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MotivationA psychological process through which unsatisfied wants or needs lead to drives that are aimed at goals or incentives.
The Nature of Motivation
The Basic Motivation ProcessThe Basic Motivation Process
McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Adapted from Figure Figure 12–1: The Basic Motivation Process
Unsatisfied need
Drive toward goal to satisfy need
Attainment of goal (need
satisfaction)
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The Nature of Motivation
The Universalist Assumption
The first assumption is that the motivation process is universal, that all people are motivated to pursue goals they value—what the work-motivation theorists call goals with “high valence” or “preference”
The process is universal
Culture influences the specific content and goals pursued
Motivation differs across cultures
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The Nature of Motivation
The Assumption of Content and Process
Content Theories of Motivation
Theories that explain work motivation in terms of what arouses, energizes, or initiates employee behavior.
Process Theories of Motivation
Theories that explain work motivation by how employee behavior is initiated, redirected, and halted.
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The Hierarchy-of-Needs Theory
The Maslow Theory
Maslow’s theory rests on a number of basic assumptions: Lower-level needs must be satisfied before higher-level
needs become motivators A need that is satisfied no longer serves as a motivator There are more ways to satisfy higher-level than there are
ways to satisfy lower-level needs
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Self-ActualizationNeeds
Esteem Needs
Social Needs
Safety Needs
Physiological NeedsBasic physical needs for water, food, clothing, and shelter.
Desires for security, stability, and the absence of pain.
Desires to interact and affiliate with others and to feel wanted by others.
Needs for power and status.
Desires to reach one’s full potential, to become every thing one is capable of becoming as a human being.
Maslow’s Need HierarchyMaslow’s Need Hierarchy
McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Adapted from Figure 12–2: Maslow’s Need Hierarchy
Self-ActualizationNeeds
Esteem Needs
Social Needs
Safety Needs
Physiological Needs
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The Hierarchy-of-Needs Theory
International Findings on Maslow’s Theory
With some minor modification researchers examined the need satisfaction and need importance of the four highest-level needs in the Maslow hierarch
Esteem needs were divided into two groups:
Esteem – including needs for self-esteem and prestige
Autonomy – including desires for authority and opportunities for independent thought and action
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The Hierarchy-of-Needs Theory
International Findings on Maslow’s Theory
The Haire study indicated all these needs were important to the respondents across cultures International managers (not rank-and-file employees) indicated
the upper-level needs were of particular importance to them Findings for select country clusters (Latin Europe, United
States/United Kingdom, and Nordic Europe) indicated autonomy and self-actualization were the most important and least satisfied needs for the respondents
Another study of managers in eight East Asian countries found that autonomy and self-actualization in most cases also ranked high
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The Hierarchy-of-Needs Theory
International Findings on Maslow’s Theory
Some researchers have suggested modifying Maslow’s “Western-oriented” hierarchy by reranking the needs
Asian cultures emphasize the needs of society Chinese hierarchy of needs might have four levels
ranked from lowest to highest: Belonging (social) Physiological Safety Self-actualization (in the service of society)
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Top-Ranking Goals for Professional Technical Top-Ranking Goals for Professional Technical Personnel from a Large Variety of CountriesPersonnel from a Large Variety of Countries
Adapted from Table 12–1: Top-Ranking Goals for Professional Technical Personnel from a Large Variety of Countries
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Top-Ranking Goals for Professional Technical Top-Ranking Goals for Professional Technical Personnel from a Large Variety of CountriesPersonnel from a Large Variety of Countries
Adapted from Table 12–1: Top-Ranking Goals for Professional Technical Personnel from a Large Variety of Countries
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The Hierarchy-of-Needs Theory
International Findings on Maslow’s Theory
Hofstede’s research indicates: Self-actualization and esteem needs rank highest for
professionals and managers Security, earnings, benefits, and physical working conditions
are most important to low-level, unskilled workers Job categories and levels may have a dramatic effect on
motivation and may well offset cultural considerations MNCs should focus most heavily on giving physical rewards to
lower-level personnel and on creating a climate where there is challenge, autonomy, the ability to use one’s skills, and cooperation for middle- and upper-level personnel.
