1 Author: Fox, Randy, J

Title: Rhetoric in Graphic Design Curriculum

The accompanying research report is submitted to the University of Wisconsin-Stout, Graduate School in partial

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Graduate Degree/ Major: MS Technical and Professional Communication

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NAME Randy J. Fox DATE: 7/28/2013

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NAME Julie Watts DATE: 7/28/2013

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2 Fox, Randy, J. Rhetoric in Graphic Design Curriculum

Abstract

While enrolled in the Masters of Science Technical and Professional Communication

program at the University of Wisconsin—Stout, I discovered the connection between rhetoric

and graphic design. While studying rhetorical theory and visual rhetoric I realized the important

role rhetoric might play in graphic design education. This research paper investigates rhetoric in

graphic design curriculum, specific to one course, Information Visualization. This is a theoretical

study and was not executed in the classroom due to limitations. The paper presents an overview

of visual literacy directed to communication design as well as rhetorical strategies, tools and

techniques that have potential to enhance students’ critical analysis and design skills. The paper

also discusses the basis of rhetoric in the Information Visualization course and presents the

means in which rhetoric principles are inserted into two course assignments. Finally, the paper

suggests future studies regarding rhetoric in the Information Visualization course as well as

thoughts about integrating rhetoric in graphic design education overall.

3 Acknowledgments

Dr. Julie Watts—thank you for supporting, enriching, enlightening, challenging, guiding,

and humoring me throughout my academic experience. Your mentorship and expertise has

helped me become a better writer, professional, and individual.

I would also like to thank my family and friends who have supported me throughout my

academic journey as well as their patience when I had to say—no, I have homework.

4 Table of Contents

.................................................................................................................................... Page

Chapter I: Introduction ....................................................................................................... 6

Statement of the Problem ........................................................................................ 7

Purpose of the Study .............................................................................................. 9

Limitations of the Study ....................................................................................... 10

Methodology ....................................................................................................... 11

Chapter II: Literature Review .......................................................................................... 12

Visual Literacy—A Basic Skill Set. ...................................................................... 12

A Rhetorical Perspective ...................................................................................... 14

Rhetorical Strategies ............................................................................................. 16

Visual Rhetoric—Tools for Design and Analysis ................................................. 19

Visual Literacy Exercised Through Visual Thinking ............................................. 25

Chapter III: Methodology ................................................................................................. 29

Data Analysis ...................................................................................................... 30

Limitations .......................................................................................................... 31

Chapter IV: Results .......................................................................................................... 33

Rhetoric and Information Visualization ............................................................... 33

Course Overview—Information Visualization ...................................................... 34

Process Books ...................................................................................................... 35

Rhetorical Strategies and Information Graphics .................................................... 36

Visual Cognates .................................................................................................... 38

5 Gestalt and Semiotics ........................................................................................... 39

Chapter V: Discussion ...................................................................................................... 42

The Missing Link in Graphic Design Education .................................................... 42

Information Visualization with a Rhetorical Perspective ....................................... 43

Conclusions. ........................................................................................................ 44

Recommendations ................................................................................................ 44

References ............................................................................................................ 47

6

Chapter I: Introduction

During the last 20 years or so I have worked in the graphic design industry both as a

design professional and as an associate professor for a small art and design college. I consistently

explore strategies and processes to enhance my own design skills as well as to support my

students in creating effective visual messages. Many design educators also engage in this

practice: “In the very process of teaching students how to design, the design educator is also

investigating the nature of design, seeking to better understand its methods and principles”

(Buchanan, 1998, p. 65). Among methods and principles a range of communication skills are as

equally important. In fact, the graphic design profession requires excellent verbal and visual

communication skills—more crucial now then ever before.

Recently, I studied rhetorical theory in addition to visual rhetoric and realized the

connection they have to graphic design. Some practitioners in graphic design also make this

connection:

Graphic designers translate concepts and ideas into a visual representation, by organizing

and connecting elements into a structure. This arrangement of elements is done with an

intended effect in mind, a goal. Since the communication between designers and viewers

has defined purposes, design is essentially rhetorical. This intentional and deliberate

production of meaning is the rhetorical function of graphic design (Emanuel, 2010, p. 8).

Therefore, in my opinion, learning principles, tools, and techniques of rhetoric may help to

enhance the student’s understanding of the goals and objectives of graphic design. Building a

rhetorical perspective into graphic design education will expand a student’s design and critical

thinking skills to create as well as to analyze complex visual messages.

7 The relationship between graphic design and rhetoric is evident in that both disciplines

“are rooted in cultural, economic and technological developments” (Alameda, 2009, p. 6).

Rhetoric and graphic design begin by addressing an issue or problem directed to a specific

audience followed by “researching a topic, gathering information, assessing a situation, and

formulating a proposition” (Alameda, 2009, p. 3). The graphic design students at my college

learn to practice these principles; however, supported by a rhetorical perspective may offer them

tools and techniques to enhance their design process and ability to solve visual problems in

complex ways.

The graphic design industry has evolved over the years—once considered a trade, it

seemed to focus primarily on the aesthetic and technical values of design. Nowadays, the graphic

design industry is more human centric as it attempts to explore and understand the relationship,

connection, and perception of users as they interact with design texts. Graphic design education

also has placed more emphasis on the usability of products and a consideration of human

interaction and experience. In the last several years design courses at my college were

redeveloped to focus on user experience, making products more useable and appealing, compelling

people to act, feel, and think differently. However, my curriculum, overall, lacked a rhetorical

perspective as a means to guide the students in visual thinking when solving complex design

problems. Moreover, I have discovered rhetorical processes I believe to be integral to graphic

design education. This has inspired me to reevaluate a graphic design course I recently taught

and explore processes of generating and organizing information with a rhetorical perspective.

Statement of the Problem

Students are often surprised when they enter the graphic design program at my college.

8 They quickly learn that graphic design is much more than the use of digital technology and not

based solely on aesthetics. Scholars also acknowledge the importance of the design process.

According to Brumberger & Northcut, (2010), “The technologies for production do nothing, in

and of themselves, to promote the process of effectively applying design principles” (P. 463).

Often students enter my courses thinking graphic design is primarily about using the computer to

create graphic mediums. Computer programs such as Adobe Photoshop, an image-manipulation

software, is perceived by the students as part of the design process—manipulating images on a

computer screen until something looks good. Students often lack the understanding that graphic

design is less about technology and more about creating visual arguments and solving design

problems in complex ways. Students need to learn that graphic design involves a process of

exploration, analysis and discovery through process other than computer graphics software.

Moreover, I believe students would benefit by investigating rhetorical processes as a way to

discover various solutions to visual design problems.

Students have revealed to me that their high school teachers encouraged them to pursue a

career in graphic design, primarily due to their computer graphic skills. Most high school art

teachers are educated with a fine arts emphasis—few have experience in the graphic design

industry and have not directly experienced the shift in design thinking. They often teach basic

design principles but do not prepare the students with design processes required to succeed in

today’s industry.

