1

kinds of major clause

co-ordinate

major

My mother opened the bottle and swallowed the medicine.

My mother swallowed the medicine after she had opened the bottle.

compound sentence

complex sentence

sub-ordinate

2

contains 2+ clauses:

1 a main clause, e.g. My mother opened the bottle

2 a clause that is related to the main clause by co-ordination, e.g.

and swallowed the medicine

e.g. My mother opened the bottle

and swallowed the medicine.

3

My mother swallowed the medicine after she had opened the bottle.

contains 2+ clauses:

1 a main clause, e.g. My mother opened the bottle

2 a clause that is related to the main clause by sub-ordination, e.g.

after she had swallowed the medicine

4

co-ordination

one clause expands another clause by:

adding some new element

adding some new element

Mei played and Ali sang.

giving an exception to it

giving an exception to it

offering an alternativeoffering an alternative

Mei played but no-one sang.

Mei will play or Ali will sing.

5

co-ordinating conjunctions join clauses which are equal in status, i.e.

• neither depends on the other;• each could stand on its own.

1. She lives somewhere here 2. I don’t know where it is.

1. She lives somewhere here 2. I don’t know where it is.

co-ordination

6

1. co-ordinating, e.g. and, or, but, for, yet, still

e.g. She lives somewhere here but I don’t know where it is.

are the words that link the clauses in a compound or complex sentence

are the words that link the clauses in a compound or complex sentence

3 kinds of conjunction3 kinds of conjunction

7

subordinating conjunctions join clauses of unequal status, i.e. the subordinate clause depends on the main clause;

i.e. it cannot stand alone.

It will dry out after the storm has passed.

it will dry out

after the storm has passed

can stand alone

8

2. Sub-ordinating conjunctions, e.g.because, if, so that, before, after, since

e.g.

It will dry out after the storm has passed

3. correlative, e.g.

either…or; neither…nor; both…and

e.g. He neither walks nor runs.

9

subordinating and correlative conjunctions may be

simplesimple

complexcomplex

or

because, until etc

in order to, as long as etc

Please stay until you have to go.

Please stay as long as you can.

e.g.

10

are sentences which contain, in addition to the

main clause, one or more

subordinate clauses

11

more than one sub-ordinate clause may occur in a sentence, e.g.

My mother swallowed the medicine

after she had opened the bottle

although she hated the taste.

12

Notice that the order can be changed:

My mother swallowed the medicine

after she had opened the bottle

although she hated the taste.

13

Notice that the order can be changed:

My mother swallowed the medicine

after she had opened the bottle

although she hated the taste.

14

Notice that the order can be changed:

my mother swallowed the medicine

After she had opened the bottle

although she hated the taste.

15

kinds of

subordinateclauses

3. noun (n

ominal)

4. comparative

2. adverbial

1. relative

16

two types of relative clause:1 restrictive, e.g.

The men who were tired rested.

2 non-restrictive, e.g.The men, who were tired, rested.

who, whom, whose,

which, that

usually introduced by relative pronouns

17

restrictive relative clauses define a subset of some thing mentioned in the main

clause.

The men who were tired

rested.= not all the men

rested – only the tired ones.

The men, who were tired,

rested.=

all the men rested because they were tired

18

They must change before they go.

It will go wherever the river flows.

She did it as if she were born to it.

say something about the time, place, reason, manner etc of the event expressed in the main clause, e.g.

19

• How? He went out angrily.

He went out running like the wind.

• When? He went out in the afternoon.

He went out as soon as he’d finished his

lunch.

• Why? He went out because of the heat.

He went out in order to get cool.

• Where? He went out to the shops.

He went out as far as he could possibly go.

• For how long? He went out for a long time.

He went out until the shadows were long.

20

function like noun phrases and may therefore

occur in the main clause wherever a noun

phrase may occur, i.e. as Subject, Object and

Complement.

noun clauses generally refer to facts, events, or ideas

noun clauses generally refer to facts, events, or ideas

21

Subject Verb Object Complement

The party is a disaster

That you’re injured

is a disaster

The assumption

is wrong

The assumption

is that prices will rise

The children knew

their spelling

The children knew

how to spell

22

modify some element of the main clause, acting like a degree adverb, e.g.

She has more patience

than you have.

She was happier than I had ever seen

her.

The time passed more slowly than he would have imagined.

23

I will lend you my book if you will lend me your bike.

I won’t lend you my book unless you lend me your bike.

24

tense in conditionals

i. if clause = present tense, main clause = future tense

e.g. If we play squash I will win

ii. if clause = past tensemain clause = would

e.g.If we played squash I would win.

iii. if clause = past perfect main clause = would have

e.g. If we had played squash I would have won.

25

the conditional clause may also be expressed in the following ways:

• supposing…• assuming/provided /given that…• in case…• in the event that…• on condition that…

finallyconditionality may be expressed in the following way, usually to make threats:

Do that again and you’ll regret it

26

• A: What would happen if I cut off your left ear?

• B: I wouldn't be able to hear.• A: And what would happen if I cut

off your right ear?• B: I wouldn't be able to see.• A: Why?• B: Because my glasses would

have fallen off

27

• A: Don't you think I sing with feeling?

• B: No. If you had any feeling, you

wouldn't sing.

28

• A: Harry says that if I had bought you some ice-cream at the cinema last night, you would have let me kiss you.

• B: Nonsense.• A: Well, what would I have to give you to

get a kiss?• B: An anaesthetic!!

29

Little Lawrence, who was a noisy, spoilt child, was running up and down the aisle of an aeroplane.

One annoyed passager stopped him and said:"Listen, kid. Why don't you go outside and play for a while!!“

30

• Harold went up to a man at a party, who he thought he recognised, and said:

• "It's good to see you again after all these years. But how you've changed! Your hair is different; you've lost weight; you're a little shorter and you've stopped wearing glasses. What happened to you, Mr. Frost?

• But I'm not Mr. Frost!!• Amazing! You've even changed your name!

31

common errorsinvolve conjunctions• although and but are both used in the same

sentence, e.g.Although he came early but they had already left.

He came early but they had already left.

Although he came early they had already left.

Don’t use both kinds of conjunction at the same time!

co-ordinate

subordinateor

32

though not strictly wrong, “why” here is redundant since this is the meaning of “the reason”; there is no need for both.

common errors

“the reason why”“the reason why”

33

Counsellors who have dealt with these girls say

the lack of parental control and attention is the

main cause of this rising tide of thuggery.

exercise 1b)exercise 1b)

Most of the girls are from homes with a history of family abuse or (from homes) where (=in which) the parents have marital problems.

34

Even after the girls are convicted and sent to homes or placed on probation, many parents refuse to see that their child is developing into a full-fledged criminal.

“Some just leave their kids with us and expect us to perform miracles”

“If the young person’s undesirable values and erroneous methods of solving her problems are not corrected early, there will be dire consequences.”

35

• Counsellors who have dealt with these girls…

Counsellor Lindy Ong, who has set up a support group in a church for parents with problem teens, said…

•(from homes) where (=in which) the parents have marital problems.

non-restrictivenon-restrictive

restrictiverestrictive

36

adverbial clauses:• reason: because “they’re just kids”• time: Even after the girls are

convicted and sent to homes or placed on probation..

there is no adverbial clause of place; the beginning of sentence 15 looks like one:

however, this is an adverbial phrase in which is embedded a restrictive relative clause

In a research bulletin issued by the Subordinate Courts

In a research bulletin (that was) issued by the Subordinate Courts