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Motivation
The forces either internal or external to a person that arouse enthusiasm and persistence to pursue a certain course of action
The process of arousing and sustaining goal-directed behaviorWho is responsible for this?Motivation is an attributionWhat is the role of money as a motivator ?
Two football coaches have a lot to teach screaming managers:
•How does this article challenge your assumptions about motivation?•If screaming gets results, is screaming OK? Why or why not?
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Ex. 8.1 A Simple Model of Motivation
Need Creates desire to fulfill needs (money, friendship, recognition, achievement)
Behavior Results in actions to fulfill needs
Rewards Satisfy needs: intrinsic or extrinsic rewards
Feedback Reward informs person whether behavior was appropriate and should be used again
Need: state or condition within an individual that generates movementtoward some outcome or reward.
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Types of Rewards
Intrinsic Rewards Internal satisfactions a person receives in the
process of performing a particular action
Extrinsic Rewards Rewards given by another person, typically a
supervisor, such as pay increases and promotions
Systemwide Rewards Rewards that apply the same to all people within
an organization or within a specific category or department
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Ex. 8.2 Examples of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Rewards
Extrinsic Intrinsic
Individual
Systemwide
Large merit increase
Insurance benefits
Feeling of self-fulfillment
Pride in being part of a “winning”
organization
Individual rewards: differ among individuals within the same organizationor department
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Ex. 8.3 Needs of People and Motivation Methods
Needs of people
Conventional management
Lower needs
Carrot and stick (Extrinsic)
Control people
Adequate effort
Leadership
Higher needs
Empowerment (Intrinsic)
Growth and fulfillment
Best effort
Ex. 8.4 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Need Hierarchy
Self-actualization Needs
Esteem Needs
Belongingness Needs
Safety Needs
Physiological Needs
Fulfillment on the Job
Opportunities for advancement, autonomy, growth, creativity
Recognition, approval, high status, increased responsibilities
Work groups, clients, coworkers, supervisors
Safe work, fringe benefits, job security
Food, shelter, base salary
Deficiency vs. growth needs
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Hygiene Factor - work condition related to dissatisfaction caused by discomfort or pain maintenance factor contributes to employee’s feeling not dissatisfied contributes to absence of complaints
Motivators - work conditions related to the satisfaction of the need for psychological growth job enrichment leads to superior performance & effort
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Ex. 8.5 Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Area of Satisfaction
Area of Dissatisfaction
Motivators influence level of satisfaction
Hygiene factors influence level of dissatisfaction
Motivators
AchievementRecognitionResponsibilityWork itselfPersonal growth
Hygiene Factors
Work conditionsPay/securityCo. policiesSupervisors
Interpersonal. relationships
Highly Satisfied
Neither Satisfied nor Dissatisfied
Highly Dissatisfied
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Motivation-Hygiene Combinations
High M Low M
High H high motivation few complaints
low motivation few complaints
Low H high motivation many complaints
low motivation many complaints
(Motivation = M, Hygiene = H)
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Reinforcement Theory
Looks at the relationship between behavior and its consequences by changing or modifying followers’ on-the-job behavior through the appropriate use of immediate rewards or punishments
Behavior is a function of its consequences
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Behavior modification
Law of effect: positively reinforced behaviors tends to be repeated and behavior that is not reinforced tends to not be repeated.
Positive consequences: results of a behavior that a person finds attractive or pleasurable
Negative consequences: results of a behavior that a person finds unattractive or aversive
Positive reinforcement: the administration of a pleasant and rewarding consequence following a behavior
Negative reinforcement: the withdrawal of an unpleasant consequence once a behavior is improved. Avoidance learning.
Punishment: the imposition of unpleasant outcomes on an employee following undesirable behavior
Extinction: the attempt to weaken a behavior by attaching no consequences to it.
Reinforcement & Punishment Strategies
Reinforcement (desireable behavior)
Punishment (undesireable
behavior) Positive
Consequences
Apply
Withhold
Negative Consequences
Withhold
Apply
Examples of Negative Reinforcement
Focused on desirable behaviors that occur more frequently: If a clerical worker feels that being ahead is a
favorable condition, the worker will be motivated to work hard in order to avoid the unpleasant state of being behind.
