11

Introduction to Introduction to EthicsEthics

Theories of right and wrongTheories of right and wrong

Dan TurtonDan Turton

Victoria University of WellingtonVictoria University of Wellington

22

Teaser QuestionsTeaser Questions

Do you generally know (morally) Do you generally know (morally) right from wrong?right from wrong?

When you disagree with people When you disagree with people about a moral issue – what are about a moral issue – what are you really disagreeing about?you really disagreeing about?

Are you ever unsure if an act is Are you ever unsure if an act is morally wrong or not?morally wrong or not?

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Morality vs. EthicsMorality vs. Ethics

What is the difference?What is the difference? Some important questions related Some important questions related

to ethicsto ethics– Why do we Why do we thinkthink certain acts are certain acts are

right/wrong?right/wrong?– Why be moral?Why be moral?– What What makesmakes an action morally right an action morally right

or wrong?or wrong?

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The Key Question for The Key Question for Moral TheoriesMoral Theories

Q1: What makes right acts right and Q1: What makes right acts right and wrong acts wrong?wrong acts wrong?

(A theory’s answer = its moral criterion)(A theory’s answer = its moral criterion)

TerminologyTerminology

‘‘Wrong’ = Morally ForbiddenWrong’ = Morally Forbidden

‘‘Right’ = Narrow: Morally ObligatoryRight’ = Narrow: Morally Obligatory

= Wide: Morally Permissible= Wide: Morally Permissible

(includes should do and can (includes should do and can do)do)

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Example: Pushing InExample: Pushing In

Is pushing in generally wrong?Is pushing in generally wrong?

What makes pushing in wrong?What makes pushing in wrong?

Is pushing in ever morally Is pushing in ever morally permissible?permissible?

What can make it (morally) OK?What can make it (morally) OK?

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Moral TheoriesMoral Theories

Not-so-good moral theoriesNot-so-good moral theories

Better moral theoriesBetter moral theories

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Divine Command Divine Command TheoryTheory

Right acts are right because…Right acts are right because…

They are the actions that God They are the actions that God commands we performcommands we perform

Problem: The Euthyphro Dilemma…Problem: The Euthyphro Dilemma…

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The Euthyphro The Euthyphro DilemmaDilemma

EitherEither(1) The act is right(1) The act is right only because only because God God

commanded that we do itcommanded that we do itOrOr(2) God commanded that we do it (2) God commanded that we do it

because the act is rightbecause the act is right for independent for independent reasonsreasons

(1)= morality and God’s commands are (1)= morality and God’s commands are arbitraryarbitrary

(2)= abandon Divine Command Theory(2)= abandon Divine Command Theory

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The LawThe Law

Wrong acts are wrong because…Wrong acts are wrong because…

They break the lawThey break the law

Problem: Do we always feel like we Problem: Do we always feel like we have done something morally have done something morally wrong when we break the law?wrong when we break the law?

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Cultural RelativismCultural Relativism

Right acts are right because…Right acts are right because…

your culture approves of themyour culture approves of them

Four Problems:Four Problems:

1.1. Can’t criticize other culturesCan’t criticize other cultures

2.2. Can’t criticize your own cultureCan’t criticize your own culture

3.3. No moral progress No moral progress

4.4. It’s just not how we decide in the hard It’s just not how we decide in the hard casescases

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The Golden RuleThe Golden Rule

Right acts are right because…Right acts are right because…

they are the ones you would want done they are the ones you would want done to youto you

Problems:Problems:

1.1. People like different things (e.g. People like different things (e.g. Masochists)Masochists)

2.2. Is it how we decide in the hard cases?Is it how we decide in the hard cases?

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UtilitarianismUtilitarianism

Type of consequentialismType of consequentialism

What makes right acts right? What makes right acts right? – The right act is the one that, out of all of The right act is the one that, out of all of

the alternatives, is most likely to the alternatives, is most likely to maximize maximize the overall utilitythe overall utility

