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Page 1: 1. Association Association JM Last: A dictionary of epidemiology 2 Statistical dependence between 2 or more events, characteristics, or other variables.

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Page 2: 1. Association Association JM Last: A dictionary of epidemiology 2 Statistical dependence between 2 or more events, characteristics, or other variables.

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AssociationJM Last: A dictionary of epidemiology

Statistical dependence between 2 or more events, characteristics, or other variables.

An association is present if the probability of occurrence of an event or characteristic, or the quantity of a variable, depends upon the occurrence of one or more other events, the presence of one or more other characteristics, or the quantity of one or more other variables.

Page 3: 1. Association Association JM Last: A dictionary of epidemiology 2 Statistical dependence between 2 or more events, characteristics, or other variables.

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זיהוי אטיולוגיה – חיפוש קשרים

החיפוש אחר גורמים אטיולוגים הוא החיפוש אחרסיבתיות.

על מנת שגורם יהיה גורם סיכון סיבתי, חייב להיותקשר בין חשיפה אליו לבין התוצאים המדוברים

)מחלות(

Page 4: 1. Association Association JM Last: A dictionary of epidemiology 2 Statistical dependence between 2 or more events, characteristics, or other variables.

Relationship between asbestos exposure (particle-years) and relative risk of lung cancer

Page 5: 1. Association Association JM Last: A dictionary of epidemiology 2 Statistical dependence between 2 or more events, characteristics, or other variables.

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Correlation between dietary fat intake and breast cancer by country

Per Capita Supply of Fat Calories

Page 6: 1. Association Association JM Last: A dictionary of epidemiology 2 Statistical dependence between 2 or more events, characteristics, or other variables.

Annual mortality (per 1000 men) from all causes related to alcohol consumption

Page 7: 1. Association Association JM Last: A dictionary of epidemiology 2 Statistical dependence between 2 or more events, characteristics, or other variables.

Ischaemic heart disease

Page 8: 1. Association Association JM Last: A dictionary of epidemiology 2 Statistical dependence between 2 or more events, characteristics, or other variables.

Direction of AssociationPositive: occurrence of higher value of a “predictor” )independent( variable is associated with occurrence of higher value of the “outcome” )dependent( variable

Negative: occurrence of higher value of a predictor variable is associated with lower value of another dependent variable.

Page 9: 1. Association Association JM Last: A dictionary of epidemiology 2 Statistical dependence between 2 or more events, characteristics, or other variables.

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נתרכז בקשר בין שני משתנים –

משתנים דיכוטומיים

מחלהבקשר חשיפה-

Page 10: 1. Association Association JM Last: A dictionary of epidemiology 2 Statistical dependence between 2 or more events, characteristics, or other variables.

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Estimating Measures of Association or Effect

המטרה:

להשוות שכיחותה של מחלה

)המצאות/הארעות( בין קבוצת

החשופים לקבוצת הלא-חשופים

Page 11: 1. Association Association JM Last: A dictionary of epidemiology 2 Statistical dependence between 2 or more events, characteristics, or other variables.

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מחלה + מחלה -

חשופים לא חשופים

מחלה + מחלה -

Page 12: 1. Association Association JM Last: A dictionary of epidemiology 2 Statistical dependence between 2 or more events, characteristics, or other variables.

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הקשר בין חשיפה למחלה

Disease Exposure Yes No Yes a b No c d

a+b=n1

c+d=n2

a+c=m1 b+d=m2

Page 13: 1. Association Association JM Last: A dictionary of epidemiology 2 Statistical dependence between 2 or more events, characteristics, or other variables.

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אם קיים קשר בין חשיפה למחלה אז...

מחלה +מחלה -

חשופים לא חשופים

מחלה +מחלה -

Page 14: 1. Association Association JM Last: A dictionary of epidemiology 2 Statistical dependence between 2 or more events, characteristics, or other variables.

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אם קיים קשר נצפה ל:

משיעור ההארעות השונהשיעור הארעות בחשופים בלא חשופים

אם החשיפה היא לגורם סיכון – שיעור הארעות מאשר גבוה יותרהמחלה בחשופים יהיה

בלא-חשופיםI exposed > I non-exposed

Re > R0

Re - R0>0

Re/R0 >1

Page 15: 1. Association Association JM Last: A dictionary of epidemiology 2 Statistical dependence between 2 or more events, characteristics, or other variables.