An instructor deducts 10 points from a student’s grade for each observed absence but there is no effect on a student’s grade for attendance.
Example of an alarm in a child’s room.
Examples of Punishment
Focused on undesirable behaviors that should occur very infrequently: If you exhibit unprofessional behavior in this
class, you will lose a letter grades If you are caught cheating on an exam, you
could fail the course If you steal something at work, you will be
terminated.
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Acquired Needs Theory
McClelland’s theory that proposes that certain types of needs are acquired during an individual’s lifetime
Three needs most frequently studied: Need for achievement Need for affiliation Need for power
McClelland’s Need Theory:Need for Achievement
Need for Achievement - a manifest (easily perceived) need that concerns individuals’ issues of excellence, competition, challenging goals, persistence, and overcoming difficultiesSet moderate goalsSeek feedbackStay focused
McClelland’s Need Theory:Need for Power
Need for Power - a manifest (easily perceived) need that concerns an individual’s need to make an impact on others, influence others, change people or events, and make a difference in lifePersonal or socialized
McClelland’s Need Theory:Need for Affiliation
Need for Affiliation - a manifest (easily perceived) need that concerns an individual’s need to establish and maintain warm, close, intimate relationships with other people
What combination of needs are present in the best managers?
Expectancy Theory of Motivation: Key Constructs
Valence - value or importance placed on a particular reward
Expectancy - belief that effort leads to performance
Instrumentality - belief that performance is related to rewards
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Ex. 8.6 Key Elements of Expectancy Theory
E > P expectancyEffort Performance
P > O expectancyPerformance Outcomes
Valence – value of outcomes(pay, recognition, other
rewards)
Motivation
Will putting effort into the task lead to the desired performance?
Will high performance lead to the desired outcomes?
Are the available outcomes highly valued?
Theory of Inequity
Inequity – the situation in which a person perceives he or she is receiving less than he or she is giving, or is giving less than he or she is receiving
People are motivated when they see themselvesin a position they believe is unfair. They will be motivated to either change their behavior or change their perceptions in order to restore equity
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Carrot-and-stick controversy
Extrinsic rewards diminish intrinsic rewards
Extrinsic rewards are temporary Extrinsic rewards assume people are driven
by lower order needs Organizations are too complex for carrot-
and-stick approaches Carrot-and-stick approaches destroy
people’s motivation to work as a group
On the folly of rewarding A while hoping for B
Mangers hope for: Teamwork and
collaboration Innovative thinking and
risk taking Development of people
skills Employee involvement
and empowerment High achievement Commitment to quality Long-term growth
But they reward: The best individual
performers Proven methods and not
making mistakes Technical achievements
and accomplishments Tight control over
operations and resources Another year’s routine
effort Shipping time, even with
defects Quarterly earnings
See the three major obstacles to fixing reward systems on p. 241
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Empowerment
Power sharing: the delegation of power or authority to subordinates in the organization. What’s wrong with this concept?
Empowerment: being enabled to make independent decisions and take effective action
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Elements of empowerment
Information about company performance Knowledge and skills to contribute to
company goals Power to make substantive decisions Understanding the meaning and impact of
your job Rewards based on company performance
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Other approaches
Employee ownership Gainsharing Pay for knowledge Pay for performance Job enrichment Goal setting?
Problems with?
