1

Factors Affecting Rates of Respiration

• Temperature- For every 10 degree C rise in temperature between 0-35 C the rate of respiration increases 2X – 4X.

• Storage temperature for harvested plant parts is often critical because these parts continue to respire after harvest ( a catabolic process) which causes a build up of heat, and the breakdown of the product.

2

Factors Affecting Rates of Respiration

• Most plants grow better when night time temperatures are 5 degrees C lower than day time temperatures.

• This is because lower night time respiration reduces the use of carbohydrates and allows more carbohydrates to be stored or used for growth.

3

Factors Affecting Rates of Respiration

• Oxygen concentration- Generally speaking, lower oxygen level results in the reduction of respiration.

• Controlled atmosphere (CA) storage in which oxygen is decreased is useful in storage of fruits and vegetables because of lower respiration rates.

4

Factors Affecting Rates of Respiration

• Soil conditions- Compacted and/or wet soil conditions result in low oxygen in the root zone and reduced root respiration.

• Consequently, roots don’t function well in supplying mineral nutrients essential for the activity of respiratory enzymes which decreases overall respiration.

5

Factors Affecting Rates of Respiration

• Light- Lower light intensities result in lower respiration rates. – Lower photosynthesis rates in low light

supply fewer carbohydrates essential for respiration.

• Plant growth- As a plant grows it depends on energy to be supplied by respiration. – The more growth that is occurring, the higher

the respiration rate must be.

6

Summary of Respiration

• Aerobic Respiration– Glycolysis– Transition Rx.– Kreb’s Cycle– Electron Transport Chain

• Anaerobic Respiration– Pyruvate

• Lactic Acid• Mixed Acids• Alcohol + CO2

– Recycle NADH– 2 ATP / Glucose

7

Amino Acid Catabolism

8

Amino AcidsAmino Acids

• Building blocks for polymers called proteins

• Contain an amino group, –NH2, and a carboxylic acid, –COOH

• Can form zwitterions: have both positively charged and negatively charged groups on same molecule

• 20 required for humans

9

10

11

Peptide Bond

• Connect amino acids from carboxylic acid to amino group

• Produce amide linkage: -CONH-• Holds all proteins together• Indicate proteins by 3-letter abbreviation

12

Sequence of Amino AcidsSequence of Amino Acids

• Amino acids need to be in correct order for protein to function correctly

• Similar to forming sentences out of words

13

Catalyze the reversible transfer of an amino group between two -keto acids.

TransaminaseTransaminase enzymes (aminotransferases)enzymes (aminotransferases)

14

Aspartate donates its amino group, becoming the -keto acid oxaloacetate.

-Ketoglutarate accepts the amino group, becoming the amino acid glutamate.

Example of a Transaminase reaction:

15

In another example, alanine becomes pyruvate as the amino group is transferred to -ketoglutarate.

16

Essential amino acids must be consumed in the diet.

Mammalian cells lack enzymes to synthesize their carbon skeletons (-keto acids). These include:

Isoleucine, leucine, & valine

Lysine

Threonine

Tryptophan

Phenylalanine (Tyr can be made from Phe.)

Methionine (Cys can be made from Met.)

Histidine (Essential for infants.)

17

Amino Acid MetabolismAmino Acid Metabolism

•Metabolism of the 20 common amino acids is considered from the origins and fates of their:

(1) Nitrogen atoms (2) Carbon skeletons

•For mammals: Essential amino acids must be obtained from dietNonessential amino acids - can be synthesized

18

The Nitrogen Cycle and Nitrogen Fixation

• Nitrogen is needed for amino acids, nucleotides

• Atmospheric N2 is the ultimate source of biological nitrogen

• Nitrogen fixation: a few bacteria possess nitrogenase which can reduce N2 to ammonia

• Nitrogen is recycled in nature through the nitrogen cycle

19

Fig 17.1 The Nitrogen cycleFig 17.1 The Nitrogen cycle

20

NitrogenaseNitrogenase

• An enzyme present in Rhizobium bacteria that live in root nodules of leguminous plants

• Some free-living soil and aquatic bacteria also possess nitrogenase

• Nitrogenase reaction:

N2 + 8 H+ + 8 e- + 16 ATP

2 NH3 + H2 + 16 ADP + 16 Pi

21

Assimilation of AmmoniaAssimilation of Ammonia

• Ammonia generated from N2 is assimilated into low molecular weight metabolites such as glutamate or glutamine

• At pH 7 ammonium ion predominates (NH4+)

• At enzyme reactive centers unprotonated NH3 is the nucleophilic reactive species

22

A. Ammonia Is Incorporated into GlutamateA. Ammonia Is Incorporated into Glutamate

• Reductive amination of -ketoglutarate by glutamate dehydrogenase occurs in plants, animals and microorganisms

23

Glutamine Is a Nitrogen Carrier in Many Glutamine Is a Nitrogen Carrier in Many Biosynthetic ReactionsBiosynthetic Reactions

• A second important route in assimilation of ammonia is via glutamine synthetase

24

Glutamate synthase transfers a Glutamate synthase transfers a nitrogen to nitrogen to -ketoglutarate-ketoglutarate

Prokaryotes & plants

25

Alternate amino acid production in prokaryotes

Especially used if [NH3] is low. Km of Gln synthetase lower than Km of Glu dehydrogenase.

26

The First Step in Amino Acid Degradation is the Removal of Nitrogen

•Amino acids released from protein turnover can be resynthesized into proteins.•Excess amino acids are degraded into specific compounds that can be used in other metabolic pathways. •This process begins with the removal of the amino group, which can be converted to urea and excreted.•The -ketoids that remain are metabolized so that their carbon skeletons can enter glycolysis, gluconeogenesis, or the TCA cycle.

27

The Biosynthesis of Amino Acids

•Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins and the nitrogen source of many other important molecules including nucleotides, neurotransmitters, and prosthetic groups such as porphyrins.

•Ammonia is the source of all nitrogen for all of the amino acids.

•The carbon backbones come from the glycolytic pathway, the pentose phosphate pathway, and/or the TCA cycle.

•Amino acid biosynthesis is feedback regulated to ensure that all amino acids are maintained in sufficient amounts for protein synthesis and other processes.

28

Summary of Protein and Amino Acid Degradation

•Proteins are degraded to amino acids.

•Protein turnover is tightly regulated.

•The first step in amino acid degradation is the removal of nitrogen.

•Ammonium ion is converted into urea in most terrestrial vertebrates.

•Carbon atoms of degraded amino acids emerge as major metabolic intermediates.

•Inborn errors of metabolism can disrupt amino acid degradation.

29

Summary of Amino Acid Biosynthesis

•Microorganisms use ATP and a powerful reductant to reduce atmospheric nitrogen to ammonia.

•Amino acids are made from intermediates of the TCA cycle and other major pathways.

•Amino acid metabolism is regulated by feedback inhibition.

•Amino acids are precursors of many molecules.

30

Overview of Nucleotide Biosynthesis

•Nucleotides serve as active precursors of nucleic acids.

•ATP is the universal currency of energy.

•Nucleotide derivatives such as UDP-glucose participate in bioynthetic processes.

•Nucleotides are essential components of signal transduction pathways.

31

Two Classes of Pathways for the Synthesis of Nucleotides.

•In the salvage pathway, a base is attached to a ribose, activated in the form of 5- phosphoribosyl-1-pyrophosphate (PRPP).

•In de novo synthesis, the base itself is synthesized from simpler starting materials, including amino acids.

•ATP hydrolysis is necessary for de novo synthesis.

32

Summary of Nucleotide Biosynthesis

•In de novo synthesis, the pyrimidine ring is assembled from bicarbonate, aspartate, and glutamine.

•Purine bases can be synthesized de novo or recycled by salvage pathways.

•Deoxyribonucleotides are synthesized by the reduction of ribonucleotides.

•Key steps in nucleotide biosynthesis are feeback regulated.

•NAD+, FAD, and Coenzyme A are formed from ATP.

•Disruptions in nucleotide metabolism can cause pathological conditions.