Students who enter my courses, in most cases, have not yet learned the significance of

design process, research, and analysis. Students have yet to understand that the computer is a

production tool used to bring the design idea to final, tangible, visual texts. They tend to neglect

9 the importance of exploration to discover multiple solutions to a design problem and often

settle on their first idea. They often neglect basic design principles, instead relying on “special

effects” inherent in the software. In addition, once they begin producing designs digitally they

tend to lock in on one idea and disregard alternative options. Communication scholars recognize

students’ reliance on computer graphic software: “as students become familiar with the software,

they become more focused on the effects they achieve with the technology than on achieving

what they see as a more abstract communicative purpose. That is, they lose sight of the rhetorical

objectives of design in the face of interesting techniques” (Brumberger & Northcut, 2010, p.

463). Students need to understand that graphic design is about thinking critically, solving

complex visual problems, and developing visual arguments, all which happens beyond the

computer.

Moreover, my students often resist the critical ideation process that involves sketching

and iteration as a way to discover multiple solutions to a design problem—without the reliability

of computer software. Scholars recognize the importance of computer graphic skills in the design

industry and the need for students to value ideation and theory:

When students develop facility with design software, they immediately recognize that

they have acquired a tangible and marketable skill. Unfortunately, students do not

necessarily recognize that the theory and concepts we strive to teach are also marketable

and inherently more valuable.” (Brumberger & Northcut, 2010, p. 462)

In my opinion, students armed with processes of ideation backed with a rhetorical perspective

will be more prepared to solve critical design problems and rely less on computer technology.

Students need a structured pedagogy involving an arsenal of rhetorical strategies, tools

10 and techniques, supported by a foundation of visual literacy, which will provide them a guide

used to analyze as well as create effective visual messages. Having a structured guide will help

students move beyond making subjective design decisions to using a more organized, and well

thought out approach to solving design problems.

Purpose of the Study

I believe including a rhetorical perspective in today’s graphic design education is critical.

Currently, my curriculum involves a structured pedagogy of design philosophies and techniques;

however, it lacks basic principles, terminology, and application of rhetorical objectives. The

purpose of this paper is to explore the potential role rhetoric may play in design education in one

graphic design course.

Through this study I will explore a variety of rhetorical tools and techniques as a way to

guide my students when designing visual messages. In addition, I will reevaluate and revamp

two projects within my Information Visualization course to incorporate rhetorical strategies. I

hope to instill early in the student’s education a broader understanding of rhetoric as it applies to

graphic design, enabling them to make informed design decisions throughout their education.

Moreover, my goal in this course is to empower students with strong analytical vocabulary and

rhetorical devices to analyze, evaluate, and create effective visual messages. Through this paper I

hope to inspire students and faculty to advance their knowledge of rhetoric regarding verbal,

written, and visual communication.

Limitations of Study

The limitation of this study is not having the opportunity to test the curriculum I am

proposing. I began my research with intentions to restructure my course assignments to include a

11 rhetorical perspective; however, it was not guaranteed that I would be teaching the course

again—or at least in the next year. Knowing this I still felt it was important to research rhetoric

in graphic design on a theoretical basic. This paper provides a clear theoretical analysis of which

rhetorical theories principles and so forth seem to apply most readily to this graphic design

course. That is step one of the study, which comprises this field project. Step two would be to

examine the effects of this new curriculum on student learning. Step two is out of the scope of

this project primarily due to the fact that I will not have access to the Information Visualization

course for another year, or if at all.

In addition, I believe it is important to explore this issue on a theoretical level to ensure a

structured pedagogy be developed before implementing it into the classroom. My goal is to share

my study with graphic design faculty who may be interested in addressing the issues I have

presented. They may offer additional principles and theories, or even debate about whether or not

rhetoric would be an added value to graphic design education.

However, I am confident that other graphic design faculty will find value in this study. In

my opinion most all design courses will benefit with a rhetorical perspective— providing

students with the ability to analyze and create effective visual arguments.

Methodology

My study begins by defining visual literacy and why it is critically important to graphic

design students. I also identify the significance of visual thinking and explore a variety of

rhetorical strategies, tools, and techniques of visual analysis. Lastly, I attempt to revise my

course assignments to include rhetorical goals and objectives to teach students that graphic

design is much more than just making pretty pictures. My goal is to have students complete the

12 assignments having a keener knowledge of rhetorical situations, strategies, and processes. I

believe rhetorical tools and techniques will help students develop effective visual arguments and

solve design problems in complex ways. Therefore, solving problems in unique ways provide

valuable and effective visual experiences for specific audiences.

13 Chapter II: Literature Review

The following section will begin by examining the role of visual literacy as it pertains to

visual communication. Next I will investigate the significance of rhetoric and its relationship to

graphic design, as well as present strategies and analytical processes and techniques to be used as

a guide to assist in the design process. Finally, I will discuss visual literacy exercised through

visual thinking.

Visual Literacy—A Basic Skill Set

Graphic design students armed with strong visual literacy skills will be better prepared to

read, analyze, evaluate and solve visual communication problems. The research and theory I

review regarding visual literacy is mainly directed to communication design, visual

communication, and professional and technical communication; however, all directly relate to

graphic design. According to Portewig (2004) visual literacy “is the faculty of visually thinking,

analyzing, and communicating. Its instruction seeks to develop in students the cognitive process

of developing visuals as well as an understanding of the context and elements that form the

visual message” (p. 40). The moment students enter my college they begin developing basic

visual literacy skills. Students often enter my classroom with prior visual learning experiences;

however, these experiences are not necessarily directed specifically to graphic design.

Knowledge of visual literacy is essential in developing graphic design skills.

Visual literacy is the ability to read, analyze, and evoke meaning from visual text through

means of “visual grammar.” The definition of visual grammar is creating meaning through visual

language including typefaces, color, page structure, photographs, illustrations, graphs, charts,

and so on (Kress and Leeuwen, 2006, p. 2). Kress and colleagues (2006) argue:

14 Just as grammars of language describe how words combine in clauses, sentences and

texts, so our visual ‘grammar’ will describe the way in which depicted elements – people,

places and things—combine in visual ‘statements’ of greater or lesser complexity and

extension. (p. 1)

Furthermore, Kress (2006) and colleagues explain “In this sense ‘grammar’ is not a set of rules

for the correct use of language but rather a set of socially constructed resources for the

construction of meaning” (p. 3). Visual literacy offers students a foundation to build upon their

graphic design skills through the use of visual grammar. The ability to apply “visual grammar”

will ultimately empower students to make effective design choices.

Visual grammar will help students develop and analyze visual arguments as they practice

ideation processes. I have found that many students have a tendency to underestimate the value

of sketching and often settle on their first idea. By practicing a variety of processes students learn

their own methods of ideation. Visual grammar is the foundation in which students build upon to

lead them to new directions and discoveries. It offers a guideline for students to ponder, reflect

and ask questions that will lead them to exploration and discovery—personal experiences,

previous knowledge, and intuition work alongside basic rules and practices of design. Design

professionals share comparable ideas. Judith and Richard Wilde (2000), in Visual Literacy: A

Conceptual Approach to Graphic Problem Solving, offer the following insights for students

when addressing visual problems:

Reevaluating a problem in personal terms; creating conditions for self-questioning by

moving from the known to the unknown; encouraging the use of concepts to dictate

techniques, instead of the other way around; discovering design principles, rather than

15 directly learning or memorizing them; and discovering personal conceptual methods of

problem solving. (p. 11)

Visual literacy—as well as composing effective visual messages—is a required skill needed for

graphic designers to comprehend what they constantly see in the media. In the article “Making

Sense of the Visual in Technical Communication: A Visual Literacy Approach to Pedagogy,”

Portewig (2004) argues:

Being visually literate means having the knowledge of visual concepts as well as being

able to understand and produce visual messages. To attain visual literacy, we must be

aware of the rhetorical situation of using visuals as well as how to communicate, think

about, and represent the visual. (p. 32)

Students must consider the target audience, the purpose of the visual text as well as the context in

which it will be interacted with in order to produce effective design solutions.