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Table 12–2: The Four Most Important Goals Ranked by Occupational Group and Related to the Need Hierarchy
Four Most Important Goals Four Most Important Goals Ranked by Occupational GroupRanked by Occupational Group
Adapted from Table 12–2: Four Most Important Goals Ranked by Occupational Group and Related to the Need Hierarchy
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Table 12–2: The Four Most Important Goals Ranked by Occupational Group and Related to the Need Hierarchy
Four Most Important Goals Four Most Important Goals Ranked by Occupational GroupRanked by Occupational Group
Adapted from Table 12–2: Four Most Important Goals Ranked by Occupational Group and Related to the Need Hierarchy
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The Two-Factor Theory of Motivation
The Herzberg Theory
Two-Factor Theory of MotivationA theory that identifies two sets of factors that influence job
satisfaction:
MotivatorsJob-content factors such as achievement, recognition, responsibility, advancement, and the work itself
Hygiene FactorsJob-context variables such as salary, interpersonal relations, technical supervision, working conditions, and company policies and administration
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Herzberg’s Two-Factor TheoryHerzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Adapted from Table 12–3: Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Salary
Technical supervision
Company policies and administration
Interpersonal relations
Working conditions
Achievement
Recognition
Responsibility
Advancement
The work itself
Hygiene Factors Motivators
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Herzberg’s Two-Factor TheoryHerzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Adapted from Table 12–4: The Relationship Between Maslow’s Need Hierarchy and Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
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The Two-Factor Theory of Motivation
The Herzberg Theory
The two-factor theory holds that motivators and hygiene factors relate to employee satisfaction – a more complex relationship than the traditional view that employees are either satisfied or dissatisfied If hygiene factors are not taken care of or are deficient
there will be dissatisfaction There may be no dissatisfaction if hygiene factors are
taken care of – there may be no satisfaction also Only when motivators are present will there be
satisfaction
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The Two-Factor Theory of Motivation
The Herzberg Theory
Hygiene factors help to prevent dissatisfaction – thus the term hygiene as it is used in the health field
Only motivators lead to satisfaction
Efforts to motivate human resources must provide: Recognition A chance to achieve and grow Advancement Interesting work
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The Two-Factor Theory of Motivation
Two categories of International findings relate to the two-factor theory: One type of study consists of replications of Herzberg’s
research in a particular countryDo managers in country X give answers similar to those in Herzberg’s original studies?
The others are cross-cultural studies focusing on job satisfactionWhat factors cause job satisfaction and how do these responses differ from country to country?
International Findings on Herzberg’s Theory
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The Two-Factor Theory of Motivation
A number of research efforts have been undertaken to replicate the two-factor theory – they tend to support Herzberg’s findings
George Hines surveyed of 218 middle managers and 196 salaried employees in New Zealand using ratings of 12 job factors and overall job satisfaction – he concluded “the Herzberg model appears to have validity across occupational levels”
A similar study was conducted among 178 Greek managers – this study found that overall Herzberg’s two-factor theory of job satisfaction generally held true
International Findings on Herzberg’s Theory
Two-Factor Replications
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Views of Satisfaction/DissatisfactionViews of Satisfaction/Dissatisfaction
McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Adapted from Figure 12–3: Views of Satisfaction/Dissatisfaction
Traditional View
Dissatisfaction Satisfaction
Two-Factor View
(Hygiene Factors)
(Motivators)
Absent(Dissatisfaction)
Present(No Dissatisfaction)
Absent(No Satisfaction)
Present(Satisfaction)
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The Two-Factor Theory of Motivation
Motivators tend to be more important to job satisfaction than hygiene factors
MBA candidates from four countries ranked hygiene factors at the bottom and motivators at the top while Singapore students (of a different cultural cluster than the other three groups) gave similar responses Job-satisfaction-related factors may not always be culturally
bounded Lower- and middle-management personnel attending management
development courses in Canada, the United Kingdom, France, and Japan ranked the importance of 15 job-related outcomes and how satisfied they were with each Job content may be more important than job context
International Findings on Herzberg’s Theory
Cross-Cultural Job-Satisfaction Studies
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The Two-Factor Theory of Motivation
Job-Context Factors
In work motivation, those factors controlled by the organization, such as conditions, hours, earnings, security, benefits, and promotions.
Job-Content Factors
In work motivation, those factors internally controlled, such as responsibility, achievement, and the work itself.
International Findings on Herzberg’s Theory
Cross-Cultural Job-Satisfaction Studies
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Motivation Factors in ZambiaMotivation Factors in Zambia
McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Adapted from Figure 12–4: Motivation Factors in Zambia
HighDissatisfaction
HighSatisfaction
NeutralPoint
-2.00 -1.00 +1.00+2.00 Average Standard Score of Frequency of Mention of Items
Growth Opportunity
Work Nature
Material and Physical Provisions
Relations with Others
Fairness in Organizational Practices
Personal Problems
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JOI Results in Four Cross-Cultural JOI Results in Four Cross-Cultural GroupsGroups
Adapted from Table 12–5: The Results of Administering the JOI to Four Cross-Cultural Groups
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Achievement Motivation Theory
Characteristic profile of high achievers:
They like situations in which they take personal responsibility for finding solutions to problems.
Tend to be moderate risk-takers rather than high or low risk-takers.
Want concrete feedback on their performance.
Often tend to be loners, and not team players.
