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Cognitive GrammarCognitive Grammar

Helena Helena GaoGao

Lecture 4 18 Oct., 2005Lecture 4 18 Oct., 2005

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Required readings:Required readings: Langacker, R. (l998). Conceptualization, symbolization Langacker, R. (l998). Conceptualization, symbolization

and grammar. In M.Tomasello(ed.) and grammar. In M.Tomasello(ed.) The New Psychology of The New Psychology of Language.Language. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishes. pp. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishes. pp. 1-391-39

Hsieh, Hsin-I. (2005 to appear). Toward a Global Hsieh, Hsin-I. (2005 to appear). Toward a Global Grammar of Chinese, Grammar of Chinese, Language And Linguistics Language And Linguistics Monograph Series Number W-3Monograph Series Number W-3, 1-17. Papers In Honor Of , 1-17. Papers In Honor Of Professor William S-Y. Wang On His Seventieth Birthday.Professor William S-Y. Wang On His Seventieth Birthday.

Recommended readings:Recommended readings: Pinker, S. (1994). Pinker, S. (1994). The Language InstinctThe Language Instinct. New York: . New York:

Morrow. Chapter 4: How language works. pp. 83-125; Morrow. Chapter 4: How language works. pp. 83-125; Chapter 10: Language organs and grammar genes. pp. Chapter 10: Language organs and grammar genes. pp. 297-331297-331

Goldberg, A. E. (2004). But do we need Universal Goldberg, A. E. (2004). But do we need Universal Grammar? Grammar? Comment on Lidz et al. Comment on Lidz et al. (2003) Cognition 94. (2003) Cognition 94. 77-8477-84

Fillmore, C., Kay, P., & O’Connor, M. C. (2003). Regularity Fillmore, C., Kay, P., & O’Connor, M. C. (2003). Regularity and Idiomaticity in Grammatical Constructions: The Case and Idiomaticity in Grammatical Constructions: The Case of Let Alone. In M. Tomasello (ed.), of Let Alone. In M. Tomasello (ed.), The new psychology of The new psychology of language: Cognitive and functional approaches to language: Cognitive and functional approaches to language structure,language structure, Vol. 2. NJ, US: Lawrence Erlbaum Vol. 2. NJ, US: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. pp. 243-270Associates, Publishers. pp. 243-270

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Cognitive approaches to Cognitive approaches to grammargrammar

Theories of grammar that relate grammar to mental Theories of grammar that relate grammar to mental processes and structures in human cognition. processes and structures in human cognition. (Wikipedia (Wikipedia Encyclopedia by Sergei Starostin, 1953-2005)Encyclopedia by Sergei Starostin, 1953-2005)

Noam Chomsky and his fellow generative grammarians Noam Chomsky and his fellow generative grammarians Grammar is an autonomous mental faculty Grammar is an autonomous mental faculty It is governed by mental processes operating on mental It is governed by mental processes operating on mental

representations of different kinds of symbols that apply only representations of different kinds of symbols that apply only within this faculty.within this faculty.

Proponents of cognitive linguisticsProponents of cognitive linguistics Grammar is not an autonomous mental faculty with processes Grammar is not an autonomous mental faculty with processes

of its own, but it is intertwined with all other cognitive of its own, but it is intertwined with all other cognitive processes and structures. processes and structures.

The basic claim is that grammar is conceptualization. The basic claim is that grammar is conceptualization. Some of the theories that fall within this paradigm Some of the theories that fall within this paradigm

e,.g., construction grammar, cognitive grammar, and word e,.g., construction grammar, cognitive grammar, and word grammar.grammar.

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Cognitive approaches to Cognitive approaches to grammargrammar - - Guiding Guiding

PrinciplesPrinciples

The symbolic thesisThe symbolic thesis: : The basic unit of a The basic unit of a grammargrammar is a form- is a form-

meaning pairing termed variously a meaning pairing termed variously a symbolic assemblysymbolic assembly in Langacker’s in Langacker’s Cognitive Grammar or a Cognitive Grammar or a constructionconstruction in a construction grammar.in a construction grammar.

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A symbolic unit

The relationship between semantic, phonological and symbolic units

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Cognitive approaches to Cognitive approaches to grammargrammar - - Guiding Guiding

PrinciplesPrinciples

The usage-based thesisThe usage-based thesis: : There is an intimate relationship between the There is an intimate relationship between the

grammar (defined as the mental repository of grammar (defined as the mental repository of symbolic units), and language use.symbolic units), and language use.