Utility is:Utility is:– happiness / the absence of suffering, or happiness / the absence of suffering, or – preference-satisfaction / not dissatisfactionpreference-satisfaction / not dissatisfaction

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An Example: An Example: EuthanasiaEuthanasia

Assess the options:Assess the options:– 1) Leave them in pain1) Leave them in pain– 2) Help them to die2) Help them to die

1 results in less net happiness 1 results in less net happiness than 2than 2

Therefore, Utilitarianism asserts Therefore, Utilitarianism asserts that 2 is the right choicethat 2 is the right choice

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KantianismKantianism

Type of deontological viewType of deontological view

What makes right acts right? What makes right acts right? – An act is right if its maxim treats humanity An act is right if its maxim treats humanity

as an end in itself and as an end in itself and not merely as a not merely as a meansmeans

Maxims are:Maxims are:– Like policiesLike policies– What you What you intendintend to do in certain situations to do in certain situations

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An Example: SlaveryAn Example: Slavery

Assess the options:Assess the options:– 1) Endorse slavery1) Endorse slavery– 2) Repeal slavery2) Repeal slavery

1 results in rational beings being used 1 results in rational beings being used as a mere means to the slave-owners as a mere means to the slave-owners endsends

Therefore, kantianism asserts that 2 is Therefore, kantianism asserts that 2 is the right choicethe right choice

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BreakBreak

Think about the better theories…Think about the better theories…

Can you see problems with them?Can you see problems with them?

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Problems with the Problems with the Better Theories…Better Theories…

What do you think?What do you think?

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The Tram DilemmaThe Tram Dilemma

An out of control tram will An out of control tram will soon kill 5 people who are soon kill 5 people who are stuck on the track. stuck on the track.

You can flick a switch to You can flick a switch to divert the tram to another divert the tram to another track where only one person track where only one person is stuck. is stuck.

Should you flip the switch? Should you flip the switch?

Should you kill one person to Should you kill one person to save five? save five?

SWITCH

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The Surgeon’s DilemmaThe Surgeon’s Dilemma You are a surgeon You are a surgeon

with with sixsix patients. patients. FiveFive of them need of them need

major organ major organ transplants. transplants.

The sixth, an ideal The sixth, an ideal donor for all the donor for all the relevant organs, is relevant organs, is in hospital for a in hospital for a minor operation.minor operation.

Should you kill one Should you kill one person to save five?person to save five?

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Jungle DilemmaJungle Dilemma

You are trekking You are trekking alone in the Amazon.alone in the Amazon.

You discover an evil You discover an evil army officer and his army officer and his troops rounding up troops rounding up villagers.villagers.

Unless you kill one, Unless you kill one, the troops will kill six.the troops will kill six.

Should you kill one Should you kill one person to save five? person to save five?

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Jungle Dilemma Cont.Jungle Dilemma Cont.

What if there are 2 What if there are 2 villagers?villagers?

What if there are What if there are 10 villagers?10 villagers?

What if there are What if there are 100 villagers?100 villagers?

Can you Can you everever kill kill one innocent one innocent person to save person to save many? many?

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Summing UpSumming Up

At least two moral theories seem At least two moral theories seem plausible…plausible…

But they disagree sometimesBut they disagree sometimes So, they can’t So, they can’t bothboth be right all of be right all of

the time!the time!

Is there a right and wrong in such Is there a right and wrong in such situations?situations?

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Summing Up Cont.Summing Up Cont.

Are some acts Are some acts justjust right or wrong right or wrong (without explanation)?(without explanation)?

What about killing innocent What about killing innocent children?children?– Innuits do it (for a reason)Innuits do it (for a reason)

What about torturing innocents?What about torturing innocents?– The US does this (for a reason)The US does this (for a reason)

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The Meaning of Life The Meaning of Life and the Good Lifeand the Good Life

Dan TurtonDan Turton

Victoria University of WellingtonVictoria University of Wellington

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Teaser QuestionsTeaser Questions

Why are we here?Why are we here?

