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1 Chapter 11 Chapter 11 Linguistics and Linguistics and Language Language Teaching Teaching
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Page 1: 1 Chapter 11 Linguistics and Language Teaching. 2 Applied linguistics Applied linguistics Theoretical views of language explicitly or implicitly inform.

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Chapter 11 Chapter 11 Linguistics and Linguistics and

Language Language TeachingTeaching

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Applied linguisticsApplied linguistics Theoretical views of language Theoretical views of language

explicitly or implicitly inform the explicitly or implicitly inform the approaches and methods adopted in approaches and methods adopted in language teaching.language teaching.

Linguistics, as the science of Linguistics, as the science of language, should be of fundamental language, should be of fundamental importance for teachers of language.importance for teachers of language.

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According to Jo McDonough, a According to Jo McDonough, a teacher who is able to explain teacher who is able to explain some linguistic features would some linguistic features would have a stronger position than one have a stronger position than one who handles the argument by who handles the argument by using authority – “it’s like that”, using authority – “it’s like that”, “it’s an exception”, or “it’s less “it’s an exception”, or “it’s less formal”.formal”.

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1. Linguistics and language 1. Linguistics and language learning learning Many language Many language

learning theories are learning theories are proposed based on proposed based on certain linguistic certain linguistic theories. theories. In fact, knowledge in In fact, knowledge in

linguistics lies at the linguistics lies at the root of understanding root of understanding what language learners what language learners can learncan learn, , how they how they actually learn and what actually learn and what they learn ultimately.they learn ultimately.

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As Rod Ellis points out, As Rod Ellis points out, “whereas much of the “whereas much of the earlier work focused on the earlier work focused on the linguistic and, in particular, linguistic and, in particular, the grammatical-properties the grammatical-properties of learner language and of learner language and was psycholinguistic in was psycholinguistic in orientationorientation, , later work has later work has also attended to the also attended to the pragmatic aspects of pragmatic aspects of learner language and, learner language and, increasingly, has adopted a increasingly, has adopted a sociolinguistic perspective.sociolinguistic perspective.

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Although certain language Although certain language learners learners ((e.g.e.g., , advanced learners advanced learners and students majoring a foreign and students majoring a foreign languagelanguage) ) certainly benefit from a certainly benefit from a knowledge of linguisticsknowledge of linguistics, , it is not it is not sensible to recommend the sensible to recommend the majority of language learners to majority of language learners to study linguistics while they are study linguistics while they are still struggling with the task of still struggling with the task of learning the language itself. learning the language itself.

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1.1 Grammar1.1 Grammar

As a compromise between theAs a compromise between the “ “purely purely form-focused approaches” and the form-focused approaches” and the “purely meaning-focused” approaches“purely meaning-focused” approaches, , a recent movement called a recent movement called focus on focus on formform seems to take a more balanced seems to take a more balanced view on the role of grammar in view on the role of grammar in language learning.language learning.

Do we teach Do we teach grammar?grammar?

How do we How do we teach teach grammar?grammar?

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Focus on FormFocus on Form Although language learning Although language learning

should generally be meaning-should generally be meaning-focused and communication-focused and communication-orientedoriented, , it is still necessary and it is still necessary and beneficial to focus on form beneficial to focus on form occasionally. occasionally.

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Focus on form often Focus on form often consists of an consists of an occasional shift of occasional shift of attention to attention to linguistic code linguistic code featuresfeatures——by the by the teacher and/or one teacher and/or one or more studentsor more students——triggered by triggered by perceived problems perceived problems with comprehension with comprehension or production.or production.

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Universal GrammarUniversal Grammar

Two variables concerning the Two variables concerning the amenability of language elements amenability of language elements to focus on form are the relevance to focus on form are the relevance of Universal Grammarof Universal Grammar ( (UGUG) ) and the and the complexity of language structures. complexity of language structures.

According to the advocates of According to the advocates of focus on formfocus on form, , if an L2 structure is if an L2 structure is part of UGpart of UG, , the amenability is high; the amenability is high; otherwiseotherwise, , the amenability is low.the amenability is low.