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אם החשיפה היא לגורם מגן

נמוך יותרשיעור הארעות המחלה בחשופים יהיה מאשר בלא-חשופים

I exposed > I non-exposed

Re > R0

Re – R0<0

Re/R0 <1

Page 16: 1. Association Association JM Last: A dictionary of epidemiology 2 Statistical dependence between 2 or more events, characteristics, or other variables.

Measures of Association

Difference measures: Comparison of absolute differences between groups

Relative )ratio( measures: Comparison of relative differences between groups

Page 17: 1. Association Association JM Last: A dictionary of epidemiology 2 Statistical dependence between 2 or more events, characteristics, or other variables.

20-year follow-up of smokers & non-smokers for the development of CHD

CHD

Total - +

3000 2916 84 +Smoking

5000 4913 87 -

Incidence in total population??? =

Incidence in total population = (84 + 87 / )8000 = 2.1%

Page 18: 1. Association Association JM Last: A dictionary of epidemiology 2 Statistical dependence between 2 or more events, characteristics, or other variables.

20-year follow-up of smokers & non-smokers for the development of CHD

CHD

Total - +

3000 2916 84 +Smoking

5000 4913 87 -

Incidence in exposed )smokers(??? =

Incidence in exposed+ = 84/3000 = 28.0/1000

Page 19: 1. Association Association JM Last: A dictionary of epidemiology 2 Statistical dependence between 2 or more events, characteristics, or other variables.

20-year follow-up of smokers & non-smokers for the development of CHD

CHD

Total - +

3000 2916 84 +Smoking

5000 4913 87 -

Incidence in unexposed )nonsmokers(??? =

Incidence in exposed- = 87/5000 = 17.4/1000

Page 20: 1. Association Association JM Last: A dictionary of epidemiology 2 Statistical dependence between 2 or more events, characteristics, or other variables.

Risk Difference/Attributable Risk

How much of the disease can be attributed to the specific exposure?

CHD

Total - +

3000 2916 84 +Smoking

5000 4913 87 -

Page 21: 1. Association Association JM Last: A dictionary of epidemiology 2 Statistical dependence between 2 or more events, characteristics, or other variables.

Incidence in exposed+ = 28.0/1000Incidence in exposed- = 17.4/1000

RD = 28.0-17.4 = 10.6/1000

Among every 10,000 smokers, 106 more CHD cases develop than among 10,000 non-smokers

CHD

Total - +

3000 2916 84 +Smoking

5000 4913 87 -

Page 22: 1. Association Association JM Last: A dictionary of epidemiology 2 Statistical dependence between 2 or more events, characteristics, or other variables.

Risk Difference

RD > 0 = positive association

RD = 0 = no association

RD < 0 = negative association

Page 23: 1. Association Association JM Last: A dictionary of epidemiology 2 Statistical dependence between 2 or more events, characteristics, or other variables.

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Rate Ratio

RR = Incidence rate among the exposed

Incidence rate among the unexposed

במחקרי קוהורט מכיוון ששיעורי ההארעות הם מדד Relative Risk גם סיכון יחסי – RRלסיכון ניתן לקרוא ל

Page 24: 1. Association Association JM Last: A dictionary of epidemiology 2 Statistical dependence between 2 or more events, characteristics, or other variables.

Relative Risk or Risk Ratio

Incidence in exposed+ = 28.0/1000Incidence in exposed- = 17.4/1000

RR = 28.0÷17.4 = 1.61

Risk for CHD among smokers is 1.6 times higher than among non-smokers

CHD

Total - +

3000 2916 84 +Smoking

5000 4913 87 -

Page 25: 1. Association Association JM Last: A dictionary of epidemiology 2 Statistical dependence between 2 or more events, characteristics, or other variables.

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If RR = 1 Risk in exposed equal to risk in unexposed (no association).

If RR > 1 Risk in exposed greater than risk in unexposed (positive association; possibly causal).

If RR < 1 Risk in exposed less than risk in unexposed (negative association; possibly protective).

Relative Risk

Page 26: 1. Association Association JM Last: A dictionary of epidemiology 2 Statistical dependence between 2 or more events, characteristics, or other variables.

RR tells us about the strength of association between exposure and outcome, but not about the magnitude of absolute risk (incidence)

Page 27: 1. Association Association JM Last: A dictionary of epidemiology 2 Statistical dependence between 2 or more events, characteristics, or other variables.