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The Cognitive Model of Grammar (Langacker

1987: 77)

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Distinct Cognitive Approaches to the Study Distinct Cognitive Approaches to the Study

of Grammarof Grammar

‘ ‘Inventory-based’ theoriesInventory-based’ theories Cognitive Grammar Cognitive Grammar Construction Grammar Construction Grammar

Fillmore and Key’s Construction Grammar Fillmore and Key’s Construction Grammar Goldberg’s Construction Grammar Goldberg’s Construction Grammar Embodied Construction GrammarEmbodied Construction Grammar Radical Construction Grammar Radical Construction Grammar

‘‘Grammatical subsystem-based’ Grammatical subsystem-based’ theories theories The theory of Conceptual Structuring Systems The theory of Conceptual Structuring Systems Grammaticalisation Theory Grammaticalisation Theory

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Inventory-based approaches to grammar - An overview of distinct cognitive linguistic

theories of grammar

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Characteristics of the Cognitive Characteristics of the Cognitive Approach to GrammarApproach to Grammar

The ultimate aim of a cognitive The ultimate aim of a cognitive approach is to model speaker approach is to model speaker knowledge in ways which are knowledge in ways which are consistent with the consistent with the two key two key commitmentscommitments which underlie the which underlie the cognitive linguistics enterprise. cognitive linguistics enterprise.

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Generalisation CommitmentGeneralisation Commitment a commitment to the characterisation of a commitment to the characterisation of

general principles which are responsible general principles which are responsible for all aspects of human languagefor all aspects of human language Categorisation, polysemy, metaphorCategorisation, polysemy, metaphor

Cognitive CommitmentCognitive Commitment a commitment to providing a a commitment to providing a

characterisation of general principles characterisation of general principles for language which accords with what is for language which accords with what is known about the mind and brain from known about the mind and brain from other disciplines.other disciplines. Attention, categorization, metaphorAttention, categorization, metaphor

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The Generalization Commitment

Lexicology: e.g., Over a. The picture is over the sofa [‘above’] b. The picture is over the hole [‘covering’] c. The ball is over the wall [‘on-the-other-side-of’] d. The government handed over power [‘transfer’]

e. She has a strange power over me [‘control’] Morphology: e.g., Agentive –er Suffix

a. teacher b. villager c. toaster d. best-seller

Syntax: e.g., Ditransitive construction Subject Verb Object 1 Object 2

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The Cognitive Commitment

Attention The boy kicks over the vase [ACTIVE] The vase is kicked over [PASSIVE] The vase smashes into bits [SUBJECT-

VERB-COMPLEMENT] The vase is in bits [SUBJECT-COPULA-

COMPLEMENT]

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Basic Concepts of Langacker’s Basic Concepts of Langacker’s Cognitive Grammar: An Cognitive Grammar: An OverviewOverview

1) Attention: 1) Attention: “…attention is “…attention is intrinsically associated with the intrinsically associated with the intensity or energy level of cognitive intensity or energy level of cognitive processes, which translates processes, which translates experientially into greater experientially into greater prominence or salience” (Langacker, prominence or salience” (Langacker, 1987: 115) 1987: 115)

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Focal adjustments:Focal adjustments: Linguistic expressions relate to conceived Linguistic expressions relate to conceived

situations or “scenes” situations or “scenes”

The concepts employed to structure The concepts employed to structure conceived situations can vary along three conceived situations can vary along three parameters: selection, perspective and parameters: selection, perspective and abstraction. abstraction. Such variation is termed focal adjustmentSuch variation is termed focal adjustment

By choosing particular focal adjustments and By choosing particular focal adjustments and hence organising a scene in a particular hence organising a scene in a particular way, through language, the speaker or way, through language, the speaker or hearer provides a particular hearer provides a particular construalconstrual of of the scene in question the scene in question

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The relationship between focal The relationship between focal

adjustments and construaladjustments and construal

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Selection:Selection:

Focal adjustments of selection Focal adjustments of selection determine which aspects of a scene determine which aspects of a scene are being dealt with: are being dealt with:

i) Conceptual Domains: i) Conceptual Domains: a body of a body of knowledge within our conceptual knowledge within our conceptual system that contains and organizes system that contains and organizes related ideas and experiences related ideas and experiences

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Basic conceptual domains Basic conceptual domains (Langacker, 1987)(Langacker, 1987)