A Rhetorical Perspective

While studying rhetorical theory and recognizing the relationship between rhetoric and

graphic design, I understand that rhetoric relies on written and verbal discourse whereas graphic

design relies primarily on imagery and typography; however, both are means to persuade, inform

or entertain a target audience. Scholars describe practices of design and rhetoric similarly.

According to Gallagher, Martin, and Ma (2011), both rhetoric and design are “two distinct fields

of study intricately related as reflected in their assumptions, goals and function” (p. 27). For

example, both rhetoric and design rely on a set of tools and techniques to communicate in a way

to provoke an audience.

Rhetoric plays an important role despite advancing technology. For over 100 years

16 print has been the primary means of visual communication; however, the graphic design

industry has advanced far beyond print media encompassing the Internet, digital technology, and

video, just to name a few. Changing technologies also are challenging and add to the mass

media, including smart phones and tablet computers such as the IPad, allowing everyone to

access visual information at the touch of a finger. It helps us understand that for over 5000 years,

despite advancing technology, rhetoric has played an important role in effective communication.

Rhetorical practices have worked with little to no technology and will continue to work

with old sets of tools and techniques and new media. Cristina de Almeida (2009) in “The

Rhetorical Genre in Graphic Design: Its Relationship to Design Authorship and Implications to

Design Education” explains:

From its beginnings in Antiquity, classical rhetoric was expanded from a discipline

pertaining solely to the art of speaking to include the art of writing once printing became

widespread during the Renaissance. Similarly, in the age of mass media, the art of

combining words and images into arguments represents one further step in the evolution

of human communications. (p. 187)

Furthermore, Almeida (2009) presents quotes from two authors revealing the relationship

between graphic design and rhetoric (p. 187). For example, she notes that Corbett and Connors

(1999) define rhetoric as “the art or the discipline that deals with the use of discourse… to

inform, persuade or motivate an audience” (p. 1). Corbett and Connors refer to rhetoric regarding

written and verbal discourse, whereas graphic designers communicate through images and

typography. In addition, Resnick (2003) argues similarly “…graphic design might include the

‘art’ of communication—to inform, educate, influence, persuade, and provide a visual

17 experience” (p. 15). At one time, the field of graphic design was perceived as pertaining

strictly to aesthetics; however, today social consciousness and human considerations are as much

of a priority. Understanding principles of rhetoric as well as visual rhetoric may enhance graphic

design students’ ability to convey meaning and construct a visual argument.

Visual rhetoric, as described by OWL, Purdue University’s Online Writing Lab, “has

been used to mean anything from the use of images as argument, to the arrangement of elements

on a page for rhetorical effect, to the use of typography (fonts), and more.” For example, visual

rhetoric might be in the form of a brochure promoting auto insurance to young drivers. The

purpose may be to entice an audience to buy their insurance by establishing credibility through

the use of design elements. According to Heller and Mirko (2012) “Type and image, composition

and arrangement, color and hue—choices that designers make all the time—can make a huge

difference in how we receive the messages and, ultimately, take those persistent orders from

others” (p. 8). Therefore, the structure of a document, poster, or website etc. can create a

rhetorical effect. Armed with knowledge of rhetorical techniques graphic design students will

have a better ability to critically solve complex design problems and create effective visual text.

Rhetorical Strategies

Students in my courses are taught to explore visual processes and examine a variety of

design strategies; however, my curriculum lacks a rhetorical viewpoint. More often than not, my

students base design decisions on personal likes and dislikes. They overlook the importance of

critically analyzing how their design choices ultimately affect the viewer’s perception of the

design text. The graphic design profession has evolved in the industry to be more human centric.

Communication scholars agree that it is our responsibility as design faculty to provide students

18 with a design perspective that meets their demands and expectations. According to Buchanan

(1998), “We must be alert to new developments and prepare our students for a changing world—

not only in technology but in the needs and expectations of the human beings whom we

ultimately must serve” (p. 65). It is our responsibility as design faculty to provide students with a

structured guideline incorporating a variety of tools and techniques to instill broader ideas to

solve complex design problems. I believe a structured pedagogy incorporating a rhetorical

perspective will empower students with analytical tools and techniques to create effective visual

arguments.

The first step is for students to gain an understanding of the nature and value of visual

argument. According to Barnet and Bedau (1999), authors of Critical Thinking: Reading &

Writing a Brief Guide to Argument, “visual arguments appeal to our emotions through flattery,

humor, threats—and pity—to name a few” (p. 137). Visual text as arguments can advocate or

state a position, articulate concepts, and explain difficult procedures. They also can entice

viewers to respond to messages, to act and think in a particular way. Visual arguments are

strengthened by rhetorical appeals, such as pathos, ethos and logos, as well as gestalt principles

and visual cognates. Identifying the rhetorical situation of a visual message is the first step in the

design process and will prepare students for persuasive argumentation, both in terms of creating

and analyzing visual texts.

Rhetorical situation—audience, purpose, and context. A variety of strategies and

processes are accessible for graphic design students when envisaging design problems, but where

do they begin? Before deciding the vehicle of a visual message, outcomes and goals should be

determined, as well as the rhetorical situation—audience, purpose and context. These

19 considerations will directly affect the visual message by the choice of typefaces, page layout,

color and images.

One aspect of rhetorical situation is the audience, which includes “users of information

accustomed to documents that communicate on a variety of levels through a variety of media”

(Brumberger, 2007, p. 377). The end result of the message depends on who will be most

affected. According to Soojin Jun (2009), in “Information Design and Rhetoric,” “If the form of

the poster is not created to serve the needs of the audience, it is useless, although visually

pleasing” (p. 2373). My students tend to forget that the visual message they are creating should

provoke a reaction from a target audience.

Another component of rhetorical situation is the purpose of the message. What should the

message accomplish? Should it inspire or inform the viewer of a new concept, or persuade them

to act, feel or think in a particular way (Kostelnick et al., 1998, p. 5)? When producing visual

text, the use of typography, images, and color play an integral part in stating the purpose. Images

can be used to inspire or motivate, color can set a desired mood or feeling, and the arrangement

of text can add to the overall appeal and flow. Defining the purpose for a visual design will help

to ensure a desired response to a specific message.

The final rhetorical situation is context. Designers must consider the place or situation in

which a visual text is viewed by or interacted with users (Kostelnick et al., 1998, p. 5). For

example, a brochure promoting lawn equipment at the new hardware store might go unnoticed at

a cosmetic conference. However, the same brochure might provoke a more positive response at a

home and garden exposition. Visual text can be viewed anywhere and by anyone but will be

most applicable if its location is considered—this will ensure the visual message reaches the

20 target audience and does not get lost completely.