33

Proteins Proteins Proteins Proteins

34

Structure of ProteinsStructure of Proteins

• Four organizational levels• Primary structure: amino acid sequence• Secondary structure: arrangement of chains

around an axis– Pleated sheet– Alpha helix: right-handed helix

35

Pleated SheetsPleated Sheets

36

Alpha HelixAlpha Helix

37

Tertiary StructureTertiary Structure

• Spatial relationships of amino acids relatively far apart in protein chain

• Globular proteins: compact spherical shape

38

Quaternary Structure

• Structure when two or more amino acid sequences are brought together

• Hemoglobin has four units arranged in a specific pattern

39

Intermolecular Forces in Proteins

• Hydrogen bonding• Ionic bonds• Disulfide linkages• Dispersion forces

40

Protein metabolismProtein metabolism

TransaminationTransamination: use the essential AA to : use the essential AA to synthesize the others!synthesize the others!

TransaminationTransamination: use the essential AA to : use the essential AA to synthesize the others!synthesize the others!

41

Protein metabolism

Another route:Another route:

Intestinal bacteria -> ammonia (toxic) -> Intestinal bacteria -> ammonia (toxic) -> liver uses it to make amino acidsliver uses it to make amino acids

Another route:Another route:

Intestinal bacteria -> ammonia (toxic) -> Intestinal bacteria -> ammonia (toxic) -> liver uses it to make amino acidsliver uses it to make amino acids

42

Protein metabolism

Amino acids: C, H, O plus amine group Amino acids: C, H, O plus amine group with Nwith N

Amino acids: C, H, O plus amine group Amino acids: C, H, O plus amine group with Nwith N

43

Protein metabolismProtein metabolism

Amino acids are broken down into:Amino acids are broken down into:

a) ammonia -> ureaa) ammonia -> urea

b) pyruvate or molecules that are part of b) pyruvate or molecules that are part of the krebs cycle -> respired for energy, or the krebs cycle -> respired for energy, or converted to fats or glucoseconverted to fats or glucose

Amino acids are broken down into:Amino acids are broken down into:

a) ammonia -> ureaa) ammonia -> urea

b) pyruvate or molecules that are part of b) pyruvate or molecules that are part of the krebs cycle -> respired for energy, or the krebs cycle -> respired for energy, or converted to fats or glucoseconverted to fats or glucose

44

Proteins are degraded into amino acids.

Protein turnover is tightly regulated.

First step in protein degradation is the removal of the nitrogen

Ammonium ion is converted to urea in most mammals.

Carbon atoms are converted to other major metabolic intermediates.

Inborn errors in metabolism

45

• Amino acids used for synthesizing proteins are obtained by degrading other proteins

– Proteins destined for degradation are labeled with ubiquitin.

– Polyubiquinated proteins are degraded by proteosomes.

• Amino acids are also a source of nitrogen for other biomolecules.

46

Excess amino acids cannot be stored.

Surplus amino acids are used for fuel.

Carbon skeleton is converted to

Acetyl–CoA

Acetoacetyl–CoA

Pyruvate

Citric acid cycle intermediate

The amino group nitrogen is converted to urea and excreted.

Glucose, fatty acids and ketone bodies can be formed from amino acids.

47

proteins are a vital source of amino acids.

Discarded cellular proteins are another source of amino acids.

1. Protein Degradation1. Protein Degradation

48

Biotechnology

49

What Is Biotechnology?

• Using scientific methods with organisms to produce new products or new forms of organisms

• Any technique that uses living organisms or substances from those organisms to make or modify a product, to improve plants or animals, or to develop microorganisms for specific uses

50

What Is Biotechnology?What Is Biotechnology?

• GMO- genetically modified organisms.• GEO- genetically enhanced organisms.• With both, the natural genetic material of the

organism has been altered.• Roots in bread making, wine brewing,

cheese and yogurt fermentation, and classical plant and animal breeding

51

What Is Biotechnology?What Is Biotechnology?

• Manipulation of genes is called genetic engineering or recombinant DNA technology

• Genetic engineering involves taking one or more genes from a location in one organism and either– Transferring them to another organism– Putting them back into the original organism in

different combinations

52

What is the career outlook in biotechnology?What is the career outlook in biotechnology?

