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Alterations of Musculoskeletal FunctionChapter 42
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Musculoskeletal Injuries Fractures
A fracture is a break in the continuity of a bone Classifications
Complete or incomplete Closed or open
Comminuted Linear Oblique Spiral
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Fracture Classifications Transverse Greenstick Torus Bowing Pathologic Stress
Fatigue and insufficiency Transchondral
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Fractures
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Bone Fractures A broken bone can cause damage to the
surrounding tissue, the periosteum, and the blood vessels in the cortex and marrow Hematoma formation
Bone tissue destruction triggers an inflammatory response
Procallus formation
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Callus Formation
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Bone Fractures Manifestations
Unnatural alignment, swelling, muscle spasm, tenderness, pain, impaired sensation, and possible muscle spasms
Treatment Closed manipulation, traction, and open reduction
Improper reduction or immobilization Nonunion, delayed union, and malunion
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Treatment
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Treatment
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Treatment
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Bone Fractures Dislocation
Temporary displacement of two bones Loss of contact between articular cartilage
Subluxation Contact between articular surfaces is only
partially lost Dislocation and subluxation are associated
with fractures, muscle imbalance, rheumatoid arthritis, or other forms of joint instability
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Support Structure Injuries Strain
Tear or injury to a tendon Sprain
Tear or injury to a ligament Avulsion
Complete separation of a tendon or ligament from its bony attachment site
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Tendinopathy and Bursitis Tendinitis
Inflammation of a tendon Tendinosis
Painful degradation of collagen fibers Bursitis
Inflammation of a bursa Skin over bone, skin over muscle, and muscle and tendon over
bone Caused by repeated trauma Septic bursitis is caused by a wound infection
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Tendinopathy and Bursitis Epicondylitis
Inflammation of a tendon where it attaches to a bone Tennis elbow (lateral epicondylitis) Golfer’s elbow (medial epicondylitis)
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Tendinitis and Epicondylitis
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Tendinitis and Epicondylitis
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Muscle Strain Sudden, forced motion causing the muscle to
become stretched beyond its normal capacity Local muscle damage Muscle strains can also involve the tendons
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Myositis Ossificans Complication of local muscle injury Inflammation of muscular tissue with
subsequent calcification and ossification of the muscle “Rider’s bone” in equestrians “Drill bone” in infantry soldiers Thigh muscles in football players
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Rhabdomyolysis Rhabdomyolysis (myoglobinuria) is a life-
threatening complication of severe muscle trauma with muscle cell loss Crush syndrome Compartment syndromes
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Osteoporosis Porous bone Poorly mineralized bone Bone density
Normal bone 833 mg/cm2
Osteopenic bone 833 to 648 mg/cm2
Osteoporosis <648 mg/cm2
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Osteoporosis Potential causes
Decreased levels of estrogen and testosterone Decreased activity level Inadequate levels of vitamins D and C, or Mg++
Demonstrated by reduced bone mass/density and an imbalance of bone resorption and formation
Bone histology is usually normal but it lacks structural integrity
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Osteoporosis
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Osteoporosis
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Osteoporosis
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Osteoporosis Perimenopausal osteoporosis Iatrogenic osteoporosis Regional osteoporosis Postmenopausal osteoporosis Glucocorticoid-induced osteoporosis Age-related bone loss
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Osteomalacia Deficiency of vitamin D lowers the
absorption of calcium from the intestines Inadequate or delayed mineralization Bone formation progresses to osteoid
formation but calcification does not occur; the result is soft bones Pain, bone fractures, vertebral collapse, bone
malformation
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Paget Disease Also called osteitis deformans Excessive resorption of spongy bone and accelerated
formation of softened bone Disorganized, thickened, but soft bones Most often affects the axial skeleton Thickened bones can cause abnormal bone
curvatures, brain compression, impaired motor function, deafness, atrophy of the optic nerve, etc.
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Osteomyelitis Osteomyelitis is most often caused by a
staphylococcal infection Most common cause is open wound (exogenous); also
can be from a blood-borne (endogenous) infection Manifestations
Acute and chronic inflammation, fever, pain, necrotic bone Treatment
Antibiotics, débridement, surgery, hyperbaric oxygen therapy
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Osteomyelitis
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Bone Tumors May originate from bone cells, cartilage,
fibrous tissue, marrow, or vascular tissue Osteogenic, chrondrogenic, collagenic, and
myelogenic Malignant bone tumors
Increased nuclear/cytoplasmic ratio, irregular borders, excess chromatin, a prominent nucleolus, and an increase in the mitotic rate
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Bone Tumors
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Bone Tumors Patterns of bone destruction
Geographic pattern Moth-eaten pattern Permeative pattern
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Bone Tumors Osteosarcoma
38% of bone tumors Predominant in adolescents and young adults;
occurs in seniors if they have a history of radiation therapy
Contain masses of osteoid “Streamers”: noncalcified bone matrix and callus
Located in the metaphyses of long bones 50% occur around the knees
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Osteosarcoma
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Bone Tumors Chondrosarcoma
Tumor of middle-aged and older adults Infiltrates trabeculae in spongy bone; frequent in
the metaphyses or diaphysis of long bones The tumor contains lobules of hyaline cartilage
that expand and enlarge the bone Causes erosion of the cortex and can expand into
the neighboring soft tissues
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Chondrosarcoma
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Bone Tumors Fibrosarcoma
Firm, fibrous mass of collagen, malignant fibroblasts, and osteoclast-like cells
Usually affects metaphyses of the femur or tibia Metastasis to the lungs is common
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Bone Tumors Myelogenic tumors
Giant cell tumor Causes extensive bone resorption due to the
osteoclastic origin of the giant cells Located in the epiphyses of the femur, tibia, radius, or
