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Abstractions and Computers and the MAL programming
Language
2CMPE12c Gabriel Hugh Elkaim
Computer Architecture
Definition: Interface between a computers hardware and its software. Defines exactly what the computer’s instructions do, and how they are specified.
Instruction Set Architecture (ISA)
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MIPSmachine language
TALMALSAL
• SAL – Simple Abstract Language• MAL – MIPS Assembly Language• TAL – True Assemble Language
Computer Architecture
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HighLevel
Language
AssemblyLanguage
MachineLanguage
Compiler Assembler
Compiler: A computer program that translates code written in a high level language into an intermediate level abstract language.
Computer Architecture
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Computer Science
Definition: Fundamentally the study of algorithms and data structures.
Abstraction: Use of level of abstraction in software design allows the programmer to focus on a critical set of problems without having to deal with irrelevant details.
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Procedure or Function
int average (a, b)begin
avg = (a+b)/2;
return (avg);end
main ()…x = 4;y = 2;k = average (x,y);printf (“%d”, k);…
Computer Science
7CMPE12c Gabriel Hugh Elkaim
CPU(MIPS)
Computer
MemoryWrite data
Read data
Control info
CPU Interacts with the memory in 3 ways:• fetches instructions• loads the value of a variable• stores the new value of a variable
Memory is capable of only 2 operations:• reads – a load or a fetch• writes – operation of a storing the value of a variable
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Instruction Fetch / Execute Cycle
In addition to input & output a program also:
•Evaluates arithmetic & logical functions to determine values to assign to variable.•Determines the order of execution of the statements in the program.
In assembly this distinction is captured in the notion of Arithmetic, logical, and control instructions.
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Arithmetic and logical instructions evaluate variables and assign new values to variables.
Control instructions test or compare values of a variable and makes decisions about what instruction is to be executed next.
Program Counter (PC)Basically the address at which the current executing instruction exists.
Instruction Fetch / Execute Cycle
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1. load rega, 102. load regb, 203. add regc, rega, regb4. beq regc, regd, 85. store regd, rege6. store regc, regd7. load regb, 158. load rega, 30
PC
Instruction Fetch / Execute Cycle
Address
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The CPU begins the execution of an instruction by supplying the value of the PC to the memory & initiating a read operation (fetch).
The CPU “decodes” the instruction by identifying the opcode and the operands.
PC increments automatically unless a control instruction is used.
Instruction Fetch / Execute Cycle
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• CPU Fetches Instruction• Decodes it and sees it is an add
operation, needs to get values for the variables “B” & “C”
• CPU executes a load operation, gives address of variable “B”
• Does the same for variable “C”• Does the “add” operation and stores the
result in location of variable “A”
Instruction Fetch / Execute Cycle
For example:
PC add A, B, C
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Branch – like a goto instruction, next instruction to be fetched & executed is an instruction other than the next in memory.
Instruction Fetch / Execute Cycle
add A, B, Cbeq A, 5, fredsub A, D, 3
fred: sub A, D, 4
If A==5 then next instruction is at fred
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Breaking down an instruction
add a, b, c
a b cadd
Opcode
Destination register
Source registers
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Locality of reference
We need techniques to reduce the instruction size. From observation of programs we see that a small and predictable set of variables tend to be referenced much more often than other variables.
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Basically, locality is an indication that memory is not referenced randomly.
This is where the use of registers comes into play.
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Registers and MAL
ALURegister
ArrayMemory CtrlData cacheInst. cache
IO
Memory(disk)
Program “code” is in memory (or cache), use registers to hold commonly used variables for faster execution
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CISC vs. RISC
CISC : complex instruction set computerLots of instructions of variable size, very memory optimal, typically less registers.
RISC : reduced instruction set computerLess instructions all of a fixed size, more registers, optimized for speed. Usually a “Load/Store” architecture.
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Specifying addresses
For a load/store architecture, registers are used to supply source operands and receive results from all instructions except loads and stores.
Basically, load the registers with the operands from memory first, then perform the operation.