What makes life worth living?What makes life worth living?

What is the meaning of life?What is the meaning of life?

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Clarifying the QuestionClarifying the Question

What do we really mean when we ask: What do we really mean when we ask: – ‘‘What is the meaning of life?’What is the meaning of life?’

Probably not:Probably not:– ‘‘What does it mean to be alive?’What does it mean to be alive?’

Probably: Probably: – ‘‘What, if anything, is the What, if anything, is the purposepurpose for life?’ for life?’

And possibly:And possibly:– ‘‘What, if anything, could make a life What, if anything, could make a life

meaningful?’meaningful?’

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Purposes Purposes forfor Life Life

‘‘What, if anything, is the purpose What, if anything, is the purpose forfor life?’ life?’

Religious purposesReligious purposes Non-religious purposesNon-religious purposes

– Survival and reproductionSurvival and reproduction– Selfish purposesSelfish purposes– Moral purposesMoral purposes

There is no purposeThere is no purpose

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Meaning Meaning inin Life Life

‘‘What, if anything, could make a What, if anything, could make a life meaningful?’life meaningful?’

SupernaturalismSupernaturalism NaturalismNaturalism

– Subjective NaturalismSubjective Naturalism– Objective NaturalismObjective Naturalism

NihilismNihilism

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Meaning vs. GoodnessMeaning vs. Goodness

‘‘What, if anything, could make a life What, if anything, could make a life meaningful?’meaningful?’

But is that the most interesting But is that the most interesting question?question?

Does a life have to be meaningful to be Does a life have to be meaningful to be good?good?

Would you rather your life be Would you rather your life be goodgood or or meaningfulmeaningful??

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The Good LifeThe Good Life

‘‘What, if anything, makes a life What, if anything, makes a life good?’good?’

What kind of ‘good life’?What kind of ‘good life’?– A good example of a lifeA good example of a life– Aesthetically goodAesthetically good– Causally goodCausally good– Morally goodMorally good– Subjectively goodSubjectively good

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What Theories of Well-What Theories of Well-Being DoBeing Do Describes the Describes the ultimateultimate cause(s) of a cause(s) of a

life being good for the one living itlife being good for the one living it Describes what Describes what intrinsicallyintrinsically makes makes

someone’s life go wellsomeone’s life go well Reduces all instrumentally life-Reduces all instrumentally life-

improving things down to one or improving things down to one or more type of ultimately valuable more type of ultimately valuable thingthing

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BreakBreak

Think about well-being (the Think about well-being (the subjectively good life)…subjectively good life)…

What do you think makes a life What do you think makes a life good for the one living it?good for the one living it?

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Theories of Well-BeingTheories of Well-Being

Mental state accountsMental state accounts– E.g. hedonismE.g. hedonism

Desire-satisfaction accountsDesire-satisfaction accounts– E.g. informed preference-satisfactionE.g. informed preference-satisfaction

Objective list accountsObjective list accounts– E.g. perfectionismE.g. perfectionism

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Making an Objective Making an Objective ListList What things What things intrinsicallyintrinsically make a make a

life go well for the one living it?life go well for the one living it? Now check that those things are Now check that those things are

intrinsicallyintrinsically valuable valuable– By asking By asking whywhy they make someone’s they make someone’s

life go better for themlife go better for them What are we left with?What are we left with?

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Is Pleasure the Only Is Pleasure the Only Thing of Value?Thing of Value?

Compare the lives of two menCompare the lives of two men Similarities:Similarities:

– Both lived long lives, in which Both lived long lives, in which they have experienced equal they have experienced equal pleasures from the same pleasures from the same sourcessources

– Sources: being loved by their Sources: being loved by their family and friends, achieving at family and friends, achieving at work and in hobbies etc.work and in hobbies etc.

