel saving + iter year ! ?ear predicted H year startY 6redicted value
" Motor vehicles predicted data# " The average data
viYs$ ?ear of standards enacted of vehicle +year
viYsh ?ear i of shipment of vehicle +yearvT Y%& ?ear target calculation for vehicle +year
Abbreviation
ASEAN Association of 9outheast Asian Nations ATF Aviation Turbine &uelCAFE *orporate Average &uel 'conomyCF *onversion factor CNG *ompressed Natural GasCO *arbon monoxideCO ' *arbon dioxideCSE *entre for 9cience and 'nvironment
DAF Dutch vehicle Ma!er Association EDI 'lectronic Data InterchangeG( GigagramG)G Green
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ENERGY USE IN THE TRANSPORTATION SECTOR OF MA AYSIA
C!A"TER #
INTRODUCTION
Transportation is one of the ma$or human activities around the world )nfortunately,
this activity is burning the limited nonrenewable energy that leads to some negative
impact to our living environment Therefore, there is a necessity to adopt suitable
energy policy for transportation sector as one of the options to balance the demand
and supply for energy at the government, society and individual levels This effort
would lead to the preservation of our limited nonrenewable energy resources and our
living environment In addition, it is the responsibility and contribution of the present
people towards the future generations 'nergy planning and policy has become very
important in the public agenda of most developed as well as some developing
countries today The importance of energy planning and policy is lin!ed to industrial
competitiveness, energy security and environmental advantage Transportation in
Malaysia is still using traditional fossil fuel type such as gasoline, diesel and
electricity These activities create millions of tons of greenhouse gases each year
6attern of emissions production by transportation sector in Malaysia is has not
analysed accurately yet 9uitable energy planning and policy in transportation sector
can reduce the demand for fossil fuel and hence reduce the production of greenhouse
gases and other emissions Based on fossil fuel consumption, transportation sector
accounts for almost 5. percent of the national greenhouse gas emissions +M89T',
%222 Therefore, suitable policies can play an important role in helping Malaysia to
meet overall greenhouse gas and emissions reduction target and at the same time
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ENERGY USE IN THE TRANSPORTATION SECTOR OF MA AYSIA
reducing the energy consumption, economic benefit as well as improving the
competitiveness of our product in the international arena
'nergy conservation in the transport sectors helps to reduce the energy
consumption In most countries, Transportation energy consumption ranges from
%21 to 321 of the total electricity consumption 8n average, the Transportation
sector in Malaysia uses about 521 of the total energy demand +National 'nergy
Balance, %224 The final energy use by sector in Malaysia is presented in &igure - -
This energy is used by a variety of type transport such as motor car, motorcycle, bus,
goods vehicle, train, @T, airplane, marine and etc to provide transportation services
and other end#uses for society Ideally, fuel consumption by various vehicles such as
motor car, motorcycle, bus and freight vehicle must be set to a certain level in order
to ensure that they use energy efficiently &or the benefit of the consumers, the
comparable energy consumption of the vehicle must be characteri7ed Based on type
of fuel used, the petrol +gasoline and diesel has been the largest of energy share in
transportation sector, which are about 001 and 4-1 of total energy consumption in
transport sector +National 'nergy Balance, %224 In order to reduce energy
consumption in this country, consumer should be educated to select the most efficient
vehicle from the mar!et or to promote alternative fuel This ob$ective can be
achieved by introducing fuel economy program and implementing suitable policy
such as shifting to public transport and switching to NG:
)sing energy efficiently and caring about the environment are two important
conducive factors under the current global mar!et conditions @eali7ing that, energy
efficiency policy is becoming a strategic policy for many nations today This is also
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ENERGY USE IN THE TRANSPORTATION SECTOR OF MA AYSIA
#$# Ba%&'ro(n)
&or more than two decades, in average Malaysia>s economy grew more than
31 per annum The Gross Domestic 6roduct increased from @M /.,442 million in
-..2 to @M %55,000 million in %225 At the same time, the per capita income has
increased from @M 3,%42 to @M -0,4/3 +'conomic 6lanning )nit, %225 'conomic
growth is the main driving factor for increased energy demand in transportation
sector in Malaysia Transportation is a fundamental prere"uisite for a society>s
development and improvement of people>s life As the Malaysian economy grew
rapidly in recent years, the importance of transportation sector has been reali7ed for
both continuous economic growth and improvement of standard of living The
increasing number of passenger and vehicle time to time increasing trip lengths and
traffic densities, thereby increasing the energy used for propulsion of vehicles
Moreover, with the increase of income levels as well as unconstrained expansion of
the cities, the private vehicle population has grown year by year in Malaysia
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ENERGY USE IN THE TRANSPORTATION SECTOR OF MA AYSIA
use of petroleum oils and also reduce growing air pollution especially on *8 %
emission which is two#third comes from transport fuels combustion @ecently, India
as a low per capita income country but have greater *8 % emissions based
transportation sector is already begin to manage the energy use for transport sector
by conducting several studies and policies such as implementing fuels energy
efficiency policy as well as improved the fuels "uality standard &urthermore, some
studies on 'uropean and Fapanese fuel economy initiatives= what they are, their
prospects for success, their usefulness is given by 6lot!in +%22% In 'uropean
*ountries which are mostly oils importer, the infrastructure improvement was done
by traffic controlled in the cities to avoid traffic $am as well as by implementing strict
rule on the vehicle speed at the highway was successfully reduce total fuel
consumption and maintain air "uality + )anielis, 199*+ + ias!as, %222 Besides
that, by implementing several efficiency policies such as fuel economy program as
well as introducing alternative fuel cars with lower fuel consumption can lower
emissions 9everal developed countries such as Fapan, 'ngland, )9A and 9weden
have also implemented the policy to reduce energy intensity by population such as