Rhetorical Appeal—Aristotle says. Aristotle’s rhetorical Appeals—ethos, logos, and

pathos—is an additional rhetorical strategy to be considered: “Aristotle taught that a speaker’s

ability to persuade an audience is based on how well the speaker appeals to that audience”

(Lutzke & Henggeler, 2009). While Aristotle referred to public speaking, I believe these same

Appeals are valuable to graphic design students when creating visual texts.

Logos is supported by strong evidence of an argument. For example, when designing

visual text, logical reasoning, or facts, can be demonstrated through the use of charts and graphs.

Ethos is credibility, which can be established through tone and style of the visual message.

Pathos is an emotional appeal, which can be conveyed through the use of imagery and color.

Aristotle’s Appeals, however, may not all be considered in a single visual message, and will

depend on the rhetorical situation.

Visual Rhetoric—Tools for Design and Analysis

Rhetorical Situation and Appeals offer students a foundation of principles to reflect upon

as they research content and define their visual messages. Rhetorical strategies include design

and analysis tools that will guide students when creating visual texts. Applying rhetorical tools

for design and analysis is the next step in the design process.

Students need a structured pedagogy built with a rhetorical perspective, which include

tools and techniques to be use as a guide when they design visual texts. These tools will provoke

questions for students to ask themselves as they choose images, arrange text and the use of color.

Furthermore, they will empower student to solve critical design problems without depending on

computer software. Scholars recognize students’ reliance on special effects inherent in computer

21 graphic software. “…elements of design suffer as students get absorbed by technique and

neglect principles. Text in particular receives less attention than images and is often positioned

with little thought given to readability, alignment, and impact (Brumberger & Northcut, 2010,

p.464). The following rhetorical tools of design will guide students to make critical design

decisions that will affect the viewer of the visual text..

Five canons of rhetoric. A rhetorical consideration when designing texts is the Five

Canons of Rhetoric: Invention, Arrangement, Style, Memory, and Delivery, all to be used as

guides for effective communication. The Five Canons of Rhetoric were developed and organized

by Ciceros, a Roman Orator around 50 BC. Traditionally, the five canons of rhetoric are specific

to oral communication and speech delivery; however, scholars and researchers use them as a

guide to help create successful written and visual communication as well.

Invention is the development of an idea through research and process. Arrangement

refers to organization of the argument for greatest impact. Style is deciding how the argument

will be presented rhetorically. Memory is applying the research involved and finalizing the text

for “delivery and reception” (Smith, 2010, p. 117). Finally, Delivery is the final presentation of

the visual argument. Smith (2010) explains “Delivery is simply that—the way in which we

deliver recorded or printed messages to an audience” (p. 118). I believe the five canons of

rhetoric can be used as a foundational guide for graphic design students as they create and

analyze visual arguments.

Gestalt principles. Visual rhetoric refers to persuasive messages using visual language

and is accomplished by exploring and understanding the rhetorical use of visuals. Visual analysis

empowers graphic design students with the necessary resources and skills to compose as well as

22 evaluate visual texts. Graphic design students armed with structured criteria will have the

ability to create and critically analyze visual texts.

For example, Gestalt principles explain how people organize visual information.

Introduced in the 1920s by German psychologists, Gestalt principles are based on the psychology

of perception. Gestalt is a German term that means shape or form. The principles explain how we

perceive objects and assemble parts into unified wholes (Bang Wong, 2010, p. 863). Gestalt is

not intended as tools of persuasion but rather descriptive, a means to perceive “structures and

patterns” (Moore and Fitz, 1993, p. 392). Gestalt psychology is based on behavior and the human

mind—how we see things. According to Wong (2010), “The fundamental concept behind these

principles is grouping; we tend to perceive objects that look alike, are placed close together,

connected by lines or enclosed in a common space as belonging together. These are simple but

powerful ways to build context for information” (p. 863). Gestalt principles may be a valuable

guide for design students by offering them criteria to follow when making design decisions.

The key principles of Gestalt are figure-ground, symmetry, closure, proximity, good

continuation and similarity. Figure-ground segregation is the visual separation of foreground and

background. Similarity means elements on a page have similar appearances, such as size, shape,

color and/or value, and are therefore perceived as groups, or reference with similar ideas and/or

subject matter. Proximity refers to the arrangement of elements on a page. The perception of the

document, whether organized or chaotic, can be controlled by the proximity of text and graphics.

Good continuation can be a path or continuous line directing the eye beyond a visual area and

allows the viewer to fill in the gaps in their own minds. Closure is basically drawing conclusions

and can be implied with negative space to complete or segregate an idea or topic. Symmetry is

23 often referred to as balance—meaning equal distribution of objects divided by a central point

of axis.

Semiotics. Another essential rhetorical strategy for students to consider during their

design process is semiotics—the study of signs, which attempts to examine ways in which

images make meaning. According to Andrews (2008) semiotics “offers a range of analytical

tools for taking an image apart and tracing how it works in relation to broader systems of

meaning” (p. 42). It is critical for students to analyze and evaluate the graphics they create or

choose to incorporate visual text. Depending on the rhetorical situation signs may be interpreted

in a variety of ways. Hall (2012) asserts “Semiotics, then is (among other things) about the tools,

processes, structures, and contexts that human beings have for creating, interpreting, and

understanding meaning in a variety of different ways” (pg. 5). In my opinion, designers who

study semiotics gain insight regarding ways in which images and graphics are read and/or

perceived by their target audience.

Tools, processes, and structures of semiotics may be used as a guide for students in their

design process to ensure their viewers receive the visual message successfully. Hall (2012)

explains:

In the case of human beings, signs are shaped by the sources and resources that are used

to make them, formed by the cultural structures in which they are woven, communicated

through a series of diverse channels, and understood in terms of the nature of the societies

that created them. (p. 8)

This is another example of how critically important understanding rhetorical situation is to

ensure an effective visual message. In addition to rhetorical strategies, the next section will

24 introduce tools for design and analysis.

Six visual cognates. Tools for design and visual analysis also include the six visual

cognates, which can be used as a guide when designing visual messages. The six visual cognates:

arrangement, emphasis, clarity, conciseness, tone and ethos, developed by professional

communication strategists Kostelnick and Roberts (1998) can be applied through the design

process. This is especially important for undergraduate students to pull away from a strictly

instinctual or subjective approach by following a more structural design method.

The six visual cognates are interdependent; however, they often work best in pairs

because they correspond naturally with each other (Kostelnick and Roberts, 1998, p. 14).

Arrangement and emphasis largely reflect the overall structure of the visual message.

Arrangement refers to the visual composition of a document. Emphasis demonstrates a level of

importance by drawing attention to a specific area of the document. Clarity and conciseness refer

to the efficiency and style of a visual message. Clarity helps the viewer understand the document

clearly and swiftly (Kostelnick and Roberts, 1998, p. 14). Visual conciseness “means generating

designs that appropriately succinct within a particular situation” (Kostelnick et al., 1998, p. 19).

Tone and ethos pertain to expression and credibility and consider how an audience might receive

the visual message. Visual cognates are not meant to be used independently and may overlap

depending on the context of the situation (Kostelnick and Roberts, 1998, p. 14).