Differences:Differences:– One of them is mistaken about One of them is mistaken about

all of the things he takes all of the things he takes pleasure inpleasure in

– The other is notThe other is not Whose life is better?Whose life is better?

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Is Informed Preference-Is Informed Preference-Satisfaction the Only Thing Satisfaction the Only Thing of Value?of Value?

Compare the lives of two very Compare the lives of two very intelligent womenintelligent women

Similarities:Similarities:– Up to the age of 25, both women Up to the age of 25, both women

led practically identical livesled practically identical lives– Throughout their whole lives Throughout their whole lives

they always made fully informed they always made fully informed decisionsdecisions

– Both learned everything to know Both learned everything to know about Heroinabout Heroin

Differences:Differences:– At age 25, one of them tried At age 25, one of them tried

Heroin, became addicted and Heroin, became addicted and went on to live a short life of went on to live a short life of much sufferingmuch suffering

– The other did not try Heroin and The other did not try Heroin and went on to live a normal lifewent on to live a normal life

Whose life is better?Whose life is better?

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Is Ideal Preference-Is Ideal Preference-Satisfaction the Only Thing Satisfaction the Only Thing of Value?of Value?

What makes a preference ideal?What makes a preference ideal?

Unless we remain very abstract Unless we remain very abstract about what is ideal, then we appear about what is ideal, then we appear to be making another objective listto be making another objective list

Is it important (for our well-being) Is it important (for our well-being) to get what we want?to get what we want?

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Summing UpSumming Up

The ‘meaning of life’ is easy to The ‘meaning of life’ is easy to work out for religious peoplework out for religious people

But non-religious people can still But non-religious people can still find meaning for their life by:find meaning for their life by:– Making their own meaning in their Making their own meaning in their

life, orlife, or– Having a good lifeHaving a good life

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Summing Up Cont.Summing Up Cont.

Understanding what is fundamentally Understanding what is fundamentally important in our lives is important for important in our lives is important for ethics ethics

These intrinsically valuable things should These intrinsically valuable things should be be at leastat least considered when doing ethics considered when doing ethics

An moral theory that ignores what gives An moral theory that ignores what gives our lives meaning and/or makes them our lives meaning and/or makes them good will be a poor moral theorygood will be a poor moral theory

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The Morality of The Morality of Meddling with Human Meddling with Human LifeLife

What should we want most for our What should we want most for our children?children?

What, if anything, is morally bad about What, if anything, is morally bad about un-natural processes?un-natural processes?

Is it more loving to accept a child exactly Is it more loving to accept a child exactly as they are or to encourage them to as they are or to encourage them to alter their lives for their own benefit?alter their lives for their own benefit?

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Meddling with Human Meddling with Human LifeLife Meddling = interfering where we Meddling = interfering where we

shouldn’tshouldn’t– Making human lifeMaking human life– Modifying human lifeModifying human life

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Technologies for Technologies for Making LifeMaking Life IVF – In Vitro FertilisationIVF – In Vitro Fertilisation PGD – Pre-implantation Genetic PGD – Pre-implantation Genetic

DiagnosisDiagnosis SCNT – Somatic Cell Nuclear SCNT – Somatic Cell Nuclear

TransferTransfer Artificial wombsArtificial wombs

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Technologies for Technologies for Modifying LifeModifying Life Beware the fallacy of Genetic Beware the fallacy of Genetic

Determinism!Determinism! PGD PGD

– Choosing (genetic dispositions for) Choosing (genetic dispositions for) specific characteristicsspecific characteristics

IVF with GE (Genetic Engineering)IVF with GE (Genetic Engineering)– Creating (genetic dispositions for) Creating (genetic dispositions for)

specific characteristicsspecific characteristics

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Should We be Using These Should We be Using These Technologies to Enhance Technologies to Enhance Our Children?Our Children? Isolating the important moral Isolating the important moral

issueissue– Imagine the technology is:Imagine the technology is:

Safe,Safe, Effective,Effective, Widely accessible, andWidely accessible, and CheapCheap

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Should We be Using These Should We be Using These Technologies to Enhance Technologies to Enhance Our Children? Cont.Our Children? Cont. Types of enhancements or ‘goods’Types of enhancements or ‘goods’

– Relative goodsRelative goods HeightHeight

– Absolute goodsAbsolute goods Happiness, intelligenceHappiness, intelligence Note continuumNote continuum

– Irrelevant goodsIrrelevant goods Hair colour, eye colourHair colour, eye colour (Maybe) Deafness, sexuality(Maybe) Deafness, sexuality

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2 Reasons for Allowing 2 Reasons for Allowing EnhancementEnhancement Procreative LibertyProcreative Liberty

– ‘‘The freedom to decide whether or not to The freedom to decide whether or not to have offspring and to control the use of have offspring and to control the use of one’s reproductive capacity.’one’s reproductive capacity.’

Moral analogy with educating our Moral analogy with educating our childrenchildren– Would you send your children to a school Would you send your children to a school

that guaranteed the best physical, that guaranteed the best physical, intellectual and emotional education?intellectual and emotional education?

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BreakBreak

Think about how you might object to Think about how you might object to all or certain types of enhancementall or certain types of enhancement

To object to the moral analogy with To object to the moral analogy with education, you need to show that education, you need to show that there is a morally relevant there is a morally relevant difference between enhancement by difference between enhancement by technology and enhancement by technology and enhancement by educationeducation

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Objections Against All Objections Against All EnhancementEnhancement Wisdom of repugnance (Yuck!)Wisdom of repugnance (Yuck!) Rights of the child (which one?)Rights of the child (which one?) Rights of the child to object (not a difference Rights of the child to object (not a difference

e.g. with nutrition)e.g. with nutrition) Slippery slope to babies with wingsSlippery slope to babies with wings Brave New World (who will clean the toilets?)Brave New World (who will clean the toilets?) All goods are relative (so enhancements All goods are relative (so enhancements

don’t improve things overall)don’t improve things overall) Too much ‘transforming love’ and not enough Too much ‘transforming love’ and not enough

‘accepting love’‘accepting love’

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Objections Against Some Objections Against Some EnhancementsEnhancements

Ban enhancements of some types Ban enhancements of some types of ‘goods’of ‘goods’– Relative, Absolute, or Irrelevant Relative, Absolute, or Irrelevant

goodsgoods Ban enhancements that decrease Ban enhancements that decrease

the autonomy of the childthe autonomy of the child– Deafness, GE for mathematicsDeafness, GE for mathematics

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Some Practical Reasons Some Practical Reasons Against EnhancementAgainst Enhancement

Can the technology ever really Can the technology ever really be:be:– Safe?, Safe?, – Effective?, Effective?, – Widely accessible?, andWidely accessible?, and– Cheap?Cheap?

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Summing UpSumming Up

As technology progresses, we need to As technology progresses, we need to know if we know if we shouldshould be doing some of the be doing some of the things that we can do, or soon will be things that we can do, or soon will be able to doable to do

Can be hard to draw the lineCan be hard to draw the line

Moral analogies can be hard to argue Moral analogies can be hard to argue withwith

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A Practical Guide A Practical Guide to Ethical Livingto Ethical Living

Dan TurtonDan Turton

Victoria University of WellingtonVictoria University of Wellington

5353

Plan for TodayPlan for Today

Morality Morality reallyreally up for grabs! up for grabs! 1) Why be moral?1) Why be moral? 2) Combine what we have learnt 2) Combine what we have learnt

so farso far 3) Construct a prudential/moral 3) Construct a prudential/moral

gridgrid 4) Fill it in4) Fill it in

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Teaser ScenarioTeaser Scenario

Based on Plato’s Ring of GygeesBased on Plato’s Ring of Gygees

You have a ring that means you:You have a ring that means you:– Can do pretty much anything you Can do pretty much anything you

pleaseplease– Never feel guiltNever feel guilt– Always get away with itAlways get away with it

Would you act morally or immorally?Would you act morally or immorally?