higher taxation for petroleum fuels as well as for every gram of *8 % emits more than
the level of standard
Malaysia with the rapid petroleum based fuel growth also tries to introduce
Natural gas to be primary fuel
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ENERGY USE IN THE TRANSPORTATION SECTOR OF MA AYSIA
overta!e this problem while petroleum crisis and environmental impact being a great
issues recently This study is necessary to develop energy used database for transport
sector and will be used for total energy used database in this country The database
will be dedicated to Malaysia policy ma!ers for further action in order to manage
energy consumption and economic growth simultaneously based on energy intensity
As stated earlier, motor vehicle is one of the ma$or energy consuming in the
transportation sector According to National 'nergy Balance +%224 , motor vehicle
accounts more than E21 of overall consumption of petroleum product share
Therefore, it perhaps will save a significant amount of energy in transportation sector
if suitable efficiency policy for motor vehicle implemented in this country
9ince land transport is one of the ma$or energy consumers in the transportation
sector in Malaysia, implementing suitable energy efficiency policy for this sector
may contribute a significant impact on energy consumption in the transportation
sectors and offer great benefits for the consumers, government as well as to the
environment In agreement to this opinion De*icco and Mar! +-..E states that the
transition toward a more sustainable transportation system can emanate from a suite
of mutually reinforcing policies 9trong efficiency and greenhouse gas emissions
standards would provide the foundation of the technology innovation strategy that
includes pricing reforms, incentive, and voluntary programs *ombined with
enabling @KD, the policies can facilitate mar!et transformation toward advance
technology highway vehicles, efficient air and intercity travel, and renewable fuels
Improvement in regional planning such as in (lang :alley, 6enang and Fohor Bahru
and intermodal capacity would help by reducing travel needs and shifting travel to
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ENERGY USE IN THE TRANSPORTATION SECTOR OF MA AYSIA
more efficient modes
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ENERGY USE IN THE TRANSPORTATION SECTOR OF MA AYSIA
'nergy policies and energy technology is a pair and it wor!s simultaneously
and mutually The technologies continually remove the less efficient product from
the mar!et and energy policies are creating transformations in the mar!et As the
consumers, become energy conscious, manufacturers use efficiency as a mar!eting
tool to win their competition in the mar!et To ma!e this program a success, there
should be a good cooperation between the public and private sector ;ith an
appropriate policy, the manufacturers and companies will have time to retool and
invest in designing towards more efficient energy use As a result, the transport
manufacturer will develop more efficient product, which will benefit them, through
increasing demand and competitiveness of the product in the international mar!et
By the combination of suitable policies and technologies, Malaysia will be able to
promote more efficient energy used product and will begin an important mar!et
transformation for the product in the country It is expected that energy efficiency
initiatives for transportation sector can indeed be tapped and expanded in Malaysia to
decelerate the growth of energy consumption in the transportation sector, monetary
savings as well as reducing the environmental impact
#$* Ob+e%tive o, t-e t().
The main ob$ective of research is to ma!e policy recommendations with
views to reduce the energy use and environmental emissions in the transportation
sector in Malaysia In order to achieve this main aim several other ob$ectives have
been identified, and these are=
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ENERGY USE IN THE TRANSPORTATION SECTOR OF MA AYSIA
To review energy consumption of the transportation sector in 6eninsular
Malaysia +particularly in the (lang :alley , 9abah and 9arawa!
To identify !ey energy#consuming sub#sectors within the transportation sector
To examine international experiences related to the reduction of energy use in
transport sector
To analy7e historical trend and pro$ect future trend of energy demand and
environmental emissions from the transportation sector
To examine the potential of modal shift to public transport
To examine the feasibility and potential of switching to NG: by commercial
vehicles
To study vehicle efficiency standards
#$/ Contrib(tion o, t-e t().
To proposed recommendations with a view to reduce energy intensity in the
transportation sector in this country The output will be a report entitled 'nergy )se
in the Transportation 9ector of Malaysia It will cover all the points mentioned in
the ob$ectives
#$0$ Li1itation o, t-e t().
It is noted that an important "ualification of the results in this study due to
uncertainty in forecasting )ndoubtedly, pursuing the path outlined here would yield
large reductions in energy used and emissions compare to what will ensue in the
absence of policy change eaving aside upheaval in global oil supply or other
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economic disruptions, unforeseen technology changes or other developments could
push demand significantly higher or lower than the baseline assumed in the study
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*hapter 5 deals with the transportation system development and energy
consumption in Malaysia
*hapter 0 examines the feasibility and potential of fuel switching to NG: by
commercial vehicles in Malaysia
*hapter 3 presents a study on fuel economy standard for motor vehicle in
Malaysia
Re,eren%e
)anielis, -. 199*+. (ner"y use for transport in /taly Past trends.
(ner"y Policy 2 9+, 99340 .
)e5icco, 6., ar7, 6. 1994+. eetin" the ener"y and climate
challen"e for transportation in the %nited $tates. (ner"y Policy 28
*+, 9* :12.
Dowlatabadi, < , ave, B , @ussell, A G +-..3 A free lunch at higher *A&'O A
review of economic, environmental and social benefits 'nergy 6olicy %5 +4 , %04#
%35
'conomic 6lanning )nit, +%225 The Malaysian 'conomic in &igures, 'conomic
6lanning )nit, 6rime Minister>s Department, 6utra$aya, Malaysia
ias!as, ( , Mavrotas G , Mandara!a, M , Dia!oula!i, D +%222 Decomposition of
industrial *8 % emissions=The case of 'uropean )nion 'nergy 'conomics %% +5 ,
4E4H4.5
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M89T', F +%222 Malaysia initial National *ommunication Ministry of 9cience
and Technology and 'nvironment, (uala umpur, Malaysia
National 'nergy Balance %22%, +%224 inistry of (ner"y, 5ommunications
and ultimedia, ;uala &umpur, alaysia.