Many design decisions may be instinctual and stem from prior experiences; however, the

six visual cognates used as a guide will help student to analyze and create effective visual

messages. Figure 1 demonstrates rhetorical situation by attempting to persuade parents to buy a

health plan as a way to protect their children in case of an accident. This is accomplished with

25 the use of text, imagery, color, and the arrangement of information.

Figure 1. An advertisement for Hospital Alemán demonstrating six visual cognates.

In Figure 1 the arrangement of text elements and graphics are organized and balanced

inviting the viewer into the advertisement. The tree is emphasized by its size and color and

creates a point of focus for the viewer. The use of color also creates a relationship with the tree

and the text emphasizing the overall message of the advertisement.

Clarity and conciseness is demonstrated through the limited use of typography as well as

the simplicity of the graphic; however, the information is still informative and communicates the

message that parents cannot always keep their children from getting hurt, but if they do, Hospital

Alemán is the place to go for help.

Tone and ethos is established in several ways: use of color, arrangement of design

26 elements, and the choice of graphics. The gloomy, gray background gives a sense of dread.

The color blue used in the top area of the tree appears gloomy dreadful, which is reinforced by

the broken white vessel. Ethos is demonstrated by the use of the hospital’s logo located in the

lower right corner. This advertisement is an example of how visual language and the

consideration of the six visual cognates are used to establish a relationship between a designer

and reader.

Visual Literacy Exercised Through Visual Thinking

The graphic design industry requires students to be proficient communicators—written,

verbal, and visual skills are more crucial now than ever before. As students enter the profession

they are expected to present their ideas intelligibly as well as exhibit critical design thinking.

Students empowered with visual language and analytical skills based on a rhetorical perspective

will make informed design decisions, as well as gain the ability to explain their design choices

articulately. Therefore, in my opinion, graphic design education should include a structured

pedagogy including rhetorical tools and techniques as a way to enhance students’ visual and

verbal communication skills.

A solid foundation of visual literacy will enhance students’ ability to also think visually. I

believe that visual thinking through the use of thumbnail sketches, mockups and paper

prototypes can lead students to a deeper understanding of a visual problem. Drawing pictures

allows students to use their intuition and personal exploration to identify unique and effective

design principles. In addition, thinking visually offers students the means to experiment and

discover various design solutions, as well as articulate their ideas to an audience. According to

Wileman (1993), visual thinking is “the ability to conceptualize and transform thoughts, ideas,

27 and information of all types into pictures and graphics, or forms that help communicate

information” (p.37). Often times students verbalize their ideas to their instructors or their peers,

however, fall short in communicating their design concepts articulately. Presenting ideas through

a process of sketching will help students communicate clearly and concisely.

Through my research I have discovered that scholarly articles regarding visual thinking

primarily refer to professional and technical communication. In regards to technical writing

education, Brumberger (2007) argues, “Most of our students have learned to talk—as we have—

in verbal language, not in visual language, and, in turn, they think verbally, not visually” (p.

378). The context and process regarding visual thinking may differ for technical communicators

and graphic designers, but I believe they share the same basic principles. According to

Brumberger’s (2007) definition: “visual thinking, then, is the intuitive and intellectual process of

visual idea generation and problem solving” (P. 380). Graphic designers might have an

advantage over technical communicators having a foundation of visual literacy earlier in their

education; however they will benefit from a process that relies on visual language rather than a

verbal one.

Brumberger (2007) notes the changing paradigm in technical communication in that

writers are now more responsible for design, as well as electronic media, which tend to be more

image based (p. 377). In the article Making the Strange Familiar, Brumberger (2007) “examines

the literature and pedagogical practices of visually oriented disciplines to identify strategies for

helping students develop the ambidexterity of thought needed for the communication tasks of

today’s workplace” (p. 376). Brumberger’s (2007) approach to visual thinking is similar to

graphic design in the sense of visual analysis; however, I believe graphic design students would

28 benefit with more aggressive pedagogical practices as well.

Besides academic and scholarly presence, visual thinking also can be found in the trade.

For example, Clive Thompson (2010), a contributing writer for WIRED online magazine,

explains visual thinking as “drawing pictures to solve a problem.” Students need to understand

that the process of sketching will help to communicate their ideas to their peers, faculty and

ultimately to their future clients. Thompson (2010) refers to Dan Roam, a visual-thinking guru

and author of The Back of the Napkin:

Roam argues that our culture relies too heavily on words: Our school systems—and

political systems—are designed to promote people who are verbal and eloquent. And text

tends to encourage us to describe our problems as narratives or linear lists of facts.”

Many times my students begin their design projects by wanting to share their ideas verbally with

their faculty and classmates.

Verbalizing is an effective way to brainstorm and helps initiate the ideation process;

however, “a picture is worth a thousand words.” In my class, students begin their design process

with a few sketches but often neglect the importance to analyze, evaluate and iterate as a way to

refine their ideas to get to the root of the design problem. I believe a practice of visual thinking

will help students communicate ideas to their peers, instructors, and future professional

colleagues and clients.

Verbal explanations without visual reference leave room for distortion causing the

listener to misconstrue the initial concept. Moreover, when students verbally explain their

process they lack tangible evidence reflecting ideation process, as well as the opportunity for

reflection. Thompson (2010) quotes David Sibbet, a visualization expert, as saying “If you want

29 everyone to have the same mental model of a problem, the fastest way to do it is with a

picture.” Thompson (2010) recognizes that “These images provoke aha moments far more often

than typed or verbal summaries.” A foundation of visual literacy exercised through visual

thinking might enhance student’s ability to analyze and discuss their work as well as analyze the

work of their peers. It is critical for graphic designers to get their point across quickly and

accurately when presenting their ideas to their college peers, industry professionals, or clients.

Graphic design students rely on their faculty to provide them with pertinent resources to

become successful in their profession. It is the faculty’s responsibility to bridge the gap between

academia and the design industry. As I mentioned earlier in this chapter, the graphic design

profession is more human-centric than ever before and I believe a rhetorical perspective is

critical in graphic design education. Strategies such as rhetorical situations and appeals will

empower students to create and analyze effective visual arguments. The five canons of rhetoric,

visual cognates, Gestalt principles, and semiotics are tools and techniques to guide student in

making effective design decisions.

30 Chapter III: Methodology

Rhetoric plays an integral role in the graphic design profession and the development of

design texts and should be critical in graphic design education. Learning principles, tools, and

techniques of rhetoric will enhance and expand student’s critical thinking, and communication

skills, as well as empower them to create and analyze complex visual messages.

Currently the information visualization course that I teach includes a structured pedagogy

of design principles and processes; however, this sophomore-level course lacks basic principles,

terminology, and application of rhetorical objectives. As a result, I believe that my students are

not prepared as sufficiently as they could be for their upper-level design courses or for the world

of work in graphic design. Thus, the purpose of this chapter is to explain the methodology I

use—which is a theoretical approach—to address this problem.

While teaching Information Visualization for the first time I realized there were several

holes in my curriculum. Students entered my course with prior design experience; however, only

on a basic level. They understood basic design principles regarding composition including

balance, unity, contrast, and so forth, but only on a visual sense. They did not think about how

the design choices affected the visual messages they were creating. They also seem to lack

insight regarding the receiver of the message. While studying rhetoric I realized there are tools

and techniques I could offer my students to be used as a guide to assist them in the design

process.