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What What OughtOught We Do? We Do?

Two main types of Two main types of oughtought or or shouldshould

Moral oughtsMoral oughts– You should be nice to your grandpa You should be nice to your grandpa

because that is the right/nice thing to because that is the right/nice thing to dodo

Prudential oughts:Prudential oughts:– You should not drink from that bottle – You should not drink from that bottle –

it has petrol in it!it has petrol in it!

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Definitions (for today)Definitions (for today)

Immoral actions:Immoral actions:– Decrease the well-being of others Decrease the well-being of others

unnecessarily (without some unnecessarily (without some compensating benefit)compensating benefit)

Moral actions:Moral actions:– Increase the well-being of othersIncrease the well-being of others

Amoral actions:Amoral actions:– Do not affect the well-being of othersDo not affect the well-being of others

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Reasons for Acting Reasons for Acting ImmorallyImmorally Prudential reasons:Prudential reasons:

– $$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$– Feeling good/pleasureFeeling good/pleasure– Fulfilling your desiresFulfilling your desires

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Reasons for Acting Reasons for Acting MorallyMorally Altruistic reasons:Altruistic reasons:

– Because it is good for othersBecause it is good for others Prudential reasons:Prudential reasons:

– Respect and/or friendship of othersRespect and/or friendship of others– $$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$– Feeling good/pleasureFeeling good/pleasure– Fulfilling your desiresFulfilling your desires– Fear of going to hellFear of going to hell

DutyDuty

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Prudential ActsPrudential Acts

Prudential acts increase the well-Prudential acts increase the well-being of the actorbeing of the actor

Anti-prudential acts decrease the Anti-prudential acts decrease the well-being of the actorwell-being of the actor

Some acts are prudentially Some acts are prudentially neutralneutral– E.g. spending $5 for an average ice-E.g. spending $5 for an average ice-

cream when you are already fullcream when you are already full

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Prudential vs. Moral Prudential vs. Moral ActsActs All actions can be prudentially and All actions can be prudentially and

morally classified or rated morally classified or rated ifif we we have a good enough definition of have a good enough definition of

Well-being (for prudential acts) andWell-being (for prudential acts) and Morality (for moral acts)Morality (for moral acts)

– Some think objective well-being is Some think objective well-being is enough hereenough here

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Prudential vs. Moral Prudential vs. Moral ActsActs We can also make a gridWe can also make a grid

Useful for a practical guide to Useful for a practical guide to ethical livingethical living

Being moral can be over-Being moral can be over-demandingdemanding

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More Definitions (for More Definitions (for today)today) Rationality, or acting rationallyRationality, or acting rationally

Acting in such a way as to bring Acting in such a way as to bring about your goal in a logical about your goal in a logical manner, considering the manner, considering the information available to youinformation available to you

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Discuss GridDiscuss Grid

How Well-being/morality fits inHow Well-being/morality fits in

Why the subjective/objective Why the subjective/objective distinction is importantdistinction is important

Why some actions might be Why some actions might be irrationalirrational

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Discuss Grid (Cont.)Discuss Grid (Cont.)

Public goods problemPublic goods problem

Why should Why should wewe be the ones to be the ones to sacrifice, while sacrifice, while othersothers benefit? benefit?

E.g. Public transportE.g. Public transport

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BreakBreak

Think about how you interpret the Think about how you interpret the gridgrid– What well-being means to youWhat well-being means to you– Where you might be on the gridWhere you might be on the grid

Think about actions that are both Think about actions that are both prudential and moral (ideal) that prudential and moral (ideal) that some other people might not be some other people might not be aware ofaware of

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Filling in the gridFilling in the grid

Come up with an ideaCome up with an idea Evaluate costs and benefits to Evaluate costs and benefits to

yourself and othersyourself and others Is it the most rational option?Is it the most rational option?