6lot!in, 9 ' +%22- 'uropean and Fapanese fuel economy initiatives= what they are,
their prospects for success, their usefulness as a guide for )9 action 'nergy 6olicy
%. +-4 , -2/4H-2E5
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C!A"TER *
INTERNATIONAL EX"ERIENCES ON REDUCTION
OF ENERGY USE IN TRANS"ORT SECTOR
SUMMARY
Transportation is one of the !ey factors for the economy and society Therefore
transport policyma!ers have to create the policies framewor!s that are re"uired for
transport sector to sustain energy with three dimensional ob$ective namely ecology,
economy and social acceptability This chapter discusses international experiences on
reduction of energy use in transportation sector There are many methods and
policies to reduce energy consumption in transport sector, however only several of
them that are suitable to be used in Malaysia will be elaborated in this chapter Those
include fuel economy standard for motor vehicle, fuel economy labels, fuel
switching, fuel taxation, emission abatement, further improvements to vehicles
which are have been implemented in other develop as well as developing countries
The study found that many policies can be implemented directly in Malaysia while
other must be modified to ma!e it suitable in this country &or example fuel economy
label guide program can be directly implemented in this country, however for fuel
economy standard must me modified to ma!e it suitable because Malaysia has it
local vehicle manufacturers that have to be protected
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*$#$ Intro)(%tion
There are many methods and policies to reduce energy consumption in the
transportation sector To provide an impression of the coverage, a number of these
measures are= relocation of enterprises to reduce transport re"uirementsL increase in
density in 7oningL elimination or decrease of fiscal deductibility of travel expensesL
introduction of a four day wor! wee!L improvement of car and truc! enginesL
restriction of energy#consuming options in carsL research and development of
alternative vehicle enginesL production of smaller carsL reduction of taxation for car
poolingL creation of par!ing facilities and reservation of lanes for car poolsL
subsidi7ation of public transportL improvement of "uality of service of public
transportL introduction of toll roadsL taxes on pea! hour travelL speed limitL limit on
highway constructionL par!ing leviesL par!ing limitationL introduction of gasoline
couponsL limiting number of gasoline stationsL and measures to restrict the energy
consumption in the transport sector
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America>s gas mileage over the subse"uent decade The National Academy of
9cience has estimated this saves about % E mbd transportation alternative.
Meanwhile, it has been reported in *anada that bet'een 1990 and 2002,
the amount of ener"y used by the transportation sector increased
by 2 percent, from 14 .9 P6 to 2 08.0 P6.
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21.2 P6. Cesides that, improvements in the ener"y eBciency of
frei"ht transportation led to savin"s of 12 .4 P6 of ener"y and 9.
t of !@!s. ost of the improvements in frei"ht ener"y eBciency
occurred in heavy truc7s and rail.
)ha7al 200 + on the other hand analyDed the ener"y and
environmental implications of transportation policies in ;athmandu
#alley, Nepal up to the year 2020. From this study, it could be
summariDed that increasin" the avera"e speed of vehicles on the
street to :0 7mEh 'ould reduce total ener"y demands by 2 and
reduce 5G 2 emissions by 2* . Cesides that, the policy to increase
the share of public transportation is eHpected to brin" 2 of
savin"s in total ener"y demands and 20 of 5G 2 reduction in the
year 201*. ?he other policy that is reported to brin" substantial
implication is the promotion of electric vehicle. /t is reported that
this move 'ould reduce the total ener"y demand and 5G 2 emission
by 20 in the year 201*.
ean'hile, in 5uritiba, CraDil local authorities have developed
an inte"rated plan for transport, urban plannin", infrastructure,
business and local community development. Cy plannin" and
Donin" residential and industrial development alon" so called
arteries in the proHimity of public transport, transportation needs
have been mana"ed sustainably. ?he arteries are supplemented
'ith a system of rin" roads. $eparate bus lines operate in close
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connection 'ith eHpress buses 'hich enter the residential areas.
?he move made 5uritibas "asoline use per capita lo'er than that
of comparable CraDilian cities. /t also led to annual fuel savin"s of
approHimately 2 million liters.
/n /ndonesia on the other hand, =Clue $7y Pro"ramme> 'as
launched in 1992, for mobile sources, the maIor activities of the
pro"ram are, amon" others, to encoura"e the use of 5N! and &P!
as an alternative cleaner fuel for motor vehicle to phase out
leaded "asoline and introduce lo' sulfur diesel fuel Jinyantoro,
2001+.
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%224 and has also increased the number of Toyota 6rius hybrids in the fleet to -3
Meanwhile, from &ebruary %22- to Fune %225, the 9tate Government has spent more
than P02million on cycling infrastructure, with another PEmillion earmar!ed this
year As a result, the number of people using the 6erth Bicycle Networ! has doubled
during the last five years Additionally the Government has embar!ed on the 9tateQs
biggest#ever public transport pro$ect#the P- 0billion New Metro@ail 6ro$ect , New
Metro@ail will carry almost 40,222 people each wee!day and ta!e %0,222 cars off
their freeways It is estimated that wor!#related patronage on the 9outhern 9uburbs
@ailway alone will save almost -0million litres of fuel each year +Mactiernan, %225
Meanwhile vehicle emissions in Myanmar are expected to contribute
significantly to air pollution problems which are increasing at a rate of E/ -4 Gg *8 %
e"uivalent per year In Myanmar, motor vehicle inspection is pursued by the @oad
Transport Administration Department of the Ministry of @ail Transportation
Although Myanmar does not yet have any vehicle emission standards, the
department has adopted standard re"uirements and testing procedure for motor
vehicle inspection The re"uirements include among others, bra!e minimum
efficiency, exhaust emission +smo!e , noise, and depth of tyre groove, which are
based from the existing A9'AN standards +Myint, %22-
In (orea, motor vehicle registration nationwide has increased -E - times, from
0%/,/%. in -.E2 to .,004,23% in -..3 The passenger car ownership increased %/ /
times since -.E2, from %5.,-2% to 3,E.4,344 in -..3 This figure reflects an
increase of an average %4 -1 per year The road system, which handles more than
.21 of the countryQs transportation, has been intimately connected to (oreaQs rapid
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government has implemented two phases of ight @ail Transit + @T systems and
the fuel efficient electrified double trac! commuter service The improved transport
services is viewed that it will change the pattern of the existing transportation usage,
reducing number of private vehicles on the road thus reducing fuel consumption
which lead to reduction of emission Apart from that, the Ministry of &inance has
allocated tax exemption on !its and necessary components for converting vehicle to
utili7e natural gas &urthermore, the road tax of vehicles using only natural gas is
discounted by 021 of the prevailing rate while %01 was given to bi#fuel vehicles
Moreover, special capital allowance was also given to companies operating mono#
gas buses and for NG: petrol station entrepreneur +Norhayati K ?u7lina, %22-
*$/ Tran 4ortation 4o6i%. in e6e%te) %o(ntrie
Mobility is one of the !ey factors for the economy and society Transport
policyma!ers have to create the statutory and policy framewor!s that are re"uired if
transport needs are to be met ta!ing account of sustainability in its three dimensions
+ecology, economy and social acceptability In the transport sector, land transport,
especially road transport, can ma!e a significant contribution towards reducing
vehicle emissions if improved fuels and engines are introduced This scope for improvement is being exploited
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use of renewable energy in transport and in the production of fuel will ma!e it
possible to ta!e a big step towards more sustainable transport Moreover, the need of
such policy which will be implemented on fossil fuels usage is becomes much
necessary Among the countries which have been implemented the policy of fuels
usage on transport sector are some 'uropean countries, )9A, Australia, Fapan, etc
*$/$#$ T-ai6an)
According to Thailand 6rime Minister Tha!sin 9hinawatra, Thailand will more
concern on energy policy on fossil fuel started at this year As the subsidies on petrol
prices come to an end this year, Thailand government is also trying to set a suitable
policy for energy and fuel conservation, to !eep the economy and the countryQs
coffers in good shape 6aradoxically, the government is letting petrol prices float andwill continue subsidi7ing diesel at least through to the end of the cool season That is
the way Thailand can minimi7e the impact of higher fuel prices in the short term
+Diesel News, %224
*$/$*$ Sin'a4ore
In 9ingapore the rapid economic development in the last three decades has led
to increased demand for land transportation which is presently heavily dependent on
oil As a small city#state with no indigenous supply of conventional energy resources,
9ingapore needs to constantly promote energy conservation and to explore the use of
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alternative fuels At the same time, the 9ingaporean government is also concerned
with the environmental problems associated with rapid industriali7ation :arious
measures and recommendations on promoting clean technology, protection of the
local and global environment, reduction of *8 % and 98 % emissions, etc , were
announced and documented in the 9ingapore Green 6lan +9ingapore Ministry of
'nvironment, -..4 8ther policy which has been used in 9ingapore is to provide
financial incentives to promote the use alternative fuels and electric vehicles This is
based on a reduction of imported vehicle tax and vehicle road tax +6oh and Ang,
-...