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How do we fit the “stuff” in 32-bit instructions?
So we have arithmetic instructions and branch type instructions that cannot contain all the needed info in a single 32-bit word.
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opcode addressregreg Effective
address
2. Instruction might specify a register that contains the address, 1 word instruction.
1. Instruction might occupy 2 words.
opcode addressregEffectiveaddress
Ways to get an effective address
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3. Instruction might specify a small constant and a second register, 1 word instruction.
opcode reg constant
addressreg + Effective address
Effective Address Calculation
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4. The instruction might specify 2 additional registers, 1 word instruction.
opcode reg reg
addressreg addressreg
+
Effective address
Effective Address Calculation
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Addressing modes
Methods a computer uses to specify an address within an instruction.
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• Immediate– The operand is contained directly in
the instruction. Ex: li reg1, 5
• Register– The operand is contained in a
register. Ex: add reg1, reg2, reg3
• Direct– The address of the operand is
contained in the instruction (two-word instruction)
Addressing Modes
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• Register Direct– The address of the operand is
contained in a register. Ex: lw reg1, reg3
• Base Displacement– The address is computed as the sum of
the contents of a register (the base) and a constant contained in the instruction (the displacement). Ex: lw reg1, 5(reg3)
Addressing Modes
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• IndirectThe instruction specifies a register
containing an address the content of which is the address of the operand
opcode reg
address
address
reg
Effective address
Memoryaddress
Addressing Modes
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MAL
2 distinct register files:
• 32 general registers• 16 floating point registers
(MIPS Assembly Language)
MIPS is a load/store RISC architecture
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The 32 general registers are numbered $0 - $31.
$0 is always the value “Zero”.
$1 is used by the assembler.
$26 & $27 are used by the operating system.
$28, $29, & $31 have special conventions for the use of them.
MAL
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Common aliases for registers
$2-$3 $v0-$v1 procedure results$4-$7 $a0-$a3 parameters for
procedure$8-$15 $t0-$t7 temporary registers$24-$25 $t8-$t9$16-$23 $s0-$s7 saved registers$30 $s8$29 $sp stack pointer$31 $ra return address register
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The 16 floating point registers are intended exclusively for holding floating point operands. These registers are 64-bits in size for holding both single precision (32-bit) floats and double precision (64-bit) floats.
These registers are named $f0, $f2, $f4,…., $f30.
Why?
MAL
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MAL uses a single, versatile addressing mode for its regular load store.
Base displacement.
General since its special cases provide for both direct and register direct address.
MAL
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MAL has 3 basic types:
• Integer• Floating point• Character
Syntax of MAL
one instruction, declaration per linecomments are anything on a line following #comments may not span lines
MAL Syntax
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“C”type variablename;
“MAL”variablename: type value
type is.word (integer).byte (character).float (floating point)
value is optional – the initial value
MAL Syntax
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Examples:flag: .word 0counter: .word 0variable3: .worde: .float 2.71828uservalue: .byteletter: .byte ‘a’
•One declaration per line•Default initial value is 0(but you may lose points if you depend on this)
MAL Syntax
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Directives give information to the assembler. All directives start with ‘.’ (period)
Examples:.byte.word.floatmain:
# tells simulator to start execution at this location..data
# .data identifies the start of the declaration section # there can be more than 1 .data sections in a program.
MAL Syntax
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.text# identifies where instructions are, there can
be # more than 1 .text sections in a program
.asciiz “a string.\n” # places a string into memory and null
terminates# the string
.ascii “new string.”# places a string into memory with no null# termination.