• Biotech in 1998– 1,300 companies in the US– 2/3 have less than 135 employees– 140,000 jobs

• Jobs will continue to increase exponentially• Jobs are available to high school graduates

through PhD’s

53

What Subjects Are Involved With Biotechnology?

• Multidisciplinary- involving a number of disciplines that are coordinated for a desired outcome

• Science– Life sciences– Physical sciences– Social sciences

54

What Subjects Are Involved With Biotechnology?What Subjects Are Involved With Biotechnology?

• Mathematics• Applied sciences

– Computer applications– Engineering– Agriculture

55

What Are the Stages of Biotechnology Development

• Ancient biotechnology- early history as related to food and shelter; Includes domestication

• Classical biotechnology- built on ancient biotechnology; Fermentation promoted food production, and medicine

• Modern biotechnology- manipulates genetic information in organism; Genetic engineering

56

What Are the Areas of Biotechnology?What Are the Areas of Biotechnology?

• Organismic biotechnology- uses intact organisms; Does not alter genetic material

• Molecular biotechnology- alters genetic makeup to achieve specific goals– Transgenic organism- an organism with

artificially altered genetic material

57

What Are the Benefits of Biotechnology?What Are the Benefits of Biotechnology?

• Medicine– Human– Veterinary– Biopharming

• Environment• Agriculture• Food products• Industry and manufacturing

58

What Is Molecular Biology?

• Molecular biology- study of molecules in cells

• Metabolism- processes by which organisms use nutrients

• Anabolism- building tissues from smaller materials

• Catabolism- breaking down materials into smaller components

59

What Is a Cell?What Is a Cell?

• Cell- a discrete unit of life

• Unicellular organism- organism of one cell

• Multicellular organism- organism of many cells

• Prokaryote- cells that lack specific nucleus

• Eukaryote- cells with well-defined nucleus

60

What Is a Cell?What Is a Cell?

• Cells are building blocks:– Tissue- collection of cells with specific functions– Organs- collections of tissues with specific

functions– Organ systems- collections of organs with

specific functions

61

What Are the Structures in Molecular Genetics?

• Molecular genetics- study of genes and how they are expressed

• Chromosome- part of cell nucleus that contains heredity information and promotes protein synthesis

• Gene- basic unit of heredity on a chromosome

• DNA- molecule in a chromosome that codes genetic information

62

Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)

63

What Is Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)?

• Transcription- process of RNA production by DNA

• DNA-thread-like molecule which decodes DNA information

64

What Is Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)?

• Kinds of RNA:– mRNA- RNA molecules that carry information that

specifies amino acid sequence of a protein molecule during translation

– rRNA- RNA molecules that form the ribosomal subunits; Mediate the translation of mRNA into proteins

– tRNA- molecules that decode sequence information in and mRNA

– snRNA- very short RNA that interconnects with to promote formation of mRNA

65

What Are Genetic Engineering Organisms?

• Genetic engineering- artificially changing the genetic information in the cells of organisms

• Transgenic- an organism that has been genetically modified

• GMO- a genetically modified organism• GEO- a genetically enhanced organism

66

How Can Genetically Engineered Plants Be Used?

• Agriculture• Horticulture• Forestry• Environment• Food Quality

67

How Do We Create Transgenic Organisms?

• Donor cell- cell that provides DNA• Recipient cell- cell that receives DNA• Protocol- procedure for a scientific process• Three methods used in gene transfer

– Agrobacterium gene transfer- plasmid– Ballistic gene transfer- gene gun– Direct gene transfer- enzymes

68

How Does Agrobacterium Gene Transfer Work?

1. Extract DNA from donor

2. Cut DNA into fragments

3. Sort DNA fragments

4. Recombine DNA fragments

5. Transfer plasmids with bonded DNA

6. Grow transformed (recipient) cells

69

What Are Methods of Classical Biotechnology?

• Plant breeding- improvement of plants by breeding selected individuals to achieve desired goals

• Cultivar- a cultivated crop variety

70

What Are Methods of Classical Biotechnology?