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*$/$/$ E(ro4ean Co(ntrie
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'conomic *ase for
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ministryQs current guidelines, automa!ers must ma!e passenger cars -2 percent more
fuel efficient and less polluting by %2-2, compared to %222 Truc!s are exempt from
such standards
*$/$2$ A( tra6ia
Due to its geographical nature Australia is a highly transport dependent society
Despite significant efforts to promote the benefits of public transport, its use has
declined while the affordability of motor cars has continued to improve and car
ownership and use are rising *onsumers want affordable and safe cars, cheap fuels,
ample par!ing, congestion free roads and environmentally friendly vehicles as long
as they don>t have to pay for it As a community they are hyper sensitive about
petrol prices and as we have seen a few cents a litre rise at the petrol pump can cause politicians to become wea! at the !nees *onversely Governments &ederally to the
tune of P-% 0billion year through excise and 9tates receipts of P% /billionn year are
!eenly aware of the revenue generated from petroleum products +'nvironment News
9ervice, %222
According to Dr 9harman 9tone, 6arliamentary 9ecretary to 'nvironmentMinister @obert
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The transport sector is the largest single contributor to AustraliaQs greenhouse
gas emissions, accounting for almost -3 percent of the /% 3 million tonnes of carbon
dioxide pumped into the environment every year The new rules will mean higher
octane, lower sulphur content fuel This should help reduce pollution as well as cut
greenhouse gas emissions Australia is struggling to meet international commitments
to limit emissions of carbon dioxide and other climate warming gases to eight
percent of -..2 levels 9uch emissions have actually grown by -3 percent The &uel
Suality 9tandards Bill forms part of the Australian governmentQs AP- billion
+)9P052,222 greenhouse plan !nown as Measures for a Better 'nvironment
pac!age The new law in Australia will introduce tougher penalties to protect
consumers and environment +Australian Greenhouse 8ffice, %225
*$/$8$ In)ia
According to a Times of India report, IndiaQs government has been announced
its final conclusions regarding the Rauto#fuel policy reportR delivered by an expert
committee headed by IndiaQs top science advisor This report recommended fuel
neutrality +with ultra#low sulfur diesel by %2-2 rather than the *NG monopoly
scheme for ma$or cities pushed by IndiaQs 9upreme *ourt and anti#diesel RgreenR
group, *enter for 9cience K 'nvironment +*9' *urrently, the comprehensive study
or results still yet to publish regarding this policy
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*$9$9$ Fran%e
&rance policyma!ers so far have implicitly assumed that ade"uate supplies of
NG would be available for transport *learly, NG is one of the possible alternative
fuel that produce ma$or reductions in transport oil use, NG as transport fuels is still
available in large "uantities in the years %2%2 This now seems unli!ely The I'A has
recently analy7ed world energy prospects out to %2%2 and beyond +I'A, -..E &or
NG, it was assumed that ultimate reserves, both already produced and still to be
produced, were %32 btoe, slightly less than the 4-2 btoe estimated for oil ;orld
demand for NG is growing faster than that for oil as gas increases its share of energy
in the developed countries and gas grids are introduced in an increasing number of
industriali7ing countries
*$/$:$ Ne5 ;ea6an)
The New ealand example is instructive A ma$or shift to NG#based transport
fuels occurred in the -.E2s, based on *NG and synthetic petrol At its pea!, NG
supplied 421 of New ealand>s transport fuels Today, the figure is only about -21,
and will decline to near 7ero by %2-5, the expected date of gas field exhaustion,
assuming no imports +9tatistics New ealand, %222
*$/$
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reasons for this choice are= no need for such a big tan!, the composition is clearly
defined and there is no need to have the gas compressed in an expensive compression
station
*$/$#=$ "-i6i44ine
The 6hilippines first attempted to commerciali7e li"uid biofuels for motor
vehicles following the oil shoc!s of the -./2sL unfortunately, the ambitious program
was abandoned during the political crisis of the mid#-.E2s Today biofuels are
receiving renewed interest in the 6hilippines due to a combination of economic and
environmental factors The principal economic incentive is the reduction of
dependence on imported petroleum This issue is particularly true for the transport
sector which is almost entirely dependent on oil @eduction of *8 % emissions
resulting from fossil fuel use is one of the primary environmental considerations
+6hilippine Department of 'nvironment and Natural @esources, %222 As with the
biofuels program of the early -.E2s, a biodiesel program can help insulate the
6hilippines from world oil price fluctuations, and simultaneously revitali7e stagnant
sectors of the economy These benefits may very well enough to compensate for the
relatively high production cost of biodiesel Implementation of carbon trading
through the *lean Development Mechanism can also be employed to subsidi7e such
a program
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*$0$ Tran 4ort Re'(6ation
Table % - lists various international regulations and or guidelines aimed at
improving new vehicle fuel efficiency for selected countries +8'*D Ministry of