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Relationship between Serum Cholesterol Levels and Risk of CHD by Age and Sex: Framingham Study during 12 years

Serum Cholesterol (mg/100 ml)

Men

Women

30-49 yr 50-62 yr 30-49 yr 50-62 yr Incidence Rates (per 1,000)

<190 38.2 105.7 11.1 155.2 190-219 44.1 187.5 9.1 88.9 220-249 95.0 201.1 24.3 96.3

250+ 157.5 267.8 50.4 121.5 Relative Risks *

<190 1.0 2.8 0.3 4.1 190-219 1.2 4.9 0.2 2.3 220-249 2.5 5.3 0.6 2.5

250+ 4.1 7.0 1.3 3.2 .

Page 28: 1. Association Association JM Last: A dictionary of epidemiology 2 Statistical dependence between 2 or more events, characteristics, or other variables.

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BW N. Died Person-years

Mortality Rate (per 1000)

Relative Risk

<2500 202 83,502 2.42 1.29 2500-4000

2153 1,153,656 1.87 1.00

>4000 220 72,990 3.01 1.61

Example

Birth weight of offspring and maternal mortality- results from the JPS (Annals of

Epidemiology 2007)

Page 29: 1. Association Association JM Last: A dictionary of epidemiology 2 Statistical dependence between 2 or more events, characteristics, or other variables.

Odds: • The ratio of the probability of

occurrence of an event to that of nonoccurrence )Last, DoE(

• The ratio of the probability that something will occur, to the probability that it will not occur

[Abramson, MSoD]

Odds Ratio )or Relative Odds(

Page 30: 1. Association Association JM Last: A dictionary of epidemiology 2 Statistical dependence between 2 or more events, characteristics, or other variables.

“Odds is understood intuitively only by statisticians and professional

gamblers”

Page 31: 1. Association Association JM Last: A dictionary of epidemiology 2 Statistical dependence between 2 or more events, characteristics, or other variables.

ODDS

The odds of Epi Beauty winning the race = the probability of Epi Beauty winningthe probability of Epi Beauty losing

Gordis, 2008

Page 32: 1. Association Association JM Last: A dictionary of epidemiology 2 Statistical dependence between 2 or more events, characteristics, or other variables.

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מוגדר odds, ה- Pאירוע שהסתברותו p1כ-

podds

Odds Ratio

במידה וסיכוייו של אירוע הם הרי : 50%

1p1

podds

60%במידה והסיכויים הם :הרי

5.14.0

6.0odds

Page 33: 1. Association Association JM Last: A dictionary of epidemiology 2 Statistical dependence between 2 or more events, characteristics, or other variables.

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Odds Ratio

12

21

22

11

1

1

qp

qp

)p/p(

)p/p(OR

OR :ניתן לחישוב בכל סוגי המחקר מחקרים פרוספקטיבים, מחקרים רטרוספקטיבים

ומחקרי חתך

Page 34: 1. Association Association JM Last: A dictionary of epidemiology 2 Statistical dependence between 2 or more events, characteristics, or other variables.

Odds Ratioodds in exposed+ = 84/2916 = 28.8/1000odds in exposed- = 87/4913 =17.7/1000

OR = 28.8÷17.7 = 1.63

ODDS for CHD among smokers is 1.63 times higher than among non-smokers

CHD

Total - +

3000 2916 84 +Smoking

5000 4913 87 -

Page 35: 1. Association Association JM Last: A dictionary of epidemiology 2 Statistical dependence between 2 or more events, characteristics, or other variables.

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דוגמא:

קשר בין גיל האם ומשקל לידה

ʬʩʢʭʠʤ

ʤʣʩʬʬʷʹ ʮ ʫ"ʤɦ

2500> 2500< 20 > 20 80 100

20 30 270 300

Odds Ratio

Page 36: 1. Association Association JM Last: A dictionary of epidemiology 2 Statistical dependence between 2 or more events, characteristics, or other variables.

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שאם צעירה תלד תינוק במשקל Oddsה -נמוך- נאמוד ע"י :

25.0100/80

100/20

שאם שאינה צעירה תלד תינוק Oddsה -במשקל נמוך – נאמוד ע"י :

11.0300/270

300/30

Odds

Page 37: 1. Association Association JM Last: A dictionary of epidemiology 2 Statistical dependence between 2 or more events, characteristics, or other variables.

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בדוגמא

+ 2500 לידות במשקל 4- לכל אצל נשים צעירותלאמהות צעירות, יש לידה אחת במשקל של

גרם.2500פחות מ –

לידות במשקל של 9- לכל אצל נשים מבוגרות+ לאמהות מבוגרות, יש לידה אחת במשקל 2500

גרם. 2500של פחות מ –

Odds

Page 38: 1. Association Association JM Last: A dictionary of epidemiology 2 Statistical dependence between 2 or more events, characteristics, or other variables.