My students tend not to recognize that each visual message has a purpose directed to a

target audience and belong within a specific context. When I asked my students who they

thought the viewer of their posters were and they often replied by saying “everyone.” When I

31 asked them to define whom they thought “everyone” was they were perplexed by the

question. It was also obvious that my students did not think about the purpose and context of

their design piece as well.

Students also lacked experience in researching a topic in order to fully understand the

concept behind the design text they were creating. They often made design decisions with little

reasoning or logic to back them up. Many design choices were formed solely on personal

experience and lacked creditability, which they could gain from reliable sources.

Data Analysis

To address these holes in the course curriculum, I have conducted extensive library

research, drawing on a range of rhetorical principles and theories that I believe will complement

and enrich my existing graphic design curriculum in the Information Visualization course. The

principles and theories I draw on include rhetorical situation, rhetorical appeals, Gestalt

principles, the five canons of rhetoric, six visual cognates, and semiotics. Below I sketch out the

ways I believe these principles and theories will help to address my problem. I describe in detail

in Chapter 4 the ways these principles and theories will be incorporated into my course.

Rhetorical situations and rhetorical appeals, I believe, will lead students to a more

structured approach as they begin their design projects. It would enable them to understand that

design is more than creating cool graphics and may inspire them to think more critically about

solving complex problems.

My students need a structured design process. While I expected them to document their

ideas through the process of research and preliminary sketches, to my surprise, they quickly

jumped on to their computers and started building graphics. Once the students began building

32 their ideas on the computer, it was difficult to change their direction. Even though preliminary

sketches were required and specified on the project spec sheets, students often resisted a process

of ideation. They tend to neglect the process of analysis and evaluation process as a way to

investigate effective design decisions.

In my opinion, through a process of design analysis and iteration students will discover a

variety of options when creating effective visual messages. I believe the six visual cognates offer

techniques and tools of analysis to be used as a guide to lead students to form effective content

when creating visual messages. Visual cognates inspire questions for students to reflect on as

they are researching content for their visual texts. These tools will help students define pertinent

information to be directed to their target audiences.

Students tend to lack insight regarding ways a composition—the placement of text and

graphics—affect viewers perception of visual information. Understanding gestalt may help

students consider how receivers of visual texts naturally look at information. Understanding

gestalt principles may guide students in organizing and arranging design elements, which in turn,

will help them create effective visual text and ultimately solve complex visual problems.

Moreover, in my experience students seem to lack insight regarding ways viewers make

meaning from images they interact with. Viewers have preconceived notions about what they see

based on their natural experiences. Understanding semiotics may help the students be more acute

when choosing and/or creating visual texts.

Finally, I find that my students have a difficult time articulating their design process

when presenting their work to their faculty or classmates. Developing a rhetorical language will

add to the student’s vocabulary and ultimately make the students, as well as their design

33 decisions more credible. They will be better prepared to communicate on a professional level

when they enter the design industry.

Limitations

One very important limitation to this study is that it is theoretical. When I began my

research I had intentions of implementing a new curriculum to include a rhetorical perspective

regarding the Information Visualization course. One of the problems I encountered was that the

course was not going to be offered until later in the year, and I was not sure I would have the

opportunity to teach it again. Moreover, I recently chose to change careers and no longer teach at

the college.

I believe it is important to explore this issue on a theoretical level to ensure a structured

pedagogy be developed before implementing it into the classroom. My goal is to share my study

with graphic design faculty who may be interested in addressing the issues I have presented.

They may offer additional principles and theories, or even debates about whether or not rhetoric

would be an added value to graphic design education.

34 Chapter IV: Results

As I appreciate rhetoric I am inspired to infuse it into a course I teach called Information

Visualization. My goal is to provide students with tools and techniques to articulate their design

ideas both visually and verbally. Currently, students enter the course with basic design skills;

however, they tend to focus primarily on aesthetics and lack understanding that design is about

solving visual problems. They tend to base their design choices on personal preference rather

than identifying the communication problem.

My goal for my students is for them to achieve a higher level of thinking about graphic

design—to obtain the skills necessary to create effective visual arguments and solve problems in

complex ways. I would like my students to leave my course with an arsenal of rhetorical

strategies they can use as a guide for all of their design work—strategies that will help them

analyze, evaluate, and discover a variety of design solutions to visual problems. I would also like

my students to increase their rhetorical and design vocabulary, which will ultimately enhance

their verbal communication skills. A rhetorical language can establish the student’s credibility

when having to present their ideas and processes to their peers, as well as their faculty, and

ultimately to design professionals.

Rhetoric and Information Visualization

Information Visualization is a fairly new course at my college and is offered to students

in their second year of studies. This course is primarily taught through a series of in-class

discussions and course assignments. I am interested in developing a structured pedagogy using a

rhetorical perspective that will benefit student in creating and analyzing information graphics.

Introducing rhetorical practices early in the graphic design program will guide students

35 throughout their graphic design education—better preparing them for the profession. Smith (2010)

asserts “Because it is conscious and strategic, rather than purely intuitive and inspirational,

rhetoric is an art that can be taught and learned, and demands skill with language and close

observation of one’s social context” (p. 115). Due to the rhetorical nature of my Information

Visualization course, I believe a structured pedagogy examining rhetorical theory, rhetorical

tools, as well as techniques of visual analysis are essential. Emanuel (2010) explains, “the pieces

of information design—as graphic design pieces in general—are destined for a specific audience,

purpose, and context. These factors have, therefore, influenced the creative decisions involving

information design as well” (p. 20). The Information Visualization course presents an

opportunity for students to be introduced to and practice rhetorical strategies to create and

analyze effective visual texts.

Course Overview—Information Visualization

The Information Visualization course focuses on information design, information

architecture, and information visualization. The students learn to organize, display data, and

storytelling, and to make data more accessible and relatable. According to Emanuel (2010):

Information design has basically three goals: making information clear, compelling and

convincing. It makes complex information clear as in easier to understand, unambiguous

and unequivocal. It makes information compelling, because information should grab

people’s attention. And information graphics should be convincing so that viewers

believe what they see on them. (p. 21)

This can all be accomplished by the rhetorical use of graphics, color, and typography, as well as

organization and arrangement of information. The following section presents the results of

36 incorporating a number of rhetorical tools and processes into the curriculum of the

Information Visualization course.

Process Books

I propose to begin the course by requiring students to generate process books. Process

books are a valuable means for students to organize and reflect on their design work. They can

take the form of sketchbooks or journals to be used as a means for documenting research,

conceptual sketches, and inspiration materials, as well a means to reflect on their ideology

throughout a design project. Process notebooks practiced in the classroom can also be valuable

resources in the design profession as well. According to Alameda (2009):

This is the space where the narrative of the construction of the visual/verbal argument can

unfold and later be recalled. In the classroom, the process book can be a revealing

blueprint of the student’s creative path, allowing for ideas and feedback to be shared

among classmates long after critique day. Similarly, in the professional world, this kind

of developmental report becomes a powerful tool in making the case for an idea to a

client. (p. 9)

Moreover, students have obtained employment at design firms based on their process books. A

portfolio of work is valuable in demonstrating visual and technical skills, however, accompanied

by a process book opens a window to a designers conceptual thought processes. They are

effective resources when demonstrating conceptual development.