Transport, %222 There are of course many other guidelines and regulations relating
to efforts to reduce emissions by the transport sector but only those directly related
the study that have been listed in this section
*$2$ Vo6(ntar. a'ree1ent or 4ro'ra1
The costs +both financial and environmental of regulatory measure can
outweigh the benefits of that program In the case of fuel efficiency standards, the
cost of developing and implementing technological advances and the consumers>
tendency to use some of the savings from reduced fuel consumption to drive further
+the rebound effect could outweigh the actual fuel savings achieved :oluntary
agreements program can be an alternative means of achieving improved fuel
efficiency Table % % lists a number of examples of voluntary agreement program
+8'*D Ministry of Transport, %222
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Table % - 'xamples of transport regulations in selected countries
*ountry @egulation description
*7ech @epublic 9pecific fuel consumption targets agreed andimplemented
Fapan &uel efficiency targets for %222 set, average E 01improvement over fiscal -..% levels01 target for average improvement in fuel efficiency for
petrol truc!s
@ussian &ederation Development of vehicle fuel efficiency standards proposed
9weden Target for private car average fuel consumption of 3 4liters per -22 !m by %220 has been proposed 9ince newcar fuel economy was E 5 litres -22!m in -..4i, thisimplies an improvement of %01 over the period -..4 to%220 :olvo has committed itself to a %01 reduction inaverage fuel consumption by %220
9wit7erland &ederal Government 8rdinance on reducing the specificfuel consumption of cars @e"uirement is for a -01
reduction in average fuel consumption in the period -..3to %22- +4 %1 per year
)nited 9tates *orporate Average &uel 'fficiency +*A&' standardsImplemented in -./0, came into effect for cars in -./East revised in -..% currently %/ 0 mpg +E 00 litres -22!m
'uropean )nion *ommission *ommunication *8M +.0 3E., %2December -..0, *ouncil *onclusion of %0 Fune -..38b$ective is to achieve an average of -%2 gm !m *8%
emissions +approx 0 l -22!m for new cars by %220Target is aimed at 'uropean made vehicles, but plans areto extend the targets to imports as well
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Table % % 'xamples of transport voluntary agreement programs in selected countries
*ountry *ountry :oluntary agreement programs
Austria Agreement with motor vehicle manufacturers to improve fuelefficiency to 4 litres -22 !m +envisaged measure
*anada :oluntary agreement with each of the manufacturers onincreasing fuel efficiency of new vehicles
&rance &rench car manufacturers have set a target of cutting average*8 % emissions to -02 gm !m by %220
Germany Agreement with domestic vehicle manufacturers on fueleconomy *alls for a %01 reduction in average fuelconsumption between -..2 and %220 +a rate of - .1 a year
9weden :olvo has committed itself to a %01 reduction in average fuelconsumption of its cars sold in the ') by %220
)nited (ingdom )( manufacturers are committed to meeting the A*'A targetof a -21 improvement in fuel efficiency by %220
'uropean )nion Agreement reached between the 'uropean *ommission andA*'A to cut *8 % emissions down to -52 gm !m
approximately 0 / litres -22 !m by %22E There is also acommitment to review emissions targets in %224 with a viewtowards achieving the *ommission>s ob$ective of -%2 gm !m+approximately 0 litres -22 !m by %2-%
*$8$ Air >(a6it. 4o6i%ie
In addition to carbon dioxide, vehicle usage results in other gas emissions,
many of which have implications for local air "uality Three of these are covered by
the 'uro standards= carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides, all
measured separately for petrol and diesel cars, and also particulate matter for diesel
cars only tabulated in Table % 4
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of both local air "uality change and global climate change, recogni7ing that fuels
have different benefits and disadvantages In 'urope, the Directive is part of a trio of
policy approaches, concerned with climate change These include the voluntary
agreement to reduce missions by technical improvements to new cars and fiscal
measures In the )(, the fiscal measures include differentiated vehicle excise duty,
related on carbon dioxide emissions, and reduced company car allowances
*$9$ F(e6 e%ono1.
This chapter compares existing and planned vehicle fuel economy labelling
schemes in several selected countries 9ome of the planned schemes within 'uropean
countries are refer to earlier drafts of the ') Directive This is an area of policy that
should considered for every countries around especially for developing countries
that have been rapidly increase in the number of vehicles The simultaneously survey
in this section gives a dated snapshot of the current situation in the country 9o some
of the data given in this study section might be have already change
:ehicle labelling schemes have been in existence for several years in 9weden
and the )nited 9tates +both since -./0 and in the )( +since -.E4 The American
scheme was amended in -..2 and the *anadian scheme in -..E, in the light of
consumer feedbac! There is little evidence of the way these schemes influenced
consumer purchases 9ummary of fuel economy energy labels for motor vehicle in
several selected countries is given in Table % 5 +Brenda et al, %222 The fuel
economy label for several selected countries is given &igs % - H % .