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The problem is that no The problem is that no one knows for sure one knows for sure what exactly is part of what exactly is part of UG. It is here that the UG. It is here that the study of linguistics study of linguistics comes into play. comes into play.

The study of UGThe study of UG, , which which is often considered as is often considered as the theory for the sake the theory for the sake of theoryof theory, , is now is now needed in language needed in language learning research in learning research in the most practical the most practical sense.sense.

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The study of UG has attracted The study of UG has attracted considerable attention from many considerable attention from many second language acquisition second language acquisition researchers because knowledge of researchers because knowledge of linguistic universals may help to linguistic universals may help to shape L2 acquisition in a number shape L2 acquisition in a number of ways. of ways. For exampleFor example, , it can provide it can provide

explanations for developmental explanations for developmental sequences and language transfer.sequences and language transfer.

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Structural complexityStructural complexity It can be assumed that less complex It can be assumed that less complex

structures have higher amenabilitystructures have higher amenability, , but complexity is hard to define. but complexity is hard to define.

Formally simple structures can be Formally simple structures can be functionally complex and formally functionally complex and formally complex items are not necessarily complex items are not necessarily functionally complex. functionally complex.

Again we resort to linguistics in order Again we resort to linguistics in order to have a better understanding of the to have a better understanding of the complexity of language structures.complexity of language structures.

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Grammar-based teachingGrammar-based teaching

Grammar-translation methodGrammar-translation method Audiolingual methodAudiolingual method Situational language teachingSituational language teaching

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1.2 Input1.2 Input

Language learning can take place Language learning can take place when the learner has enough access when the learner has enough access to input in the target language. to input in the target language.

This input may come in written or This input may come in written or spoken form. spoken form.

In the case of spoken inputIn the case of spoken input, , it may it may occur in the context of interaction occur in the context of interaction or in the context of non-reciprocal or in the context of non-reciprocal discoursediscourse ..

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Views diverge greatly as to Views diverge greatly as to what kind of input should be what kind of input should be provided for language provided for language learners.learners. Authentic input Authentic input Comprehensible input (Krashen): Comprehensible input (Krashen):

i+1i+1 Premodified inputPremodified input Interactively modified input: tendInteractively modified input: tend

s to do a better jobs to do a better job

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Input-based Input-based teachingteaching

Direct methodDirect method Natural approachNatural approach Total physical responseTotal physical response Communicative Communicative

approachapproach Community language Community language

learning (CLL)learning (CLL) SuggestopediaSuggestopedia Silent waySilent way

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Suggestopedia: Suggestopedia: Learn While You Sleep! Learn While You Sleep! The Bulgarian physician GeoThe Bulgarian physician Geo

rgi Lozanov devised a languargi Lozanov devised a language learning method called Suge learning method called Suggestopedia.ggestopedia.

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Caleb Gattegno’s Silent WaCaleb Gattegno’s Silent Wayy

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This is a chart containing a certain nThis is a chart containing a certain number of different coloured rectanglumber of different coloured rectangles; each colour corresponds to a soues; each colour corresponds to a sound in the language. nd in the language.

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The Fidel is a seThe Fidel is a set of charts prest of charts presenting all the penting all the possible spellingossible spellings of each sound s of each sound of the language.of the language.

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One of the 12 One of the 12 word charts oword charts on which the fn which the functional worunctional words of the langds of the language are printuage are printed in color. ed in color.

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http://www.saudicaves.com/silentway/rods/eng-rods.htmhttp://www.saudicaves.com/silentway/rods/eng-rods.htm

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1.3 Interlanguage—output1.3 Interlanguage—output

The type of language constructed The type of language constructed by second or foreign language by second or foreign language learners who are still in the learners who are still in the process of learning a language is process of learning a language is often referred to as often referred to as interlanguageinterlanguage. . It is often understood as a language It is often understood as a language

system between the target language system between the target language and the learner’s native language.and the learner’s native language.

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Interlanguage is a dynamic language sInterlanguage is a dynamic language system, which is constantly moving froystem, which is constantly moving from the departure level to the native-likm the departure level to the native-like level.e level.

