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Chapters 5 & 6

Motivation Concepts and Applications

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What Is Motivation?

Motivation: A willingness to do some act, conditioned by the action’s ability to satisfy

some need for the person.

Need: A physiological or psychological deficiency that makes certain outcomes appear attractive to the person.

(Note: P = M x A)

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• Content (or Need) Theories: Attempt to tell us what motivates people.

– Maslow’s Hierarchy Theory– McGregor’s Theory X and Y– Herzberg’s Theory– McClelland’s Theory– Job Design Model

Theories of Motivation

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Theories of Motivation

• Process Theories: Attempt to tell us how motivation takes place.

– Expectancy Theory– Goal Setting Theory– Behavior Modification (Learning) Theory– Equity Theory

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Content Theories: Maslow’s Hierarchy

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Content Theories: McGregor’s X & Y

Theory X Workers• Dislike work

• Must be threatened with punishment

• Avoid responsibilities

• Seek formal direction

• Require security

• Little ambition

Theory Y Workers• View work as natural

• Self-directed

• Exercise self-control

• Accept responsibility

• Seek responsibility

• Make innovative decisions

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Content Theories: Herzberg’s Two-Factors

High HighJob Dissatisfaction Job Satisfaction0

Hygiene factors affectjob dissatisfaction

Motivator factors affectjob satisfaction

• Quality of supervision• Pay• Company policies• Physical working

conditions• Relations with others• Job security

• Promotional opportunities• Opportunities for personal

growth• Recognition• Responsibility• Achievement

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Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

• If managers eliminate factors creating job dissatisfaction, they may bring about “peace” but not necessarily motivation.

• If managers want to motivate, they should emphasize factors associated with the work itself (or outcomes directly derived from it).

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Content Theories: McClelland's Needs

• Need for achievement (nAch) - drive to excel

• Need for power (nPow) - need to make others behave in ways they would not otherwise

• Need for affiliation (nAff) - desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships

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McClelland's Needs Theory

• High nAchievers: Prefer jobs with personal responsibility, feedback, intermediate risk.

• High nAchievers: Not necessarily good managers.

• nAffiliation and nPower: Are both closely related to managerial success.

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Content Theories: Job Char’s Model

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Applications of Job Char’s Model:Job Redesign & Work Scheduling

Programs

• Improve the job’s “VISAF”

• Use employee involvement & participation

• Look to job rotation

• Look to job sharing

• Consider flextime

• Consider telecommuting

Application of Content Theories

• mastery• recognition• guidance• structure

• sense of purpose

• fairness• gratifying work• acceptance

• trust, respect• autonomy• involvement• teamwork

(Do managers have greater control over tangible or intangible rewards?)

Managers must appreciate the difference between:– Intangible (intrinsic) vs. tangible (extrinsic) needs.

Examples of Intangible (intrinsic) needs:

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Theories of Motivation

• Process Theories: Attempt to tell us how motivation takes place.

– Expectancy Theory– Goal Setting Theory– Behavior Modification (Learning) Theory– Equity Theory

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Process Theories: Expectancy

• Motivation is a process governing choice

• Assumes Perf. = (Mot. x Ability) and thatMot. = (V x I x E)

• Works well for diagnosing

• Works well for predicting discrete andimportant job choices

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The Expectancy Process

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Goal Setting Theory– Assumes conscious goals and intentions will

drive (or motivate) behavior

– Important terms:• S • M • A • R • T

Ownership of goal also critical for motivation!

– Remember Self-Efficacy

Process Theories: Goal Setting

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Motivationand Performance

The “SMART” Goal-Setting Process

Use SMART Rulesto Set Goals

Involve Employees toGain Ownershipand Commitment

Monitor andProvide Support and

Regular Feedback

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Beware of “Goals Gone Wild!”

The “dark side” of writing good SMART goals:– Higher order goal displacement:

• Short term goals, plus a high pay off, can lead to some nasty outcomes as people become myopically focused and quickly take the low road;

• Short term, high stakes goals will crowd out long term goals and work against the long term interest of the organization (for example, strong quarterly earnings goals with strong incentives/punishments, work against LR R&D investments, etc.).

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• Assumes all human behavior is shaped (or “reinforced”)by its environmental consequences

• Important terminology:– Reinforcement (both +/-): increases probability

of a behavior

– Punishment (both +/-): decreases probabilityof a behavior

• Tricky Application: When is a reward a punishment

?(Hint: What’s the role of human cognition in all this?)

(See also: Cognitive Evaluation Theory)

Process Theories: Behavior Modification (or Learning Theory)

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Using Behavior Modification and Consequences to Manage

Behavior• Focus on specific behaviors• Respond quickly• Be consistent• Use positive reinforcement• Punish sparingly• Praise publicly; punish privately

• Provide alternative behaviors

• Don’t hope for A while rewarding B (it’s called “Learning Theory” for a reason!)

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• Assumes people are motivated (in a socialcontext) to attain fairness

• Inputs, Outcomes and “comparison other”

• Inequity tension behaviors (to eliminate it)

• Behaviors to eliminate the inequity are verypredictable

Process Theories: Equity Theory

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1) Change attitudes/perceptions about inputs and/or outcomes (of self or comparison other)

2) Increase own outcomes and/or decrease inputs

3) Use different “comparison person”

4) Try to get “other” to change inputs and/or outcomes

5) Quit their job or seek to transfer

When employees perceive inequity, they will:

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In summary...• Content theories:

– Basic survival needs (i.e., food, water, etc.)– Higher level intrinsic needs (i.e., list of intangibles)

• Process theories: – Establishing clear “if-then” linkages– Establishing vague “trust-based” linkages

What about money? Does it motivate?• Of course, money matters hugely!

– But it typically does NOT “motivate” because:• It only matters up to a certain “point”• It’s rarely ever “contingent”

• Advice: Pay enough to take money “off the table,” then create a culture that motivates through higher levels of intrinsic needs (like mastery, autonomy, purpose, etc.)

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So, why do so many managers often failat properly motivating their employees?

1. They are usually guilty of “projection” (Note to Self: People will always commit

themselves for “their” reasons, not mine!)

2. They assume “one-size-fits-all”

3. They don’t appreciate the difference between tangible vs. intangible rewards

4. They don’t appreciate the difference between features and benefits

Putting it all together . . .

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To motivate your people, you should know....

• Their tangible needs• Their intangible needs• Their skills and abilities• Their background and experience• The tasks they like and dislike• Their job and career goals• Their personal goals and ambitions