• Plant breeding methods;– Line breeding- breeding successive generations

of plants among themselves– Crossbreeding- breeding plants of different

varieties or species– Hybridization- breeding individuals from two

distinctly different varieties

• Selection

71

Why Are Plants Genetically Engineered?

• Resist pests• Resist herbicides• Improved product quality• Pharmaceuticals• Industrial products

72

But we know nature does not have all of the traits we need

• Here we see bean has many seedcoat colors and patterns in nature

•Nature has a rich source of variation

These definitions imply biotechnologyis needed because:

73

What controls this natural variation?

Allelic differences at genes control a specific trait

Gene - a piece of DNA that controls the expression of a trait

Allele - the alternate forms of a gene

Definitions are needed for this statement:

74

What is the difference betweengenes and alleles for Mendel’s Traits?

Mendel’s GenesPlant height Seed shape

Tall ShortAllele

Smooth WrinkledAllele

75

Central Dogma of Molecular GeneticsCentral Dogma of Molecular Genetics

(The guiding principle that controls trait expression)

Plant height

Seed shape

76

In General, Plant Biotechnology TechniquesIn General, Plant Biotechnology TechniquesFall Into Two ClassesFall Into Two Classes

• Identify a gene from another species which controls a trait of interest• Or modify an existing gene (create a new allele)

Gene Manipulation

• Introduces that gene into an organism• Technique called transformation• Forms transgenic organisms

Gene Introduction

77

Gene Manipulation StartsGene Manipulation StartsAt the DNA LevelAt the DNA Level

The nucleus

contains DNA

Source: Access Excellence

78

DNA Is Packaged

Source: Access Excellence

Double-strandedDNA

Chromosomes

is condensedinto

79

Denaturation: DNA meltsAnnealing: Primers bindExtension: DNA is replicated

PCR Animation

80

Human clonelibrary

Clones transferredto filter

PCR fragmentprobe added to filter

Hot-spots are human geneof interest

Complementary GeneticsComplementary Genetics(cont.)(cont.)

4. Gene fragment used to screen library

81

Map-based CloningMap-based Cloning

1. Use genetic techniques to find marker near gene

Gene Marker

2. Find cosegregating markerGene/Marker

3. Discover overlapping clones (or contig) that contains the marker Gene/Marker

4. Find ORFs on contigGene/Marker

5. Prove one ORF is the gene by transformation or mutant analysis

Mutant + ORF = Wild type?Yes? ORF = Gene

82

Gene Manipulation

• It is now routine to isolate genes

• But the target gene must be carefully chosen

• Target gene is chosen based on desired phenotype

Function:Glyphosate (RoundUp) resistance EPSP synthase enzymeIncreased Vitamin A content Vitamin A biosynthetic pathway enzymes

83

The RoundUp Ready Story

• Glyphosate is a broad-spectrum herbicide• Active ingredient in RoundUp herbicide • Kills all plants it come in contact with• Inhibits a key enzyme (EPSP synthase) in an amino acid pathway

• Plants die because they lack the key amino acids

• A resistant EPSP synthase gene allows crops to survive spraying

84

+ Glyphosate

X

RoundUp Sensitive Plants

X

X

Shikimic acid + Phosphoenol pyruvate

3-Enolpyruvyl shikimic acid-5-phosphate(EPSP)

Plant EPSP synthase

Aromaticamino acids

Without amino acids, plant dies

X

85

BacterialEPSP synthase

Shikimic acid + Phosphoenol pyruvate

3-enolpyruvyl shikimic acid-5-phosphate(EPSP)

Aromaticamino acids

RoundUp Resistant PlantsRoundUp Resistant Plants

+ Glyphosate

With amino acids, plant lives

RoundUp has no effect;enzyme is resistant to herbicide

86

The Golden Rice Story

• Vitamin A deficiency is a major health problem

• Causes blindness• Influences severity of diarrhea, measles

• >100 million children suffer from the problem

• For many countries, the infrastructure doesn’t existto deliver vitamin pills

• Improved vitamin A content in widely consumed cropsan attractive alternative

87

-Carotene Pathway in Plants

IPP

Geranylgeranyl diphosphate

Phytoene

Lycopene

-carotene(vitamin A precursor)