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Table % 5 &uel economy labeling schemes in selected countries
A( tria A( tra6ia Be6'i(1 Cana)a Den1ar& Net-er6an) S5e)en S5it3er6an) USA EUDire%tive
"6anne) orE?i tin'
6lanned 6lanned 6lanned 'xisting 6lanned 6lanned for attachment tocars#existing
on website
'xisting 6lannedTemporary label
in meantime
'xisting Directive-... .5 '*
adopted
S%o4e Asdirective
6assenger cars,maybe extension tolight commercial
vehicles, 5x5
Asdirective
Newcars,vans,
light dutytruc!s
As direc tive As direc tive All passenger
cars
As directive New cars,vans, lightduty truc!s
New passenger
cars
Intro)(%tion)ate
Asdirective
%222 Asdirective
-..E - Fan %222 As directive -.// As directive buttemporary label
prior to that
-./0 To beimplementedin ') M9 byFanuary -E th
%22-
Man)ator.@ ?es ?es ?es No ?es ?es No No= Temporary ?es ?es
Unit o,%on (14tion
-22!m -22!m -22!m -22!mLmpg
mpg -22!m -22!m NotshownL -22!m
in guide
mpg -22!m or !m l or
combinationCo14ari onb. ab o6(te1ea (re orre6ative %a6e
@elative by si7eand salesweighted
Absolute but perhaps label
changed toappliance star style
+relative
@elative bysi7e and
salesweighted
Absolute Absolutecomparing
all cars
@elative bysi7e and sales
weighted
Absolute No scale shown but efficientdesignation withsales weighted
comparison for allsame weight
No scale butrange of
consumptionshown for
cars of samesi7e
Nore"uirement
for comparison
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Table % 5 *ontinueA( tria A( tra6ia Be6'i(1 Cana)a Den1ar& Net-er6an) S5e)en S5it3er6an) USA EU Dire%tive
Co14ari on4ara1eter
width Clength
None width Clength
None None width C length None weight si7e class N A
Ot-er1ea (re o, %on (14tion
Asdirective
None Asdirective
Annualfuel cost+focus of
label
(rona yr (rona %2222
!m(rona 32222
!m
*ost 02222!m*ost litre
None None None )nits can bein gallons
and miles if compatible
with DirectiveE2 -E- ''*
CO * Intentionto include
values
No Asdirective
No ?es +g*8 %!m
?es +g*8 %!m
?es+g
*8 %!m
Not shown but
in guide +g!m
No H intendedfor theguide
*8 %emissions in
g !m
Environ1enta6 Ran&in'
No No No No No No ?es,ran!ing -
to 4
No In guide byA*'''
No
"rinte)G(i)e
Intended ?es ?es ?es ?es ?es ?es ?es ?es ?es
On6ine G(i)e Intended ?es ?es ?es Intended ?es ?es Intended ?es Not re"uired but
consideredFi %a6inte'ration
?es # withfuel
consumption tax
+No:A
No Intended No ?es with fuelconsumption
tax+greenowner
?es withr$4a%iv$
consumption
;ithenvirorating
Intended H either to *8 %
or fuelconsumption
No
Ne5 %aro6) to ,6eetb(.er
-01maximum
-2#-01 # -21 # -21 # V 01 -21 N A
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&igure % - Austrian draft fuel economy label
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&igure % % Australian draft fuel consumption labels
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&igure % 4 *anadian fuel economy label
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&igure % 5 Danish draft fuel consumption label
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&igure % 0 9wedish fuel economy label
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&igure % 3 9wiss draft fuel economy label
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&igure % / )9 fuel consumption label
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&igure % E )( fuel economy label
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*$:$ Con%6( ion
There are not many policies around the world have been implemented for
reducing transport sector energy use other than for motor vehicle This may be
because the technology replacement for airplane and ship not so progressive such as
for motor vehicle There was a replacement for railway especially in Fapan and
&rance, however the replacement was not really related to energy but more to
increasing speed of mass railway transport Therefore the study is more favored to
motor vehicle since they are the ma$or energy consumer in the transportation sector
in this country 9everal countries are using the opportunity to experiment with
innovative approaches that go considerably beyond this minimum level This is in
order to reduce the contribution that new cars are ma!ing to environmental
degradation and climate change The focus on fuel economy provides substantial
benefits to consumers, particularly at a time of rising real oil prices and concerns
about the cost of petrol
As a result of the proposed fuel economy standard and fuel economy label,
consumers will be able to differentiate efficient vehicle with ease This will create
healthy competition among vehicle manufactures to come up with a more efficient
vehicle gradually 'ventually if these measures are implemented, it will bring great
benefit to government, consumers as well as to the environment 8verall,
dependency on petrol fuel could be reduced and greenhouse gas emission could be
mitigated Additionally, the fuel subsidy on petrol and diesel by government in the
future should be withdrawnL consumers will not pay more ton efficient vehicle unless
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it proven will be using lesser amount of fuel and benefit them due to higher cost of
fuel
Re,eren%e
Australian Greenhouse 8ffice +%225 Australia Green
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8'*D Ministers of Transport +-../ *8 % 'missions from Transport, 'uropean
*onference of Ministers of Transport, 8'*D
6hilippine Department of 'nergy +%22% 6hilippine 'nergy 6lan %22%H%2--
Manila
6hilippine Department of 'nvironment and Natural @esources +%222 Implementing
@ules and @egulations of @A E/5.W*lean Air Act of -..., Manila
6ir!ey, D, McNutt, B,
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/$#$ Intro)(%tion
8ver the past decades, it has been observed that there is an increasing
atmospheric concentration of greenhouse gases such carbon dioxide +*8 % and other
emissions that give negative impact to the environment such as sulfur dioxide +98 %,
nitrogen oxide +N8 x and carbon monoxide +*8 8ne of the main contributors of
these gases is generated by transportation sector because a conventional vehicle still
using fossil fuels as their main energy sources Burning fossil fuels is releases the
emissions such as mentioned gasses which !nown can cause greenhouse gas
emission effect, acid rain and other negative impact to environmental and
human!ind
*8 % is a colorless, odorless gas and produced when any form of carbon is
burned in an excess of oxygen Due to this reason, *8 % greenhouse effect in the
world has been enhanced This means that the atmosphere is trapping more heat that
has to escape to space This enhancement has lin!ed the greenhouse effect is causing