Job Characteristics Model
Skill varietyTask identityTask significance
Autonomy
Feedback
Core jobdimensions
Core jobdimensions
Experienced work’s
meaningfulness
Experienced
responsibility
for work’s outcomes
Knowledge of work
activities’ results
Criticalpsychological
states
Criticalpsychological
states
High internalwork motivationHigh-qualitywork performanceHigh satisfaction with the workLow absenteeismand turnover
Personal andwork outcomes
Personal andwork outcomes
Employee growth,need,
strength
Skill variety High variety
The owner-operator of a garage who does electrical repair, rebuilds engines, does body work, and interacts with customers
Low variety A bodyshop worker who sprays paint eight hours a day
Task Identity High identity
A cabinetmaker who designs a piece of furniture, selects the wood, builds the object, and finishes it to perfection
Low identity A worker in a furniture factory who operates a lathe solely to make table legs
Task significance
High significance
Low significance
Nursing the sick in a hospital intensive care unit
Sweeping hospital floors
Autonomy High autonomy
A telephone installer who schedules his or her own work for the day, makes visits without supervision, and decides on the most effective techniques for a particular installation
Low autonomy A telephone operator who must handle calls as they come according to a routine, highly specified procedure
Feedback High feedback
An electronics factory worker who assembles a modem and then tests it to determine if it operates properly
Low feedback An electronics factory worker who assembles a modem and then routes it to a quality control inspector who tests it for proper operation and makes needed adjustments
Skill variety High variety
The owner-operator of a garage who does electrical repair, rebuilds engines, does body work, and interacts with customers
Low variety A bodyshop worker who sprays paint eight hours a day
Task Identity High identity
A cabinetmaker who designs a piece of furniture, selects the wood, builds the object, and finishes it to perfection
Low identity A worker in a furniture factory who operates a lathe solely to make table legs
Task significance
High significance
Low significance
Nursing the sick in a hospital intensive care unit
Sweeping hospital floors
Autonomy High autonomy
A telephone installer who schedules his or her own work for the day, makes visits without supervision, and decides on the most effective techniques for a particular installation
Low autonomy A telephone operator who must handle calls as they come according to a routine, highly specified procedure
Feedback High feedback
An electronics factory worker who assembles a modem and then tests it to determine if it operates properly
Low feedback An electronics factory worker who assembles a modem and then routes it to a quality control inspector who tests it for proper operation and makes needed adjustments
Examples of high and low job characteristics
Engagement: pp 246-249Bookshelf: First break all the rules
The strength of a workplace depends upon engaged employees
Leaders Recognize that you have no control Build on the talents of employees Focus people on performance
Engagement is a positive, fulfilling, work-related state of mind that is characterized by vigor, dedication, and absorption. Rather than a momentary and specific state, engagement refers to a more persistent and pervasive affective-cognitive state that is not focused on any particular object, event, individual, or behavior. Vigor is characterized by high levels of energy and mental resilience while working, the willingness to invest effort in one’s work, and persistence even in the face of difficulties. Dedication refers to being strongly involved in one's work and experiencing a sense of significance, enthusiasm, inspiration, pride, and challenge. Absorption is characterized by being fully concentrated and happily engrossed in one’s work, whereby time passes quickly and one has difficulties with detaching oneself from work
Gallup Q-12 Engagement – cause or effect?
I know what is expected of me at work.
I have the materials and equipment I need to do my work right.
At work, I have the opportunity to do what I do best everyday.
In the last seven days, I have received recognition or praise for doing good work.
My supervisor, or someone at work, seems to care about me as a person.
There is someone at work who encourages my development.
At work, my opinions seem to count.
The mission or purpose of my company makes me feel my job is important
My associates or fellow employees are committed to doing quality work.
I have a best friend at work. In the last six months,
someone at work has talked to me about my progress.
This last year, I have had opportunities at work to learn and grow.
#13: How satisfied are you with ________ as a place to work?
VIGORWhen I am working, I feel mentally strong
I can continue for a very long time when I am workingWhen I work at my current job, I feel like I am bursting with energy
At my job, I feel strong and vigorousWhen I get up in the morning, I feel like going to work
DEDICATONI find my work to be full of meaning and purpose
My work inspires meI am enthusiastic about my jobI am proud of the work that I do
I find my work challengingABSORBTION
Time flies when I am workingWhen I am working, I forget everything else around me
I feel very happy when I am working intensivelyI can get carried away when I am working
I am immersed in my work
Engagement
Cause (examples: Q12) I have a best friend at
work I know what is
expected of me at work
My opinions seem to count
My supervisor seems to care about me
Effect (examples) My work inspires me I am immersed in my
work When I get up in the
morning, I feel like going to work
I feel very happy when I am working intensively
Evidence-Based Management
What is evidence-based management?
What are six substitutes that managers often use for the best evidence?
What are the four things leaders can do to create a new-mindset of evidence-based management?
What is the nasty side effect for leaders that practice evidence-based management?