Phytoene synthase

Phytoene desaturase

Lycopene-beta-cyclase

ξ-carotene desaturase

Problem:Rice lacks

these enzymes

NormalVitamin A

“Deficient”Rice

88

The Golden Rice Solution

IPP

Geranylgeranyl diphosphate

Phytoene

Lycopene

-carotene(vitamin A precursor)

Phytoene synthase

Phytoene desaturase

Lycopene-beta-cyclase

ξ-carotene desaturase

Daffodil gene

Single bacterial gene;performs both functions

Daffodil gene

-Carotene Pathway Genes Added

Vitamin APathway

is completeand functional

GoldenRice

89

Metabolic Pathways are ComplexMetabolic Pathways are Complexand Interrelatedand Interrelated

Understanding pathways is critical to developing

new products

90

Modifying Pathway ComponentsCan Produce New Products

Modified Lipids =New Industrial Oils

Turn On Vitamin Genes = Relieve Deficiency

Increase amino acids = Improved Nutrition

91

Trait/Gene Examples

RoundUp Ready Bacterial EPSP

Golden Rice Complete Pathway

Plant Virus Resistance Viral Coat Protein

Male Sterility Barnase

Plant Bacterial Resistance p35

Salt tolerance AtNHX1

Trait Gene

92

Introducing the Gene orDeveloping Transgenics

Steps

1. Create transformation cassette

2. Introduce and select for transformants

93

Transformation Cassettes

Contains

1. Gene of interest

• The coding region and its controlling elements

2. Selectable marker

• Distinguishes transformed/untransformed plants

3. Insertion sequences• Aids Agrobacterium insertion

94

Gene of InterestGene of Interest

Coding Region• Encodes protein product

ex.: EPSP -carotene genes

Promoter Region• Controls when, where and how much the gene is expressed

ex.: CaMV35S (constitutive; on always) Glutelin 1 (only in rice endosperm during seed development)

Promoter Coding RegionTP

Transit Peptide• Targets protein to correct organelle

ex.: RbCS (RUBISCO small subunit; choloroplast target

95

Selectable Marker

Coding Region• Gene that breaks down a toxic compound;non-transgenic plants die

ex.: nptII [kanamycin (bacterial antibiotic) resistance] aphIV [hygromycin (bacterial antibiotic) resistance] Bar [glufosinate (herbicide) resistance]

Promoter Region• Normally constitutive

ex.: CaMV35s (Cauliflower Mosaic Virus 35S RNA promoter

Promoter Coding Region

96

Effect of Selectable Marker

Transgenic = Has Kan or Bar Gene

Plant grows in presenceof selective compound

Plant dies in presenceof selective compound

Non-transgenic = Lacks Kan or Bar Gene

X

97

Insertion Sequences

• Used for Agrobacterium-transformationex.: Right and Left borders of T-DNA

Required for proper gene insertions

TL TR

98

Let’s Build A Complex Cassette

pB19hpc (Golden Rice Cassette)

TL TRaphIV 35S Gt1 psy 35S rbcS crtl

HygromycinResistance

PhytoeneSynthase

PhytoeneDesaturase

T-DNABorder

T-DNABorder

SelectableMarker

Gene ofInterest

Gene ofInterest

InsertionSequence

InsertionSequence

99

• Transformation cassettes are developed in the lab

• They are then introduced into a plant

• Two major delivery methods

Delivering the Geneto the Plant

• Agrobacterium

• Gene GunTissue culturerequired to generatetransgenic plants

100

Plant Tissue CultureA Requirement for Transgenic Development

A plant part Is cultured

Callusgrows

Shootsdevelop Shoots are rooted;

plant grows to maturity

101

But Nature’s AgrobacteriumHas Problems

Infected tissues cannot be regenerated (via tissue culture)into new plants

Transferred DNA (T-DNA) modified by

• Removing phytohormone genes

• Retaining essential transfer sequences

• Adding cloning site for gene of interest

• Phytohormone balance incorrect regeneration

Solution?

Why?