global warming *8 % is the largest contributor of greenhouse effect out of all the
gasses produce by human activities
98 % is a colorless gas, from the family of sulfur oxides +98 x It reacts on the
surface of a variety of atmosphere solid particles and can be oxidi7ed within
atmosphere water droplets &ossil fuel combustion is the main sources of 98 %
produce by human activities
N8 x are a collective term used of two types of oxides of nitrogen namely nitric
oxide +N8 and nitrogen dioxide +N8 % N8 is a colorless, flammable gas with a
slight odor N8 % is a nonflammable gas with a detectable smell and in certain
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concentration will highly toxic, which is in longtime can cause serious lung damage
N8 % is plays a ma$or role in the atmospheric reactions that produce o7one or smog
In the atmosphere, N8 % will mix with water vapor producing nitric acid and
deposited as acid rain
*8 is a colorless, odorless, poisonous gas 'xposure to *8 reduces the bloodQs
ability to carry oxygen *8 is a product of incomplete burning of hydrocarbon#based
fuels *8 consists of a carbon atom and an oxygen atom lin!ed together During
normal combustion, each atom of carbon in the burning fuel $oins with two atoms of
oxygen forming a harmless gas ;hen there is a lac! of oxygen to ensure complete
combustion of the fuel, each atom of carbon lin!s up with only one atom of oxygen
forming *8 gas
Malaysia planning to reduce the production of *8 %, 98 %, N8 x and *8 in the
country but the data of production of these gasses is unavailable therefore the study
attempts to estimate potential production of these gases from transportation sector in
this country ;ith exact figure of these emissions, Malaysia can contribute to
undermine the disaster caused by these gases by maximi7ing of using renewable fuel
9imilar study on emissions from electricity generation in Malaysia has been
discussed by Mahlia +%22%
/$*$ S(rve. Data
The data used for this study are the fuel consumption data, distribution of fuel
type for transportation sector data and emissions of *8 %, 98 %, N8 x and *8 from
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fossil fuel for unit fuel consumption in +g GF These data are collected from the
National 'nergy Balance +%22% All of the survey data are tabulated in Tables 4 -,
4 % and 4 4
Table 4 - &inal energy use by transportation sector
?ear Total
+!toe-.E2 %,4.E
-.E0 4,5//-..2 0,4E/-..0 /,E%/-..3 E,.0--../ -2,%2--..E .,/.4-... --,4.4%222 -%,2/-%22- -4,-4/%22% -4,55%
Type of fossil fuel used in transportation sector in Malaysia are include, Natural
Gas, Aviation gasoline +Avgas , Motor gasoline +Mogas , Aviation Turbine &uel
+ ATF or Avtur , Diesel oil and fuel oil Natural Gas fuel is a mixture of gaseous
hydrocarbons +mainly methane which occurs either in gas fields or in association
with crude oil in oil fields Aviation gasoline +Avgas is a special blended grade of
gasoline for use in aircraft engines of the piston type Distillation range normally
falls within 42 o* and %22 o* Motor gasoline +Mogas 6etroleum distillate for used as
fuel in spar!#ignition internal combustion engines Distillation range is within 42 o*
and %02o* AT& or Avtur is fuel for use in aviation gas turbines mainly refined from
(erosene Distillation range within -02 o* and %02 o* Diesel oil is Distillation falls
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within %22o* to 452 o* Diesel fuel for high speed diesel engines +i e automotive are
more critical on fuel "uality than diesel for stationary and marine diesel engines
Marine oil usually consists of a blend of diesel oil and some residual +asphalt
material Meanwhile, fuel oil is heavy distillates, residues or blends is used as fuel
for production of heat and power &uel oil production at the refinery is essentially a
matter of selective blending of available components rather than of special
processing &uel oil viscosities vary widely depending on the blend of distillates and
residues Transportation sector energy use based on fuel types is given in Table 4 %
+National 'nergy Balance, %22%
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Table 4 % Transportation sector energy use based on fuel types
?ear &uel Type +!toe
6etrol Diesel AT& &uel oil NG 'lect-.E2 -%.3 E5/ %02 # 2 2-.E0 %20/ -24% 4E3 # 2 2-..2 %EE. -E%3 3%E 5- 2 2-..0 55// %-3E --0E -/ 0 2-..3 0-3- %5-/ -444 4% 5 --../ 00/5 4-23 -54/ /0 0 --..E 0E5. %4-- -3-E . 5 --... 3//E 4-/5 -5%4 -4 2 5%222 34/E 5-24 -0/5 5 / 5
%22- 3E%2 5045 -/3% 0 -5 0 -/%22% 3.52 53E2 -/E0 5 %E 5
The summation of total energy use in Table 4 % is not very similar to the data in
Table 4 - is because the are some other types of fuel are not included in the table
such as 6G and Avgas which have been used for transport fuel in a very little
"uantity Time series data for these types of fuels is also unavailable and difficult to
predict
The type of e"uivalency in energy data in Table 4 - and Table 4 % is given by
tones oil e"uivalent +toe unit across different type of fuels Toe generally refers to
energy content to one metric ton of crude oil The international table standard defines
one toe as having a net calorific value of -2 Gcal There are different definitions in
the literature for ton oil e"uivalent The one used in this study is the conversion
factor that - toe X -2 Gcal X 5- E3E GF +'IA, %225L I'A, %22%L )N, -..-
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/$/$ Met-o)o6o'.
This study uses the scenario approach for the analysis 9chwart7 +-..3 states
that scenarios are tools for ordering perceptions about alternative future
environments and the end#result might not be an accurate picture of tomorrow,
however can give better decisions about the future No matter how things might
actually turn out, both the analyst and the policy ma!er will have a scenario that
resembles a given future and that will help us thin! through both the opportunities
and the conse"uences of that future
This analysis is generally based on modeling methodologies to figure out the
potential emissions from transportation sector in Malaysia in the future &or this
purpose, initially, the type of fuel use for transportation sector should be identified
9ome of the data are already available but others have to be calculated with respect
to the county fuel consumption trend 9everal methods have been employed to
analy7e and predict unavailable data Those are linear, logarithmic, "uadratic, power
growth and exponential curve fitting &rom the calculation found that the best
method used to estimate the rest of the calculation data is polynomial curve fitting
The best fit from these methods will be used for this study The method is an attempt
