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Dal non-determinismo al determinismo
( nei linguaggi 2dim ): alcune riflessioni
Marcella Anselmo, Dora Giammarresi, Maria Madonia, Antonio Restivo
Riunione Prin. Varese, luglio 2006
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finite alphabet ** all 2dim rectangular words (pictures) over • L ** 2dim language• p L has size (m,n)
• Column concatenation
• Row concatenation
• Column/Row star
2dim Languages
p qp q =
p q =p
q
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Local 2dim Languages
L is local if there exists a finite set of tiles that contains all allowed subpictures of size (2,2,), i.e.
p L if and only if any 22 sub-picture of is in p
• tile: a square picture of size (2,2)
• bordered picture p:
p =
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Ld = the set of square pictures with symbol “1” in all main diagonal positions and symbol “0” in the other positions
(Usual) Example of local language
1001
10
0010
0000
01
1
10
00
00
01
0
00
00
0
1
=0100
100
010
001p =
#####
#100#
#010#
#001#
#####
p =
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L is recognizable by tiling system if L= (L’) where L’ is a local language and is a mapping from the alphabet of L’ to the alphabet of L
Recognizable 2dim Languages
REC is the family of two-dimensional languages recognizable by tiling system
REC is closed almost under all operations but it is not closed under complement
(, , , ) , where L’=L(), is called tiling system
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(Usual) Example
LSq = all squares over = {a}.
LSq is recognizable by tiling system.
Set L’=Ld and (1)= (0)= a
100
010
001 Ld
aaa
aaa
aaa
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# ###
(Usual) Example
LSq = squares over {a}. Use L’=Ld (1)= (0)= a
aaa
aaa
aaa
1001
10
0010
0000
01
1
10
00
00
01
0
00
00
0
1
=0100
#####
##
##
##
#
p =
1 0 0
0 0
1
100
“Computing” by a tiling system(from a tiling system to an automaton)
First, decide a scanning strategy!
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“Computing” by a tiling system(from a tiling system to an automaton)
Remark :Tiling system = “undirectional” transitions
Definition: A 2dim finite automaton is
Tiling system + scanning procedure
Local picture is the run of the automaton.
Remark :
All 2dim finite automata “correspond” to family REC (i.e. scanning procedure does not matter!)
Ex: 2OTA (2dim on-line tesselation automata)
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Scanning strategies (I)
# # # # # # # #
# #
# #
# #
# #
# #
# #
# # # # # # # #
1 2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
34
35 36
Diagonal (“2OTA”)
# # # # # # # #
# #
# #
# #
# #
# #
# #
# # # # # # # #
By column
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
31
32
33
34
35
36
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Scanning strategies (II)
# # # # # # # #
# #
# #
# #
# #
# #
# #
# # # # # # # #
Snake-like
1 2 3 4 5 6
789101112
1314
343536
Free
# # # # # # # #
# #
# #
# #
# #
# #
# #
# # # # # # # #
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3
4
5
6
7
8
9
36
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A remark about REC
• A tiling system (= local language + projection) “generalizes” to 2 dim a non-deterministic finite automaton.• Family REC is not closed under complement
Definition of REC is intrinsically non-deterministic and it is not possible to eliminate non-determinism without getting a smaller class!
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From non-determinism to determinism.. ..
• Non-determinism • Possible accepting computations: “several” • Possible backtracking steps at each step of
computation: linear in the size of input
[if pictures: =O(mn)]
• Determinism • Possible accepting computations: 1 • Possible backtracking steps at each step of
computation: 0
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Remark on 1DIM case :
In string languages 2 definitions possible:
- Determinism from left to right
- Co-determinism from right to left
Correspond to same class!....choose one definition…
??
??
Remark: Languages recognized by automata that are both deterministic and co-deterministic are smaller class!
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A tiling system is Top-Left-deterministic if a,b,c and s unique tile such that (s)=d.a b
c d
(Analogously TR-,BL-,BR-deterministic tiling system)
??
There is an unique way to fill this position with a symbol of
L is deterministic if it has a TL- or TR- or BL- or BR-
deterministic tiling system
Deterministic Recognizable Languages (DREC)
Classical definition (only a bit extended)
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• Lcol-1n REC
aababaaa
bbbbabbb
aaaaaaaa
bbabbbbb
p’=
Lcol-1n = {p | first col = last col }{a,b}**
New Example
Local alphabet: = {xy}
Projection “erase” subscripts: (xy) = x
• Lcol-1n DREC
Lcol-1i = {p | 1<in , first col = col i}DREC
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From non-determinism to determinism:what can we define in beetween?
• Non-determinism
• Possible accepting computations: “several”
• Possible backtracking steps at each step of computation: linear in the size of p (mn)
• Determinism
• Possible accepting computations: 1
• Possible backtracking steps at each step of computation: 0
• Unambiguity
one
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Unambiguous Recognizable Languages (UREC)
Def [GR92] A tiling system (, , , ) is unambiguous for L ** if the projection π is injective on L() (i.e. for any pL there is a unique p’ L’ such that (p’)=p).
UREC: all unambiguous recognizable 2dim languages.
L ** is unambiguous if it admits an unambiguous tiling system.