102

The Gene Gun

• DNA vector is coated onto gold or tungsten particles

• Particles are accelerated at high speeds by the gun

• Particles enter plant tissue

• DNA enters the nucleus and incorporates into chromosome

• Integration process unknown

103

Transformation Steps

Prepare tissue for transformation

Introduce DNA

Culture plant tissue• Develop shoots• Root the shoots

Field test the plants

• Leaf, germinating seed, immature embryos

• Tissue must be capable of developing into normal plants

• Agrobacterium or gene gun

• Multiple sites, multiple years

104

The Lab Steps

105

Lab Testing The Transgenics

Insect Resistance

Transgene=Bt-toxin protein

Cold Tolerance

Transgene=CBF transcription factors

106

Desired gene

Traditional plant breedingDNA is a strand of genes, much like a strand of pearls. Traditional plant breeding combines many genes at once.

Traditional donor Commercial variety New variety

Desired Gene

X =(crosses)

(many genes are transferred)

Plant biotechnologyUsing plant biotechnology, a single gene may be added to the strand.

Desired gene Commercial variety New variety

(transfers)

=

Desired gene

(only desired gene is transferred)

What is plant biotechnology?

107

Benefits of biotechnology

Better food

Better for the environment

More food

108

What Is Cloning?

• Clone- new organism that has been produced asexually from a single parent

• Genotype is identical to parent

• Cells or tissues are cultured

109

What Is Bioremediation?

• Bioremediation- using biological processes to solve environmental problems

• Biodegradation- natural processes of microbes in breaking down hydrocarbon materials

• Biodegradable- capable of being decomposed by microbes

110

How Can Bioremediation Be Used?

• Oil spills

• Wastewater treatment

• Heavy metal removal

• Chemical degradation

111

What Is Phytoremediation?

• Phytoremediation- process of plants being used to solve pollution problems– Plants absorb and break down

pollutants

– Used with heavy metals, pesticides, explosives, and leachate

112

• http://www.rpi.edu/dept/bcbp/molbiochem/MBWeb/mb2/part1/22-aanit.ppt

• http://www.chem.uwec.edu/Chem454/amino1.ppt

• http://ps2009.stainedscrubs.com/genfiles/01%20SB%20Courseworks/Biochem_WS_IV.ppt

• http://science.kennesaw.edu/~jpowers/aminoacid1.ppt

• http://academics.vmi.edu/biochem/Chapter_17.ppt

• http://newark.rutgers.edu/~jimms/P13.ppt

References

113

Referance

• http://sunny.crk.umn.edu/courses/PIM/1030/Chapter%207-%20Photosynthesis,Respiration,and..ppt

• http://sunny.crk.umn.edu/courses/PIM/1030/Chapter%207-%20Photosynthesis,Respiration,and..ppt

• http://www.geneontology.org/minutes/20040822_Stanford_Content/metabolism_post-meeting.ppt

114

references

• www.stcsc.edu/anatomy/210/Chapter%202%20part%202.ppt

• http://www.lander.edu/skuhl/Classes/BIOL%20421/256,1,MICROBIAL METABOLISM

• http://newark.rutgers.edu/~jimms/P13.ppt• ww.ims.uni-stuttgart.de/lehre/teaching/2005-

SS/BioNLP/CoreferenceAndClassification.ppt

115

ReferencesReferences

• http://www.newman.edu.hk/ecampus/wk/bioweb/ALBio/AlCh22/AlCh22a.ppt

• http://www.nwosu.edu/science/Biology/GenBotany1125/GBPowerPoint/Waterwopic.ppt

• http://www.stolaf.edu/people/giannini/biological%20anamations.html

• http://www.coe.unt.edu/ubms/documents/classnotes/Spring2006/256,1,Transport in Plants

116

ReferencesReferences

• http://docushare.harford.edu/dsweb/Get/Document-156422/Cell%20Lab.ppt

• http://www.biosci.ohio-state.edu/pcmb/osu_pcmb/courses/pb300_files/lamb_wi06/plant_cells_2(9jan06).ppt

117

References

• http://iaffa.bizland.com/sitebuildercontent/sitebuilderfiles/biotechintro.ppt

• http://www.ag.ndsu.nodak.edu/biotech/presentations/techniques-of-biotechnology-mcclean-good.ppt