In addition to collecting design materials and examples, students will be required to write a

brief description of their design process as well as analyses of their design choices. Students will

utilize their process books each week to discuss points in class demonstrating the five canons of

37 rhetoric as well as other rhetorical strategies. As students develop a language of rhetoric, and with

the support of their faculty, process books may be used as a guide during the design process and

through student’s peer reviews and formal critiques.

Rhetorical Strategies and Information Graphics

As I consider in what way to incorporate rhetorical strategies, tools, and techniques to my

course assignments, it is important to think about the order in which they will benefit and not

overwhelm the students. The goal is to offer tools and techniques to create a solid foundation for

students to build upon throughout the course.

The first assignment presents the opportunity to introduce rhetorical situations.

Identifying the audience, purpose, and context of the information graphic will guide students in

making informed design decisions from the start. Alameda (2009) asserts:

Presenting assignments where students have to apply design skills to both locate and

address specific communication scenarios, at the same time that they are encouraged to

critically examine how similar calls have been typified into rhetorical genres, could be a

path towards a graphic design pedagogy that places the student in the position of a social

agent first and before that of a service provider. (p. 7)

The rhetorical situation will also lead the students to understand that they are not designing for

themselves, but rather understanding the rhetorical situation starts the process of creating a visual

argument directed to a specific audience.

The first project requires students to select an information graphic they judge to be

ineffective both in terms of communication and aesthetics—while considering a rhetorical

perspective the students record their analysis in their process books. Based on their research

38 students recreate the information graphic by retelling the story clearly and concisely. The

overall design should describe the what, explain the how, and persuade the why of their topic.

The students research the topic of the information graphic to verify the data and possibly

discover additional information pertinent to the message they intend to communicate. During this

process the students have the opportunity to consider the rhetorical situation and develop content

to support the visual argument. Alameda (2009) explains:

The enhanced sense of agency of design over the shaping of the content invites us to

broaden the rhetorical role of graphic design beyond elocution, and calls for investigating

how the search for topics and collection of data…as well as the editing and organization

of content into an adequate format … can be established as integral parts of the design

process. (p. 3)

During the research stage students are encouraged to consider images and sketch layouts for the

information graphic. Brumberger (2007) explains the importance of sketching to design problem-

solving:

Two types of sketching are essential to the visual problem-solving process: the initial

sketching that is done primarily to understand the problem and to generate ideas and the

subsequent sketching that is done primarily to develop and record ideas. (p. 386)

Students often neglect the importance of ideation and iteration through the process of visual

thinking—they tend lock into their first idea without exploring other options.

Scholars have noted the importance of students generating multiple solutions for a single

design problem: “For example, they suggested that requiring students to generate multiple

solutions to a problem choose the most effective of those solutions develops students’ problem-

39 solving abilities and helps them to understand that any given problem can have many

successful solutions rather than a single right solution and multiple wrong ones.” (Brumberger,

2007, p. 387. In my experience, students tend to overlook the value of visualizing their ideas

through the process of sketching and iteration. Scholars note iteration is a critical part of

ideation: “These scholars consider the process of evaluating ideas and choosing between them to

be a vital part of visual thinking because it entails moving from the perspective of creator to that

of user and back again (Brumberger, 2007, p. 387. Students tend to avoid the sketching process

thinking they lack drawing skills, however, sketching quick thumbnail drawings while exploring

multiple concepts will the lead the students to discover a variety of solutions. According to

Alameda (2009) “A visualization phase ensues in which the overall look and feel of the piece is

determined through the building of prototypes ranging from thumbnails to more complete

layouts. These can be considered themselves rhetorical tools to guide initial deliberations” (p. 3).

The purpose of thumbnails sketching is to flush out ideas quickly as well as open new avenues of

exploration and discovery.

Visual Cognates

Visual Cognates introduced early in the course will allow students to investigate several

rhetorical aspects. As students begin their research they will also identify the rhetorical situation,

while considering the three types of rhetorical appeals—thus, supporting the consideration of

visual cognates. Identifying and understanding the audience, purpose and context of the

information graphic provide students insight when considering ethos, pathos, and logos.

The research process can seem daunting to students; however, having a structured guide

will help them develop pertinent and meaningful content. This guide will also be use to organize,

40 analyze and structure the information. It is important for design students to “begin researching

a topic, gather information, assess a situation, and formulate a proposition” (Alameda 2009, p.

3). As students develop their content they explore rhetorical practices to form their visual

argument. They will demonstrate an understanding of these practices through their process books

and class discussions by articulating and reflecting on the problems they faced throughout the

assignment—the decisions they made, and the outcomes of those decisions.

Applying rhetorical appeals will guide students to create visual messages that appeal to

their audience. Ethos refers to the credibility of the visual text. Pathos suggests the use of

emotion to initiate a desired response from the audience. Logos signifies the logic of the content

and demonstrates “good reason” which also instills credibility (Smith, 2010, p. 119). Rhetorical

appeals can be established through reliable sources, graphics, photography and typography, as

well as hierarchy and arrangement.

The six visual cognates, in conjunction with rhetorical appeals direct students to analyze

and evaluate content, as well as aid in basic but critical design decisions. The cognates help

students form questions to ponder as they create their visual argument.

Considering arrangement and emphasis will help students prioritize and organize

information; as well as identify points of emphasis, which will establish a hierarchy of the

information. Clarity and conciseness consider style and efficiency of the document as it pertains

to the audience as well as how the viewers read and understand the visual text. Tone and ethos

create credibility and establishes a mood or “voice” of the visual message. Tone can be

established with the use of visual language—text, color, images and so forth. I believe learning

visual cognates partnered with rhetorical situations and rhetorical appeals will build a strong

41 foundation for students to build upon as they progress in the course.

Gestalt and Semiotics

The first assignment, redesigning an existing infographic, will focus on building a

foundation of rhetorical strategies through the process of research, content development and

ideation. Gestalt principles and semiotics are additional rhetorical tools to guide student’s design

process during their second assignment—a large scale poster focusing on the persuasion aspect

of a topic though the use of imagery, typography and hierarchy, while being cohesive and

comprehensive. According to Brumberger (2007) “Teaching design as a process not only

demystifies it but also helps students establish connections to what they already know.” (p. 385).

Gestalt principles explain how people see and organize information based on prior knowledge

and experience. Semiotics relies on the nature of interpreting images.

The principles of gestalt and semiotics may offer insights for students when creating

visual arguments. Semiotics teaches students how to analyze images based on prior or learned

experienced. Gestalt offers a guide in arrangement and emphasis of design elements, also based

on the users prior experiences and knowledge.

Students will begin their second assignment by considering the rhetorical situation and

Appeals. Moreover, they will again explore the six visual cognates to help them develop and

organize their content. Gestalt will then be introduced and explored as a visual guide for students

during their design process as they put together the information graphic. Gestalt offers tools to

help students establish hierarchy, credibility, and tone through the principle of “grouping.”

Grouping is used to enhance the visual message naturally to meet the needs and expectations of

their audience. Gestalt principles offer students criteria to follow when organizing information,

42 graphics, style of typography, and the use of color. Gestalt also offers a vocabulary of terms to

be used in the analysis stage both for themselves as well as during class discussions and

critiques.