MAL Syntax
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MAL lw $s1, x lw $s2, y move $s3, $s2 add $s3, $s1, $s2 sub $s3, $s1, $s2 mul $s3, $s1, $s2 div $s3, $s1, $s2 rem $s3, $s1, $s2 sw $s3, z
C
z = y; z = x + y; z = x - y; z = x * y; z = x / y;
z = x % y;
An immediate is a value specified in an instruction, not in the .data section.Examples: li $s2, 0 # load immediate
add $s2, $s2, 3 # add immediate
MAL Syntax
40CMPE12c Gabriel Hugh Elkaim
Simple MAL program
.data avg: .word 0 i1: .word 20 i2: .word 13 i3: .word 2 .textmain:
lw $s1, i1 lw $s2, i2 lw $s3, i3 add $s4, $s1, $s2
div $s4, $s4, $s3 sw $s4, avg li $2, 10 # done cmd syscall
MAL Program
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• Assembler translates to executable– machine language
• Linker combines multiple MAL files• Loader puts executable into
memory and makes the CPU jump to the first instruction “main:”– Executes– When done returns to OS
• Simulator or Monitor
• To rerun with different data, repeat the process
Program Execution
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HLL – if/else statements…
if (condition) statement;
else statement;
“C” if (count < 0) count = count + 1;
MAL Programming
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“MAL” lw $t1, countbltz $t1, ifstuffb endif
ifstuff: add $t1, $t1, 1 endif: # next instruction goes here
“OR” lw $t1, countbgez $t1, endifadd $t1, $t1, 1
endif: # next instruction goes here
MAL Programming
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Loops can be built out of IF’s – WHILE:
“C” while (count > 0)
{a = a % count;
count--;}
MAL Programming
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“MAL”
lw $s1, countlw $s2, a
while: blez $s1, endwhilerem $s2, $s2, $s1sub $s1, $s1, 1b while
endwhile: sw $s2, asw $s1, count
MAL Programming
46CMPE12c Gabriel Hugh Elkaim
Repeat loops
“C”/* do statement while expression is TRUE *//* when expression is FALSE, exit loop */do {
if (a < b)a++;
if (a > b)a--;
} while (a != b)
MAL Programming
47CMPE12c Gabriel Hugh Elkaim
“MAL”lw $s3, alw $s4, b
repeat: bge $s3, $s4, secondifadd $s3, $s3, 1
secondif: ble $s3, $s4, untilsub $s3, $s3, 1
until: bne $s3, $s4, repeat
MAL Programming
48CMPE12c Gabriel Hugh Elkaim
While Loops (Part II)
“C”while ( (count < limit) && (c ==d) )
{ /* loop’s code goes here */}“MAL”
while: ??
# loop code goes here ?
endwhile:
MAL Programming
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For loops
“C”for ( I = 3; I <= 8; I++)
{ a = a+I;}“MAL”
?for: ?
???
endfor:
MAL Programming
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Procedure Calls
Simple procedure calls require 2 instructions:
“JR” Jump Register• Be careful with registers!!• Cannot nest unless $ra is saved elsewhere• Cannot be recursive without a stack
“JAL” Jump and Link•Link means save the return address in $ra ($31)
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MAL Procedures
jal average # calls proc.
…
average: add $s2, $s3, $s4div $s2, $s2, 2jr $ra # returns
Example
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Operating System Calls
Use $2 ($v0) to pass code to OSUse $4 ($a0) to pass data to OSUse “syscall” instruction to call OS
Very tedious and dangerous for a programmer to deal with IO. This is why we like to have an OS. Need an instruction though to get its attention.
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Code ($v0) Function Usage & Result
1 Print Integer Put integer in $a0
2Print Float
Put floating point number in $f12
3 Print Double Put double in $f12
4 Print String Put address of string into $a0
5 Read Integer Returns integer read in $v0
6 Read Float Returns float read in $f0
7 Read Double Returns double read in $f0
8Read String
Put address in $a0, length in $a1
10 Exit Quits program
11 Print Character
Put character in $a0
12 Get Character Returns character in $v0
Operating System Codes
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To print a character# address of the char must be in $s0lb $a0, ($s0)# $4 char to be printedli $v0, 11 # code for putcsyscall
To read in a character
li $v0, 12 # code for getcsyscall # character returned
# in $v0
SYS Calls Examples
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To end your program
li $v0, 10 # code for donesyscall
SYS Calls Examples
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