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Example Light BulbsExample Light Bulbs

Kit out your home with Eco-bulbsKit out your home with Eco-bulbs Costs/benefits to you:Costs/benefits to you:

– Cost $30-$50Cost $30-$50– Saving approx $200 per year (big home)Saving approx $200 per year (big home)– May be cheaper to replace old-style bulbs May be cheaper to replace old-style bulbs

before they expirebefore they expire Costs/benefits to others:Costs/benefits to others:

– Environmental benefitsEnvironmental benefits Other options:Other options:

– CandlesCandles– CarrotsCarrots

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Your TurnYour Turn

Come up with an ideaCome up with an idea Evaluate costs and benefits to Evaluate costs and benefits to

yourself and othersyourself and others Is it the most rational option?Is it the most rational option?

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Some ‘Ideal’ ExamplesSome ‘Ideal’ Examples

Environmental:Environmental:– Kettle water rationingKettle water rationing– Water garden in eveningWater garden in evening– Use biodegradable soaps etcUse biodegradable soaps etc– Recycling (1 can = 3 hours of TV)Recycling (1 can = 3 hours of TV)– Buying secondhandBuying secondhand– Brew your own beerBrew your own beer– Compost (50% of household waste)Compost (50% of household waste)

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More ‘Ideal’ ExamplesMore ‘Ideal’ Examples

Charity street collectorsCharity street collectors– $2 to make yourself and others happy$2 to make yourself and others happy

Spending quality timeSpending quality time– With loved onesWith loved ones

The power of honest complimentsThe power of honest compliments– Start your own compliment chainsStart your own compliment chains

Offering to help othersOffering to help others– Go about it in the right wayGo about it in the right way– Don’t be embarrassedDon’t be embarrassed

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Some ‘Moral’ ExamplesSome ‘Moral’ Examples

Donating money and/or getting involved with Donating money and/or getting involved with one charityone charity– Helps you see the difference you are makingHelps you see the difference you are making– You don’t have to feel bad when you don’t giveYou don’t have to feel bad when you don’t give

Car poolingCar pooling– www.carpoolnz.orgwww.carpoolnz.org– The risk makes it hard to know the cost benefit to The risk makes it hard to know the cost benefit to

youyou Reporting things to councilReporting things to council VaccinesVaccines Conscious consumptionConscious consumption

– Depends on the cost but its worth trying!Depends on the cost but its worth trying!

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How to Make the Most How to Make the Most of Moral Actsof Moral Acts Acknowledge that you have done a good thing Acknowledge that you have done a good thing

to yourselfto yourself Consciously consider the benefits to others and Consciously consider the benefits to others and

yourself at every opportunityyourself at every opportunity Don’t let others take advantage of your charityDon’t let others take advantage of your charity Find like-minded people who appreciate the Find like-minded people who appreciate the

effort you are doing for otherseffort you are doing for others Experiment – find the moral acts that make you Experiment – find the moral acts that make you

feel best!feel best! Be careful not to sacrifice too much of yourself Be careful not to sacrifice too much of yourself

for others and burnout – you will help more in for others and burnout – you will help more in the end if you never give more than you canthe end if you never give more than you can

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Summing UpSumming Up

To live prudentially and/or morally To live prudentially and/or morally we need to have some idea of:we need to have some idea of:– What a good life isWhat a good life is– What makes acts morally right or What makes acts morally right or

wrongwrong

To live ideally we need our beliefs To live ideally we need our beliefs about these two things to be trueabout these two things to be true

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Summing Up (Cont.)Summing Up (Cont.)

Once we have settled these Once we have settled these problems we can easily work on problems we can easily work on deciding what we should do deciding what we should do (prudentially and/or morally)(prudentially and/or morally)