Understanding the basics of semiotics—signs, signifiers, and signified—will help

students analyze, choose and create images/graphics for their poster. Semiotics will give students

insight about how the viewer may interpret and respond to the graphics they create. Tools,

processes, and structures of semiotics also may be used as a guide for students in their design

process to help ensure their viewers successfully receive the visual message successfully.

In my opinion, having an understanding of rhetorical theories such as these could help build a

foundation for students to recognize design as an effective means for a persuasive argument, as well

as build on their written and oral communication skills. Moreover, strong rhetorical skills may offer

students an advantage by allowing them think more critically and participate in design discourse.

According to Smith (2010) “Rhetorical theory is worth studying because it can be used to produce

communication, as well as to analyze or critique communication. It is both a practical skill and a

philosophical humanistic study” (p. 114). Students are often involved in class discussions, peer

reviews and final critiques where they are required to reflect on and defend their design decisions but

also critically analyze each other’s work. Smith (2010), states “Communicators who grow accustomed

to rhetorical concepts and terms can use them among each other in order to defend their own strategic

choices and improve each other’s communicative effectiveness” (p.114). Understanding basic

principles of rhetoric early on in their college experience has potential in establishing a foundation of

communication skills that can be practiced and perfected for when they enter the professional

workplace.

43 Chapter V: Discussion

Working as a graphic designer for over twenty years I witnessed a transformation in

design thinking. When I first entered the design profession it seemed to concentrate on creating

graphics based primarily on aesthetic values. Over the past ten years or so human-centered

design became the focus. As I was working as a design professional I was also an associate

professor for a small art and design college. During the transition in the industry the graphic

design program at my college was also incorporating a human centric approach; however, we

lacked a structured pedagogy comprised of tools and techniques to assist students to design

effective visual messages for specific audiences.

The Missing Link in Graphic Design Education

Several years ago I enrolled in a Masters program studying professional and technical

communication. I discovered rhetoric might be the missing link in graphic design education. As I

studied rhetorical theory and visual rhetoric I learned of their direct connection with graphic

design—they share the same goals when attempting to communicate to target audiences.

Rhetoric primarily deals with verbal discourse whereas graphic design communicates through

visuals. I was inspired to investigate the possibility of incorporating a rhetorical perspective into

my curriculum.

When I began my investigation I initially thought rhetoric should be integrated

throughout the entire graphic design program at my college; however, I realized that I needed to

begin by evaluating and restructuring my own courses. As students entered my classes they often

believed graphic design was creating cool graphics on the computer. They relied on the special

effects of computer software without thinking through a design problem. They designed for

44 themselves and overlooked the viewer who would be interacting with the visual text. I

realized that I needed to develop a pedagogy encompassing tools and techniques, as a way to

direct them in understanding that they were designing visual messages directed to specific

audiences. Their message needed a purpose and context.

Information Visualization with a Rhetorical Perspective

Information Visualization is a fairly new course being offered at my college. I was given

an opportunity to teach this course for the first time and in doing so found the curriculum

missing an important element. The assignments in the course lacked a degree of conceptual

problem solving and the students mainly focused on creating graphics without an understanding

of purpose, context and to whom their graphics would ultimately affect. Practitioners and

scholars acknowledge rhetoric as an important consideration of graphic design education;

“Understanding graphic design as a rhetorical practice invites both the educator and the

practitioner to move away from medium-centered assignments towards a sharpened focus on

intention and strategy” (Alameda, 2009, p. 9). It was not until I began investigating rhetoric that I

realized the Information Visualization course needed a rhetorical perspective. Knowing that I

may not have the opportunity to teach the course again I felt it was worth investigating if only

theoretically. I began by considering the restructure of two assignments incorporating rhetorical

principles, tools, and techniques.

As I began my research I realized it was critical to begin with an overview of visual

literacy as it pertains to visual communication. Basic visual literacy skills are taught in

foundation courses; however, they need to be exercised throughout the graphic design program.

45 Graphic design students armed with strong visual literacy skills will be better prepared to

read, analyze, evaluate, and solve visual communication problems.

Visual literacy skills offer students a foundation to build upon a rhetorical perspective.

My research began with rhetorical strategies I felt would benefit my students when creating

information graphics. I found that I was already introducing rhetorical situations to my students;

however, I lacked a structured approach using terms and techniques that would be most

beneficial. In addition, I learned rhetorical appeals offered guidelines for students to follow as

they researched and conceptualized visual messages. I believe rhetorical appeals will direct

students to focus on and consider how their design decisions affect their target audiences.

Conclusions

As I explored rhetorical strategies I discovered a variety of rhetorical tools and

techniques for design and analysis of visual texts. For example, the five canons of rhetoric might

guide students as they develop content, as well as consider ways in which their decision may

ultimately affect the target audience. Gestalt and semiotics offer principles for students to

consider how viewers perceive visual information. The six visual cognates direct students in the

organization, development and delivery of design texts. These rhetorical tools and techniques

may empower students to analyze and create visual messages—to solve visual problems in

complex ways. I believe a rhetorical perspective will empower my students to achieve a higher

level of thinking about graphic design offering resources to analyze, evaluate, and discover a

variety of design solutions to visual problems. In addition, a rhetorical perspective may enhance

my students’ verbal communication skills, which, I believe, would increase their credibility as

prospective design professionals.

46 Recommendations

As I considered rhetorical strategies, tools and techniques I felt would benefit my

students’ creative process, the challenge was to consider how to incorporate them into the

Information Visualization course. My hope was to weave a rhetorical perspective into the

assignments without overwhelming my students. I planned to begin by building upon their visual

literacy skills as well as introduce rhetorical situations and appeals, which also would be used as

a guide for both assignments. I would then introduce the five canons of rhetoric and the six

visual cognates following with Gestalt and semiotics in the second assignment. The assignments

would have a structured guide in how to incorporate these strategies, tools and techniques;

however, this is a theoretical study, and I realize that I am missing a process of assessment. How

do I know that my students have benefited?

Assessment is a critical element in design education. For future studies I would

recommend several devices to measure students’ knowledge throughout the course and class

assignments. The rubrics might be presented in a form of an evaluation investigating terms, tools

and techniques students demonstrated in the assignments. I may also recommend a survey to be

filled out by the students before and after the course to measure their knowledge of visual

literacy and rhetoric. The process notebook, introduced earlier in this paper, should also be

considered a tool for assessment to measure students' ability to communicate rhetorically in

written and verbal discourse.

My recommendation for further investigation of rhetoric in graphic design education

would be to weave rhetorical studies and practices throughout the graphic design program.

Moreover, it is my opinion that all art and design students would benefit with courses in

47 rhetorical theory offered in their liberal studies curriculum. In addition, I would recommend a

visual rhetoric course early on in the students’ academic career, specifically related to

communication design. I believe rhetorical strategies should be inserted throughout all of the

graphic design courses.

I am disappointed not to be able to witness this study in the classroom; however, I intend

to share my research with interested graphic design faculty and design professionals. I am eager

to learn their perspective on rhetoric in graphic design curriculum as well as ways it can also

benefit the profession as a whole.

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