humerus The tumor has a slow, relentless growth rate
Myeloma
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Giant Cell Tumor
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Inflammatory vs. Noninflammatory Joint Disease
Differentiated by: Absence of synovial membrane inflammation Lack of systemic signs and symptoms Normal synovial fluid analysis
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Osteoarthritis Degeneration and loss of articular cartilage,
sclerosis of bone underneath cartilage, and formation of bone spurs (osteophytes)
Also referred to as degenerative joint disease Incidence increases with age Primary disease is idiopathic
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Osteoarthritis Osteoarthritis is characterized by local areas
of damage and loss of articular cartilage, new bone formation of joint margins, subchondral bone changes, and variable degrees of mild synovitus and thickening of the joint capsule
Manifestations Pain, stiffness, enlargement of the joint,
tenderness, limited motion, and deformity
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Osteoarthritis
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Osteoarthritis
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Inflammatory Joint Disease Commonly called arthritis Characterized by inflammatory damage or
destruction in the synovial membrane or articular cartilage and by systemic signs of inflammation Fever, leukocytosis, malaise, anorexia, and
hyperfibrinogenemia Infectious or noninfectious
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Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA) Inflammatory joint disease Systemic autoimmune damage to connective tissue,
primarily in the joints (synovial membrane) Similar symptoms to osteoarthritis Presence of rheumatoid factors (RA or RF test)
Antibodies (IgG and IgM) against antibodies Joint fluid presents with inflammatory exudate
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Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA) Pathogenesis
CD4 T helper cells and other cells in the synovial fluid become activated and release cytokines
Recruitment and retention of inflammatory cells in the joint sublining region
Viscous cycle of altered cytokine and signal transduction pathways
Possible immune complex deposition and inflammatory cytokine release
RANKL release and osteoclast activation Angiogenesis in the synovium
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Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA) Evaluation (4 or more of the following)
Morning joint stiffness lasting at least 1 hour Arthritis of three or more joint areas Arthritis of the hand joints Symmetric arthritis Rheumatoid nodules Abnormal amounts of serum rheumatoid factor Radiographic changes
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Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA)
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Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA)
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Ankylosing Spondylitis (AS) Inflammatory joint disease of the spine or sacroiliac
joints causing stiffening and fusion of the joints Systemic, immune inflammatory disease Primary proposed site is the enthesis
Site where ligaments, tendons, and the joint capsule are inserted into bone
Cause unknown, but there is a strong association with HLA-B27 antigen
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Ankylosing Spondylitis (AS) Begins with the inflammation of fibrocartilage,
particularly in the vertebrae and sacroiliac joint Inflammatory cells infiltrate and erode fibrocartilage As repair begins, the scar tissue ossifies and calcifies;
the joint eventually fuses Early symptoms
Low back pain, stiffness, pain, and restricted motion Patient demonstrates loss of normal lumbar curvature
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Ankylosing Spondylitis (AS)
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Gout Metabolic disorder that disrupts the body’s control
of uric acid production or excretion Gout manifests high levels of uric acid in the blood
and other body fluids Occurs when the uric acid concentration increases to
high enough levels to crystallize Crystals deposit in connective tissues throughout the
body When these crystals occur in the synovial fluid, the
inflammation is known as “gouty arthritis”
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Gout Gout is related to purine (adenine and
guanine) metabolism Affected patients can have accelerated purine
synthesis, breakdown, or poor uric acid secretion in the kidneys
Mechanisms for crystal deposition Lower body temperatures, decreased albumin or
glycosaminoglycan levels, changes in ion concentration and pH, and trauma
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Gout Clinical stages
Asymptomatic hyperuricemia Acute gouty arthritis Tophaceous gout
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Gout
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Gout
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Disorders of Skeletal Muscle Contracture
Muscle fiber shortening without an action potential
Caused by failure of the sarcoplasmic reticulum (calcium pump) even with available ATP
Stress-induced muscle tension Neck stiffness, back pain, clenching teeth, hand
grip, and headache Associated with chronic anxiety
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Fibromyalgia Chronic widespread joint and muscle pain Vague symptoms
Increased sensitivity to touch, absence of inflammation, fatigue, and sleep disturbances
Possible factors Flulike viral illness, chronic fatigue syndrome,
HIV infection, Lyme disease, medications, physical or emotional trauma
Scientific studies are unclear
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Fibromyalgia
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Disuse Atrophy Reduction in the normal size of muscle cells
due to prolonged inactivity Bed rest, trauma, casting, or nerve damage
Treatment Isometric movements and passive lengthening
exercises
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Muscle Membrane Abnormalities Myotonia Periodic paralysis
Hypokalemic periodic paralysis Hyperkalemic periodic paralysis
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Diseases of Energy Metabolism McArdle disease
Myophosphorylase deficiency Acid maltase deficiency
Pompe disease Myoadenylate deaminase deficiency (MDD) Lipid deficiencies
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Polymyositis and Dermatomyositis Collectively described by the term myositis Viral, bacterial, and parasitic myositis
Staphylococcus aureus infections Trichinosis
Trichinella infection
Toxoplasmosis Polymyositis and dermatomyositis
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Polymyositis and Dermatomyositis
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Toxic Myopathies The most common cause of toxic myopathy is
alcohol abuse Acute attack of muscle weakness, pain, and
swelling Chronic weakness in a drinker of long duration Necrosis of individual muscle fibers
Disturbance of energy turnover, gene dysregulation, and initiation of apoptosis
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Muscle Tumors Rhabdomyosarcoma
Malignant tumor of striated muscle Usually muscles of the tongue, neck, larynx,
nasal cavity, axilla, vulva, and heart Highly malignant with rapid metastasis Types
Pleomorphic, embryonal, and alveolar