Can be done in two ways: Can be done in two ways: investigating the psychologicalinvestigating the psychological, ,

biological or neurological biological or neurological mechanisms involved in the mechanisms involved in the production of interlanguage; production of interlanguage;

investigating the linguistic features investigating the linguistic features of interlanguage.of interlanguage.

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Concerning the linguistic features Concerning the linguistic features of interlanguageof interlanguage, , the following the following questions can be asked:questions can be asked: LinguisticallyLinguistically, , how is interlanguage how is interlanguage

in general different from the target in general different from the target language or the native language?language or the native language?

In what way is lower level In what way is lower level interlanguage different from higher interlanguage different from higher level interlanguage?level interlanguage?

How is the interlanguage system used How is the interlanguage system used to convey meaning?to convey meaning?

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ConstructivismConstructivism

LanguageLanguage ( (or any knowledgeor any knowledge) ) is is socially constructed. socially constructed.

Learners learn language by Learners learn language by cooperatingcooperating, , negotiating and negotiating and performing all kinds of tasks. performing all kinds of tasks. In other wordsIn other words, , they construct they construct

language in certain social and language in certain social and cultural contexts.cultural contexts.

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2. Linguistics and Language 2. Linguistics and Language TeachingTeaching Linguistics theories Linguistics theories

influence our general influence our general orientation in orientation in approaches to approaches to language teaching. language teaching. Linguistic knowledge Linguistic knowledge

helps teachers to better helps teachers to better explain the specific explain the specific language items they language items they teach.teach.

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2.1 Discourse-based view2.1 Discourse-based view Linguistic patterns exist across Linguistic patterns exist across

stretches of text. stretches of text. These patterns of language extend These patterns of language extend

beyond the words, clauses and sentences, beyond the words, clauses and sentences, which have been the traditional concern which have been the traditional concern of much language teaching. of much language teaching.

Focuses on complete spoken and written Focuses on complete spoken and written texts and on the social and cultural texts and on the social and cultural contexts in which such language contexts in which such language operates. operates.

Accordingly, it aims at developing Accordingly, it aims at developing discourse competence, similar to the discourse competence, similar to the well-known concept of well-known concept of communicative communicative competencecompetence..

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Communicative competenceCommunicative competence Dell Hymes Dell Hymes

What a learners knows about how a What a learners knows about how a language is used in particular situatlanguage is used in particular situations for effective and appropriate cions for effective and appropriate communication. ommunication.

Includes knowledge of the grammar Includes knowledge of the grammar and vocabulary, knowledge of rules and vocabulary, knowledge of rules of speaking, knowledge of how to usof speaking, knowledge of how to use and respond to different types of se and respond to different types of speech acts and social conventions, apeech acts and social conventions, and knowledge of how to use languagnd knowledge of how to use language appropriately. e appropriately.

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It is believed that language It is believed that language learning will successfully take learning will successfully take place when language learners know place when language learners know how and when to use the language how and when to use the language in various settings and when they in various settings and when they have successfully cognized various have successfully cognized various forms of competence such as forms of competence such as grammatical competence (lexis, grammatical competence (lexis, morphology, syntax and phonology) morphology, syntax and phonology) and pragmatic competence (e.g., and pragmatic competence (e.g., speech acts). speech acts).

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In the case of foreign/second In the case of foreign/second language learning, language language learning, language learners are encouraged to deal learners are encouraged to deal with accomplishing actions, which with accomplishing actions, which are thought to help them acquire are thought to help them acquire the target language. the target language. Communicative Language Teaching Communicative Language Teaching

(CLT)(CLT) and and Task-based Language Task-based Language Teaching (TBLT)Teaching (TBLT) are the best known are the best known examples of such a theory. examples of such a theory.

In the CLT or TBLT classroom, In the CLT or TBLT classroom, students are expected to learn by students are expected to learn by performing tasks.performing tasks.

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Task-basedTask-based

Two broad types of tasks: real-Two broad types of tasks: real-world tasks and pedagogical world tasks and pedagogical tasks. tasks. A real-world task is very close to A real-world task is very close to

something we do in daily life or something we do in daily life or work. work.