• UREC REC • Generalization in 2dims of unambiguous automata
for strings
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UREC and REC
Lcol-ij REC Lcol-ij UREC
Lcol-ij = ** Lcol-1n ** and
REC is closed with respect to
• UREC REC
Lcol-ij =
i j
i,j:
col i = col j
Necess. Cond. for UREC
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Properties of UREC
Proposition UREC is not closed under row/column concatenation/closure.
Proposition UREC is closed under intersection and rotation operations.
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From non-determinism to determinism:what can we define in beetween? (2)
• Non-determinism
• Possible accepting computations: “several”
• Possible backtracking steps at each step of computation: linear in the size of p (mn)
• Determinism
• Possible accepting computations: 1
• Possible backtracking steps at each step of computation: 0
one dimension of p (m or n)
• “line”-unambiguity
one
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A tiling system is Left-Right Column-Unambiguous if, after having computed the local symbols in an entire column, the local symbols on the next column are univocally determined.
??
??
??
??
L is Col-UREC if L has a tiling system that is LR- or RL- column unambiguous.
Column-Unambiguos Languages (Col-UREC)
Remark: Backtracking at each step of possibly O(m) steps.
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A tiling system is Top-Down Row-Unambiguous if, after having computed the local symbols in an entire row of a picture, the local symbols on the next row are univocally determined.
?? ???? ??
L is Row-UREC if L has a tiling system that is TD- or DT- column unambiguous.
Row-Unambiguos Languages (Row-UREC)
Remark: Backtracking at each step of possibly O(n) steps.
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(A new) Example
= {a, b}
LSq-cent-a = odd-side squares with a in
center positionabbabbabaaaababb
b b
b
ba
aa aa
a0b0b0a2
b1b0a2b0
a0a1a0a0
b2a0b1b0
b1 b0
b0
b1
a0
a0
a0 a2a0 LSq-cent-a Col-UREC, Row-UREC
LSq-cent-a DRECBy an “old” proof
by Inoue et al.
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Col-UREC and UREC
Lcol-1ij n UREC Lcol-1ijn Col-UREC
Lcol-1ijn = Lcol-1j Lcol-in and
UREC is closed with respect to
• Col-UREC UREC
i,j:
col 1 = col j
col i = col nLcol-1ij n=
1 i j n
Necess. Cond. for Col-UREC
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A necessary condition for unambiguity
Theorem Let L **. There is a k such that, for all m,
1. If L Col-UREC then Row(ML(m)) km
2. If L UREC then RankQ(ML(m)) km
L(m) L is the subset of all pictures with m rows. It can be viewed as a string language over the columns alphabet.
S*, regular string language. MS is the boolean matrix MS=|a| *, * where a= 1 iff L. The number of different rows , Row(MS ), is finite.
Idea of ProofUse Matz’s Theorem and Hromkovic et al. Theorem
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From 2dim to 1dim
Theorem [Matz 97] Let L **. If L REC, then there is a k such that, for all m, there is a finite string automaton Am with km states for L(m).
Fact
If L UREC, then Am is an unambiguous automaton with km states for L(m).
If L Col-UREC, then Am is a deterministic automaton with km states for L(m).
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Theorem of Hromkovic et al.
Theorem (Hromkovic et al.) For every regular string language S*,
d(S) = Row(MS)
uns(S) RankQ(MS).
d(S) the size of the minimal deterministic automaton accepting S
uns(S) the size of a minimal unambiguous non-deterministic automaton accepting S.
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The following inclusions are all strict:
DREC Col-UREC UREC REC
Collecting all classes…
a
1 i j n
i j
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A separation result
Theorem
Whatever we choose a definition of deterministic 2dim finite automaton, the family of corresponding languages is strictly included in UREC.
Proof: By previous strict inclusions results (Col-UREC UREC )
Det-REC is strictly included in UREC , for any definition of Det-REC we choose.
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An undecidability result for UREC
Theorem
Given a tiling system (, , , ) for L **, it is undecidable whether it is unambiguous.
Proof: By reduction from the undecidable 2dimensional Unique Decipherability Problem.
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A decidability result for Col-UREC
(Row-UREC)Theorem Given a tiling system T = ( , , , ) for
L **, it is decidable whether it is col-unambiguous.
Proof: Let M=Card {(,) : , }.
T col-unambiguous
No pair of pictures
sp with • p, s, t n,1
• s t (s) = (t)• Any 22 sub-picture of p s,
p t in • n M
tp
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A tiling system is Top-Left Diagonal-Unambiguous if, after having computed the local symbols in an entire diagonal of a picture, the local symbols on the next diagonal are univocally determined.
??
??
??
??
L is Diag-UREC if L has a tiling system that is TL-, TD-, BL- or BR- diagonal unambiguous.
REMARK: Diag-Unambiguos Languages
Remark: NO backtracking at each step
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Conjecture: If L REC\UREC then L REC
• Is UREC largest subset in REC closed under complement?
• Is UREC (Col-UREC) closed under complement?
Open Problems
• Is L(4NFA) UREC?
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Conclusioni alle riflessioni…
Tiling systems are a “compact” way to represent classes of finite state automata on 2 dims.
Unambiguos languages are a strict intermediate class between non-deterministic and deterministic families.
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riflettere a mente fresca…