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Odds Ratio

-יחס הOdds ללידת תינוק במשקל נמוך בהשוואת נשים צעירות לנשים מבוגרות הוא לפיכך:

OR=0.25/0.11=2.25

Page 39: 1. Association Association JM Last: A dictionary of epidemiology 2 Statistical dependence between 2 or more events, characteristics, or other variables.

Prospective study )Disease OR(

Ratio of odds of outcome in exposed )a/b( to the odds of outcome in the

unexposed )c/d(:

a/bad

c/dbc =

Odds Ratio )OR(

exposure

outcomea b

c d

Page 40: 1. Association Association JM Last: A dictionary of epidemiology 2 Statistical dependence between 2 or more events, characteristics, or other variables.

community

sample

Page 41: 1. Association Association JM Last: A dictionary of epidemiology 2 Statistical dependence between 2 or more events, characteristics, or other variables.

OR in a retrospective study

+

Exposure-

Outcome+ -

a b

c d

Page 42: 1. Association Association JM Last: A dictionary of epidemiology 2 Statistical dependence between 2 or more events, characteristics, or other variables.

OR in a retrospective study

+

Exposure-

Outcome+ -

a b

c d

Page 43: 1. Association Association JM Last: A dictionary of epidemiology 2 Statistical dependence between 2 or more events, characteristics, or other variables.

Retrospective study )Exposure OR(:

Ratio of odds of exposure in cases )a/c( to the odds of exposure in controls )b/d(:

a/c ad

b/d bc=

exposure

outcomea b

c d

Page 44: 1. Association Association JM Last: A dictionary of epidemiology 2 Statistical dependence between 2 or more events, characteristics, or other variables.

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a b

c d

Cases (with disease)

Controls (without disease)

History of Exposure

No history of Exposure Ratio Odds

exposed wascontrol a that Odds

exposed wascase a that Odds

bc

ad

d/b

c/a

Odds Ratio )OR(

Page 45: 1. Association Association JM Last: A dictionary of epidemiology 2 Statistical dependence between 2 or more events, characteristics, or other variables.

Odds Ratio

OR > 1 = positive association

OR = 1 = no association

OR < 1 = negative association

Page 46: 1. Association Association JM Last: A dictionary of epidemiology 2 Statistical dependence between 2 or more events, characteristics, or other variables.

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OR-RR

Iדוגמא

2000,10/100

000,10/200RR

02.29800100

9900200OR

200 9800

100

9900

D N.D

Ex

Not Ex

10,000

10,000

Page 47: 1. Association Association JM Last: A dictionary of epidemiology 2 Statistical dependence between 2 or more events, characteristics, or other variables.

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OR RR

IIדוגמא

50 50

25 75

D N.D

Ex

Not Ex

100

100

RR = 2

OR =3

דומים RR, ORבמחלה נדירה – מאד.

Page 48: 1. Association Association JM Last: A dictionary of epidemiology 2 Statistical dependence between 2 or more events, characteristics, or other variables.

OR RR when…1. Outcome is rare because then:

b )a + b( and d )c + d(

2. Cases are representative of all cases in the population re. exposure history

3. Controls representative of all non-cases in the population re. exposure history

exposure

outcomea b a+b

c d c+d

Page 49: 1. Association Association JM Last: A dictionary of epidemiology 2 Statistical dependence between 2 or more events, characteristics, or other variables.

49

IIIדוגמא

הקשר בין מצב סוציואקונומי והערכה עצמית של

בריאות בגברים

( source : British 1958 birth cohort .)

הוגדר לפי תעסוקה – עבודה ):SESמצב סוציוקונומי (

יצרנית )צווארון כחול, פועלים( מול עבודה לא יצרנית

סביר ורע מול ): SRHהערכה עצמית של בריאות (

טוב ומצוין

Page 50: 1. Association Association JM Last: A dictionary of epidemiology 2 Statistical dependence between 2 or more events, characteristics, or other variables.

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SES SRH Poor Not

poor Total

Low 340 1700 2040 High 200 1900 2100

RR=1.8

OR=1.9

Page 51: 1. Association Association JM Last: A dictionary of epidemiology 2 Statistical dependence between 2 or more events, characteristics, or other variables.

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Page 52: 1. Association Association JM Last: A dictionary of epidemiology 2 Statistical dependence between 2 or more events, characteristics, or other variables.

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RR=23.3%/9.4%=2.48

OR=(70*2259)/(234*230)=2.94


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