Pedagogical tasks are those Pedagogical tasks are those activities that students do in the activities that students do in the classroom but that may not take classroom but that may not take place in real life. (information gap)place in real life. (information gap)

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DrawbacksDrawbacks Overemphasizes the role of external Overemphasizes the role of external

factors in the process of language factors in the process of language acquisition and gives little importance to acquisition and gives little importance to internal learning processes. internal learning processes.

Similar to the behavioristic view of Similar to the behavioristic view of language acquisition in that language acquisition in that environmental factors and input are at the environmental factors and input are at the very center in attempting to explicate the very center in attempting to explicate the acquisition process. acquisition process.

Overstresses the role of knowledge of Overstresses the role of knowledge of competence and functions in acquiring a competence and functions in acquiring a language, and hence fails to notice language, and hence fails to notice universal principles that guide language universal principles that guide language acquisition.acquisition.

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2.2 Universal Grammar 2.2 Universal Grammar (UG)(UG) Noam ChomskyNoam Chomsky

A native speaker possesses a A native speaker possesses a kind of linguistic competence. kind of linguistic competence.

The child is born with The child is born with knowledge of some linguistic knowledge of some linguistic universals. universals.

While acquiring his mother While acquiring his mother tongue, he compares his tongue, he compares his innate language system with innate language system with that of his native language that of his native language and modifies his grammar.and modifies his grammar.

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Input is poor and deficient in two ways. Input is poor and deficient in two ways. It is “degenerate” because it is damaged bIt is “degenerate” because it is damaged b

y performance features such as slips, hesitay performance features such as slips, hesitations or false starts. Accordingly, the input itions or false starts. Accordingly, the input is not an adequate base for language learnins not an adequate base for language learning.g.

It is devoid of grammar corrections. It It is devoid of grammar corrections. It does not normally contain “negative does not normally contain “negative evidence”, the knowledge from which evidence”, the knowledge from which the learner could exercise what is the learner could exercise what is “not” possible in a given language.“not” possible in a given language.

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Vivian Cook wrote a whole Vivian Cook wrote a whole book to account for second book to account for second language acquisition based on language acquisition based on Chomsky’s linguistic theory. Chomsky’s linguistic theory.

Although UG was not originally Although UG was not originally proposed to account for second proposed to account for second language acquisition, many language acquisition, many researchers are working on its researchers are working on its implication for language learning implication for language learning and teaching. and teaching.

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DrawbacksDrawbacks UG’s primary aim is to account for UG’s primary aim is to account for

how language works, not acquisition. how language works, not acquisition. UG is only concerned with the core UG is only concerned with the core

grammar of language (syntax). grammar of language (syntax). The communication function is The communication function is

discarded in UG. discarded in UG. Chomsky is concerned only with Chomsky is concerned only with

‘competence’, there can be little ‘competence’, there can be little likelihood of SLA researchers likelihood of SLA researchers carrying out empirical research.carrying out empirical research.

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3. Syllabus Design3. Syllabus Design A bridge between language A bridge between language

teaching theory and teaching theory and language teaching practice. language teaching practice. Translates theoretical Translates theoretical

understanding of language understanding of language teaching and sets up an teaching and sets up an operable framework for operable framework for language teaching. language teaching.

The most important part of The most important part of syllabus design is selecting syllabus design is selecting and sequencing language and sequencing language items. items.

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3.1 Types of syllabus3.1 Types of syllabus

StructuralStructural SituationalSituational Functional/notionalFunctional/notional CommunicativeCommunicative Task-basedTask-based Content-basedContent-based

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3.2 Components of a 3.2 Components of a syllabussyllabus Aims/goalsAims/goals Objectives/targets/requirementsObjectives/targets/requirements Non-language outcomes: affect Non-language outcomes: affect

cultivation (confidence, motivation, cultivation (confidence, motivation, interest, etc.)interest, etc.)

Learning strategies, thinking skills, Learning strategies, thinking skills, interpersonal skills, etc.interpersonal skills, etc.

Implementation: approaches, methods, Implementation: approaches, methods, principles, suggestions, textbooks, etc.principles, suggestions, textbooks, etc.