to describe the relationship between variable ! as the function of available data and a
response Y ;hich see!s to find some smooth curve that best fit the data, but does
not necessarily pass through any data points Mathematically, a polynomial of order
k in ! is expressed in the following form +(lienbaum, -..E =
k k ! C 555 ! C ! C C Y ++++= %%-2 +4 -
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The pattern of emission due to the fuel changes is potential emissions released
by transportation sector in Malaysia The common gasses are consisting *8 %, 98 %,
N8 x and *8 'mission pattern of the transportation sector can be calculated by the
following e"uation=
,+ 44%%-- n pni pi pi pii FE ES 555 FE ES FE ES FE ES CF TM ++++=
+4 %
/$0$ Re (6t an) Di %( ion
There are two types of data to be analy7ed i e fuel consumption data based on
fuel type and emission data of transportation sector These fuels are 6etrol, Diesel,
AT&, Natural Gas and 'lectricity The usage of the mentioned fuels is potentially to
be increased in the future Based on the data shown in Table 4 %, using '" +4 - , the
petrol consumption by transportation sector in Malaysia from year %224 to year %2%2
can be predicted by the following e"uation=
./.0234%-4.4-%25 %%- =++= R , ! 5'236 ! Y +4 4
Based on the data shown in Table 4 %, using '" +4 - , the diesel fuel
consumption in transportation sector in Malaysia from the year %224 to %2%2 can be
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predicted The total of diesel fuel use in transportation sector can be predicted by the
following e"uation=
.-E4233--2/4%5/--2-0 %%% =+= R , ! ! Y
+4 5
The total of AT& fuel used for transportation sector in Malaysia can be
predicted by the following e"uation=
.3E/20%-0//%.5253-.5 %%4 =++= R , ! ! Y +4 0
The total of natural gas fuel uses in transportation sector in Malaysia can be
predicted by the following e"uation=
/5232-2%32020.-%/00% %%5 =+= R , ! ! Y +4 3
The total of electricity uses in transportation sector in Malaysia can be predicted
by the following e"uation=
E%-522%05240.%250E52 %%0 =+= R , ! ! Y +4 /
The results of the predicted data based on '"uations +4 4 , +4 5 , +4 0 , +4 3 and
+4 / from the year %224 to %2%2 are tabulated in Table 4 5
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Table 4 5 6redicted energy demand and fuel mix of transportation
sector in Malaysia
?ear &uel Type +!toe6etrol Diesel AT& NG 'lect Total
%224 //45 5./2 -.30 %% 3 -5 3.3%225 E-3. 04.E %2/. %0 3 -0 3/E%220 E3-3 0E5/ %-./ %. / -3 3./%223 .2/3 34-E %4-E 4% E -/ /04%22/ .05. 3E2. %55% 43 . -E E53%22E -2 245 /4%% %0/2 5- -2 -. .//%22. -2 04% /E0/ %/22 50 -- %- -50
%2-2 -- 25% E5-4 %E45 5. -4 %% 402%2-- -- 030 E..2 %./- 05 -5 %4 0.4%2-% -% -22 .0EE 4--- 0. -0 %5 E/4%2-4 -% 35E -2 %2E 4%05 35 -3 %3 -.2%2-5 -4 %2E -2 E5. 4522 /2 -E %/ 050%2-0 -4 /E- -- 0-- 4002 /0 -. %E .43%2-3 -5 43/ -% -.0 4/2% E- %2 42 433%2-/ -5 .30 -% .22 4E0E E/ %% 4- E4%%2-E -0 0/3 -4 3%3 52-/ .4 %4 44 443%2-. -3 %22 -5 4/5 5-/. -22 %0 45 E//%2%2 -3 E43 -0 -54 5455 -23 %/ 43 500
The predicted fuel percentage trend based on fuel type of energy consumption in
transportation sector in Malaysia is presented in &ig 4 -
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&igure 4 - 6redicted energy demand based on percentage fuel mix for
transportation sector in Malaysia
The small changes of energy sources for transportation sector have contributed
for emissions pattern in Malaysia To replace petrol the authority has to increase the
use of diesel This replacement can be avoided if Malaysian government plans early
The authority should switch this replacement to another renewable energy sources
such as bio#diesel or hydrogen fuel Gradual replacement of petrol and diesel with
natural gas is another alternative option since Malaysia has reserve a large amount of
this fuel and that is !nown that natural gas has lower emission than petrol and diesel
This can help to reduce emission in the future and also helps to secure Malaysia>s
energy security This is due to high cost of imported crude oil and higher cost of
conserving emissions in the future *onducting life cycle cost analysis of conserved
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emissions and investment is necessary
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&igure 4 4 6attern of 98 % and N8 x emissions production by transportation
sector in Malaysia
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Table 4 0 6otential emissions production by transportation sector in Malaysia
?ear 'missions production by transportation +Ton
*8 % 98 % N8 C *8
%224 50 22E 0%. -5-5 0%E 4./ - -3% E-E%225 5E 2-3 4-0 -02. 00. .3E - %%E E3/%220 0- -4E 05. -32/ 0.% 00. - %.3 E30%223 05 4/0 %4% -/2. 3%3 -3. - 433 E--%22/ 0/ /%3 43% -E-5 332 /.. - 54E /23%22E 3- -.- .52 -.%4 3.3 55. - 0-% 05.%22. 35 //- .3/ %240 /44 --. - 0EE 45-%2-2 3E 533 55% %-0- //2 E2E - 333 2E%%2-- /% %/0 435 %%/- E2. 0-/ - /50 //-%2-% /3 -.E /40 %4.5 E5. %50 - E%/ 52E%2-4 E2 %43 005 %0%- EE. ..4 - .-2 ..5%2-5 E5 4EE E%- %30- .4- /3- - ..3 0%E%2-0 EE 300 04/ %/E0 ./5 05E % 2E5 2--%2-3 .4 243 /22 %.%4 - 2-E 400 % -/4 554%2-/ ./ 04% 4-- 4235 - 234 -E% % %35 E%4%2-E -2% -5% 4/- 4%2. - -2. 2%E % 40E -0-%2-. -23 E33 E/E 440/ - -00 E.5 % 504 5%E%2%2 --- /20 E45 402. - %24 /E2 % 002 305
The results from Table 4 0 show that the total emissions production from %224
to %2%2 are about -,434,/45,555 tons of *8 %, 5%,E50 tons of 98 %, -0,-/4,0/% tons
of N8 x and 4%,3%3,%0% tons of *8 These are huge amount of emission for small
developing country li!e Malaysia The authorities and policyma!ers should find a
suitable policy to reduce this emission in order to contribute to (yoto 6rotocol and to
leave a better environment for future generation
/$2$ Con%6( ion
The emissions from transportation sector contributed the largest emission for the
country Government intervention to abate this emission is urgently needed at the
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present The emissions pattern from fossil fuel used in transportation sector can be
reduce by switching from fossil fuel to renewable fuel such as bio#diesel and
hydrogen fuel This policy offers solution and multiple benefits to utility, society and
most important to protect the environment Malaysian authority has to find ways to
reduce these emissions, such as by introducing emissions taxation which can be used
to subsidies renewable fuel or lower emission fuel or for replanting threes of the rain
forest in the country The increase in emissions is suspected due the increase in
vehicle population in Malaysia The greater the increase in vehicle population, the
higher would be the corresponding emissions Thus, one would have to conclude