1. Computer Abstractions and Technology
Computer Architecture 1-2
1. Computer Abstractions and Technology
1.1 Introduction1.2 Below Your Program1.3 Under the Covers1.4 Real Stuff: Manufacturing Pentium 4 Chips1.5 Fallacies and Pitfalls1.6 Concluding Remarks1.7 Historical Perspective and Further Reading1.8 Exercises
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1.1 Introduction
3 Classes of Computing Applications (1/2)
1. Desktop computers Personal computers Good performance to a single user at low cost Third-party software, also called shrink-wrap software
2. Servers Modern form of mainframes, mini- and supercomputers Usually accessed via a network Expandability and dependability From low-end servers to supercomputers Back to chapter
overview
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3 Classes of Computing Applications (2/2)3. Embedded computers
A computer inside another device used for running one predetermined application or collection of software
Minimum performance with stringent limitations on cost or power
Growth rate (Fig. 1.1) Desktop and servers: 9%/year Embedded computers: 40%/year
Elaboration: Processor cores 31% of embedded processors (1998) to 56% (2002) With growth rate of 40% /year of embedded market, 63%
growth per year
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Number of Processors Sold
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
EmbeddedDesktopsServers
Figure 1.1
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Sales of Microprocessors
Figure 1.2
1400
1300
1200
1100
1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
01998 2000 2001 20021999
OtherSPARCHitachi SHPowerPCMotorola 68KMIPSIA-32ARM
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1.2 Below Your Program C, Assembly, Binary
Figure 1.4
Back to chapter overview
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1.3 Under the Covers Five Classic Components
Figure 1.5
Back to chapter overview
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Anatomy of a Mouse
Brief history of pointing devices 1967, research prototype by Engelbart 1973, Alto with a mouse By the 1990s, mouse in every desktop computer
Electromechanical mouse A ball increase x and y counters.
Optical mouse LED ∙∙∙ illuminating the surface Black-and-white camera ∙∙∙ taking 1500 sample pictures/sec Simple optical processor ∙∙∙ comparing the images to
determine the movement of the mouse
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Through the Looking Glass
CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) display Refresh rate ∙∙∙ 30 to 75 times per second
LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) LCD pixel is not the source of light. Rod-shaped molecules Active matrix LCD
Raster refresh buffer or frame buffer
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Inside the personal computer
Opening the Box
Figure 1.8
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Pentium Processor
Figure 1.9 in 2ed
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Pentium 4 Processor
Figure 1.9
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Main Board with Pentium Pro
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Close-up of PC Motherboard
Figure 1.10
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Abstractions
A model that renders lower-level details of computer systems temporarily invisible in order to facilitate design of sophisticated systems.
Instruction set architecture (=Architecture) Interface between hardware and lower-level software ... the attributes of a [computing] system as seen by the
programmer, i.e. the conceptual structure and functional behavior, as distinct from the organization of the data flows and controls, the logic design, and the physical implementation. (Amdahl, Blaaw, and Brooks with the IBM 360, 1964)
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What is Computer Architecture?
Concerned with only the highest level of the hierarchy Specification at the lowest level is incredibly complex Separate functionality from implementation Concept of computer family
1964, 6 models of IBM System/360 Machines sharing same architecture But having different implementations Software investment of the client is preserved as new models
are introduced
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A Safe Place for Data
Main memory (=primary memory) Volatile Mainly DRAMs since 1975
Magnetic disk Dominating secondary memory since 1965 Nonvolatile
Removable storage technologies Optical disks Magnetic tape FLASH-based memory cards Floppy drives and Zip drives
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Optical Disks
Compact disk (CD) Spiral track Pit ∙∙∙ about 10-6 m of diameter
Digital video disk (DVD) Multiple layers Much smaller pits
Rewritable CD/DVD Recording surface of crystalline, reflective material Recording ∙∙∙ similar to that for a write-once CD/DVD Erasure ∙∙∙ annealing process
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Semiconductor Technologies
Year Technology Relative performance/unit cost
1951 Vacuum tube 1
1965 Transistor 35
1975 IC 900
1995 VLSI 2,400,000
2005 ULSI 6,200,000,000
Figure 1.12
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Moore’s Law on DRAM Capacity
Gordon Moore of Intel 2X every 18~24 months 4X every 3 years X16,000 for 20 years since 1977
Figure 1.13
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Performance Increase of a Workstation
Figure 1.17
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1.4 Real Stuff: Manufacturing Pentium 4 Chips
Figure 1.14
Back to chapter overview
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Issues in Manufacturing ICs
Performance: Major objective Testability: More than half of total cost Area: Directly related to the money Power Packaging: Wire-bonding, Molding
Surface mount technology Through hole package
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Intel Pentium 4 Processors
Figure 1.158-inch wafer for Pentium 4
Figure 1.16Pentium 4
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1.7 Historical Perspective and Further Reading
The First Electronic Computers ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and
Calculator) The first operational electronic general-purpose computer 18,800 vacuum tubes, 1,900 additions per second By J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly, Moore School of Electrical
Engineering in the University of Pennsylvania Funded by US Army
Differences from the earlier calculators Conditional jumps Programmable Back to chapter
overview
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Weaknesses of ENIAC
1. Small amount of storage - twenty 10-digit registers2. Tedious programming - manual cable plugging and
switch setting
Figure 1.7.1
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Other First Generation Computers (1/3)
EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer)
A stored-program concept (cf) von Neumann computer Eckert, Mauchly, Goldstine, and von Neumann
EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator)
1946, Maurice Wilkes of Cambridge University The world's first full-scale, operational, stored-program
computer (cf) The world's first operational, stored-program computer Mark I, University of Manchester
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Other First Generation Computers (2/3)
IAS (Institute for Advanced Study) machine At Princeton University By von Neumann + Goldstine + Arthur Burks + Julian Bigelow 1024 40-bit words and 10 times faster than ENIAC
Atanasoff-Berry's machine Iowa State University, early 1940s Special-purpose computer Never completely operational
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Other First Generation Computers (3/3)
Konrad Zuse's special-purpose machine Germany, late 1930s to early 1940s
Harvard Mark-I Electromechanical computer built by Howard Aiken Mark-II, Mark-III and Mark-IV Harvard architecture separate memories for instructions and data
Whirlwind project MIT, 1947 For the applications in real-time radar signal processing Magnetic core memory 2048 16-bit words memory
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Commercial Developments
Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation Formed in December 1947 BINAC
The first machine built for Northrop, August 1949 Acquired by Remington-Rand UNIVAC I
June 1951, the first successful commercial computer IBM
Punched card and office automation business In 1950, starts building computers IBM 701: the first IBM computer, shipped in 1952 IBM System/360
1964, investing $5 billion, computer family of 6 models
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PDP-8
The first minicomputer 1965, DEC (Digital Equipment Corporation) under $20,000
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Intel 4004
The first microprocessor 1971, Intel 23,000 transistors
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Supercomputers
Control Data Corporation 1963, CDC 6600 The first supercomputer Designed by Seymour Cray
Cray Research, Inc. 1976, Cray-1 1996, Silicon Graphics
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Personal Computers
Apple II 1977, Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak
IBM PC 1981, Intel 80x86 and MS-DOS
MS-DOS Sold 12 million copies in 1990
Embedded computers Increasingly popular Example: MIPS chips 5,200,000 out of 5,500,000
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Key Commercial Computers since 1950