Basic Domain Basic Domain SPACE SPACE COLOURCOLOUR PITCHPITCH TEMPERATURETEMPERATURE PRESSUREPRESSURE PAINPAIN ODOURODOUR TIMETIME EMOTIONEMOTION

Pre-conceptual Basis Pre-conceptual Basis Vision, touch, kinaesthesia Vision, touch, kinaesthesia Vision Vision Hearing Hearing Touch, somesthesia Touch, somesthesia Touch, kinaesthesia, Touch, kinaesthesia,

somesthesia somesthesia Touch, somesthesia Touch, somesthesia Smell Smell Temporal awareness Temporal awareness Affective system Affective system

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ExamplesExamples a. The tree is quite close to the garage a. The tree is quite close to the garage

[spatial][spatial] b. It’s already close to Christmas b. It’s already close to Christmas [temporal] [temporal]

c. The paint is close to the blue we want for c. The paint is close to the blue we want for the dining room the dining room [colour] [colour]

d. Steve and his sister are very close d. Steve and his sister are very close [emotion] [emotion]

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ii) Profiling: ii) Profiling: the conceptualisation the conceptualisation designated by a linguistic utterance designated by a linguistic utterance constitutes its profile, a focal point. constitutes its profile, a focal point. However, a particular focal point is However, a particular focal point is always prominent with respect to a always prominent with respect to a particular context. This constitutes particular context. This constitutes profile/base organisationprofile/base organisation. .

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a) Open class subsystem a) Open class subsystem e.g., Profile-base organisation for e.g., Profile-base organisation for elbowelbow

b) Closed class subsystem b) Closed class subsystem John hit the ball John hit the ball

The ball was hit The ball was hit

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Perspective:Perspective:

Perspective relates to the position from which Perspective relates to the position from which a scene is viewed, with consequences fro a scene is viewed, with consequences fro the relative prominence of its participants the relative prominence of its participants

i) Trajector and landmark: i) Trajector and landmark: In an action In an action chain, trajector (TR)/Landmark (LM) chain, trajector (TR)/Landmark (LM) Organisation relates to the participants in a Organisation relates to the participants in a

profiled relationship. profiled relationship. While the TR While the TR constitutes the focal participant, constitutes the focal participant,

the landmark constitutes the secondary. the landmark constitutes the secondary.

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a. The boy hit the ball [active] a. The boy hit the ball [active] b. The ball was hit by the boy [passive] b. The ball was hit by the boy [passive]

“ “boy” “ball” boy” “ball”

TR-LM organisation relates to subject/object TR-LM organisation relates to subject/object distinctiondistinction. .

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An instance of the more general phenomenon An instance of the more general phenomenon of figure-ground organisation:of figure-ground organisation:

ii) Viewpoint: The perspective and orientation taken on a scene provides a different way of construing it, e.g., from the perspective of the agent or patient as in active/passive distinction

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Abstraction:Abstraction:

Abstraction relates to the degree of Abstraction relates to the degree of specificity at which a scene is specificity at which a scene is portrayed. portrayed.

a. The basketball player is tall a. The basketball player is tall b. The basketball player is over six feet tall b. The basketball player is over six feet tall c. The basketball player is about six feet c. The basketball player is about six feet

five inches tall five inches tall d. The basketball player is exactly six feet d. The basketball player is exactly six feet

five and one half inches tall five and one half inches tall

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Some concepts in Some concepts in Langacker’s cognitive Langacker’s cognitive

grammar (1991)grammar (1991)

““Force-dynamics”Force-dynamics” ““Active zone”Active zone” ““energy flow”, energy flow”, ““energy source”energy source” ““energy sink”energy sink”

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Examples in Chinese- the Examples in Chinese- the verb verb dada

Gao, 2001: 27

29Gao, 2001: 27

30Gao, 2001: 27

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Gao, 2001: 31

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Gao, 2001: 181

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Gao, 2001: 181

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Gao, 2001: 181

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Different Scenarios of Different Scenarios of da da qiuqiu

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Physical Contact and Social Physical Contact and Social InteractionInteraction

Gao, 2001: 131

37Gao, 2001: 131

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Human cognitive system is built up Human cognitive system is built up on the basis of a whole complex on the basis of a whole complex structure but on the surface level of structure but on the surface level of linguistic structures details are linguistic structures details are backgrounded or visualized only in backgrounded or visualized only in the brain but not explicitly the brain but not explicitly expressed in speech. (Gao, 2001: 27)expressed in speech. (Gao, 2001: 27)