Assessment/evaluationAssessment/evaluation

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3.3 Current trends3.3 Current trends Co-existence of the Co-existence of the

old and the newold and the new Emphasis on the Emphasis on the

learning processlearning process Inclusion of non-Inclusion of non-

linguistic objectiveslinguistic objectives Emergence of the Emergence of the

multi-syllabusmulti-syllabus

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4. Contrastive Analysis4. Contrastive Analysis

A way of comparing L1 and L2 to A way of comparing L1 and L2 to determine potential errors for the determine potential errors for the purpose of isolating what needs to purpose of isolating what needs to be learned and what not.be learned and what not. Its goal is to predict what areas will Its goal is to predict what areas will

be easy to learn and what will be be easy to learn and what will be difficult.difficult.

Associated in its early days with Associated in its early days with behaviorism and structuralism.behaviorism and structuralism.

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4.1 Main assumptions4.1 Main assumptions Language is a habit and LL involves Language is a habit and LL involves

establishment of a new set of establishment of a new set of habits.habits. L1 interferes with L2.L1 interferes with L2. Errors in L2 can be accounted for by Errors in L2 can be accounted for by

differences between L1 and L2.differences between L1 and L2. Transfer occurs from L2 to L2, so Transfer occurs from L2 to L2, so

similarities can be ignored.similarities can be ignored. Therefore,Therefore,

Need for careful analysis of similarities Need for careful analysis of similarities and differences between L1 and L2.and differences between L1 and L2.

Teachers should focus on areas of Teachers should focus on areas of negative transfer.negative transfer.

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4.2 Drawbacks4.2 Drawbacks

Overemphasis on linguistic Overemphasis on linguistic contrasts but lack of contrasts but lack of psychological considerations.psychological considerations.

Cannot predict all errors while Cannot predict all errors while some predicted errors do not some predicted errors do not occur.occur.

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5. Error Analysis5. Error Analysis

S. Pit CorderS. Pit Corder Many errors made by L2 learners weMany errors made by L2 learners we

re caused by factors other than L1 intre caused by factors other than L1 interference.erference.

Errors are not just to be seen as someErrors are not just to be seen as something to be eradicated.thing to be eradicated.

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5.1 Error and mistake5.1 Error and mistake Error: learner’s lack of Error: learner’s lack of

knowledge/ competenceknowledge/ competence Mistake: learner’s failure to Mistake: learner’s failure to

perform their competenceperform their competence

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5.2 Interlingual vs. intralingua5.2 Interlingual vs. intralinguall

Interlingual errorsInterlingual errors (tr (transfer errors): misuse ansfer errors): misuse of an item because of of an item because of L1 influence.L1 influence.

Intralingual errorsIntralingual errors (de (developmental errors): velopmental errors): within L2 (e.g. overgewithin L2 (e.g. overgeneralization)neralization)

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5.3 Procedure of error 5.3 Procedure of error analysisanalysis

RecognitionRecognition DescriptionDescription ExplanationExplanation

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5.4 Problems5.4 Problems

Rely on errors to study how L2 is Rely on errors to study how L2 is learned – inadequate.learned – inadequate.

Difficult to determine what an error Difficult to determine what an error is: is: There are so many people live around There are so many people live around

here.here. Over-stresses production error but Over-stresses production error but

fails to account for error avoidance: fails to account for error avoidance: learner avoids a certain word or learner avoids a certain word or structure.structure.

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6. Corpus6. Corpus Language corpora make Language corpora make

it possible for materials it possible for materials developers to select developers to select authentic, natural and authentic, natural and typical language. typical language. The two most important The two most important

factors in a corpus are the factors in a corpus are the size and types of texts size and types of texts selected. selected.

Usually the uses that will Usually the uses that will be made of the corpus be made of the corpus decide the number and decide the number and type of texts in a corpus.type of texts in a corpus.

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6.1 Types6.1 Types

GeneralGeneral SpecializedSpecialized SampleSample MonitorMonitor

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6.2 Uses6.2 Uses

FrequencyFrequency Context and Context and

co-textco-text GrammaticalGrammatical Collocation Collocation

and and phraseologyphraseology

PragmaticsPragmatics


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