The Background of Achievement Motivation Theory
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Achievement Motivation Theory
Ways to develop high-achievement needs: Obtain feedback on performance and use the information to
channel efforts into areas where success will likely be attained Emulate people who have been successful achievers; Develop an internal desire for success and challenges Daydream in positive terms by picturing oneself as successful
in the pursuit of important objectives
The Background of Achievement Motivation Theory
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Achievement Motivation Theory
Polish industrialists were high achievers scoring 6.58 (U.S. managers’ scored an average of 6.74) Managers in countries as diverse as the United States and
those of the former Soviet bloc in Central Europe have high needs for achievement
Later studies did not find a high need for achievement in Central European countries Average high-achievement score for Czech industrial
managers was 3.32 (considerably lower than U.S. managers)
International Findings on Achievement Motivation Theory
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Selected Countries on the Uncertainty-Selected Countries on the Uncertainty-AvoidanceAvoidanceand Masculinity Scalesand Masculinity Scales
Masculinity index
5 23 41 59 77 95
Un
cert
ain
ty a
void
ance
ind
ex
1116212732374348535964697580859196
101107110
Weak uncertainty avoidanceFeminine
Norway
FinlandOthers
Weak uncertainty avoidanceMasculine
Great BritainIndia
USASouth Africa
CanadaOthers
Strong uncertainty avoidanceFeminine
FranceBrazil
Costa RicaSpain
South KoreaOthers Strong
uncertainty avoidanceMasculine
Japan
AustriaGermany
MexicoOthers
Adapted from Figure 12–5: Selected Countries on the Uncertainty-Avoidance and Masculinity Scales
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Achievement Motivation Theory
Achievement motivation theory must be modified to meet the specific needs of the local culture: The culture of many countries does not support high achievement Anglo cultures and those that reward entrepreneurial effort do
support achievement motivation and their human resources should probably be managed accordingly
International Findings on Achievement Motivation Theory
Hofstede offers the following advice:
The countries on the feminine side . . . distinguish themselves by focusing on quality of life rather than on performance and on relationships between people rather than on money and things. This means social motivation: quality of life plus security and quality of life plus risk.
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Select Process Theories
Equity Theory
When people perceive they are being treated equitably it will have a positive effect on their job satisfaction
If they believe they are not being treated fairly (especially in relation to relevant others) they will be dissatisfied which will have a negative effect on their job performance and they will strive to restore equity.
When the theory is examined on an international basis, the results are mixed.
There is considerable research to support the fundamental equity principle in Western work groups.
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Select Process Theories
Equity Theory
Equity perceptions among managers and nonmanagers in an Israeli kibbutz production unit Everyone was treated the same but managers reported lower
satisfaction levels than the workers Managers perceived their contributions to be greater than other
groups in the kibbutz and felt under compensated for their value and effort
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Select Process Theories
Equity Theory
Employees in Asia and the Middle East often readily accept inequitable treatment in order to preserve group harmony
Men and women in Japan and Korea (and Latin America) typically receive different pay for doing the same work – due to years of cultural conditioning women may not feel they are treated inequitably
These results indicate equity theory is not universally applicable in explaining motivation and job satisfaction
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Select Process Theories
Goal-Setting Theory
A process theory that focuses on how individuals go about setting goals and responding to them and the overall impact of this process on motivation
Specific areas that are given attention in goal-setting theory include: The level of participation in setting goals Goal difficulty Goal specificity The importance of objective Timely feedback to progress toward goals
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Select Process Theories
Goal-Setting Theory
Unlike many theories of motivation, goal setting has been continually refined and developed There is considerable research evidence showing that
employees perform extremely well when they are assigned specific and challenging goals that they have had a hand in setting
Most of these studies have been conducted in the United States – few have been carried out in other cultures
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Select Process Theories
Goal-Setting Theory
Norwegian employees shunned participation and preferred to have their union representatives work with management in determining work goals
Researchers concluded that individual participation in goal setting was seen as inconsistent with the prevailing Norwegian philosophy of participation through union representatives
In the United States employee participation in setting goals is motivational – it had no value for the Norwegian employees in this study
38
Select Process Theories
Expectancy Theory
Expectancy Theory
A process theory that postulates that motivation is influenced by a person’s belief that Effort will lead to performance Performance will lead to specific outcomes,
and The outcomes will be of value to the
individual.
39
Select Process Theories
Expectancy Theory
Expectancy theory predicts that high performance followed by high rewards will lead to high satisfaction
Does this theory have universal application?
Eden found some support for it while studying workers in an Israeli kibbutz Matsui and colleagues found it could be successfully applied in Japan
Expectancy theory could be culture-bound – international managers must be aware of this limitation in motivating human resources since expectancy theory is based on employees having considerable control over their environment (a condition that does not exist in many cultures)
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Motivation AppliedJob Design, Work Centrality, and Rewards
Job Design
Quality of work life (QWL) is not the same throughout the world. Assembly-line employees in Japan work at a rapid pace for
hours and have very little control over their work activities Assembly-line employees in Sweden work at a more relaxed
pace and have a great deal of control over their work activities U.S. assembly-line employees typically work somewhere
between – at a pace less demanding than Japan’s but more structured than Sweden’s
QWL may be directly related to the culture of the country.
Quality of Work Life: The Impact of Culture
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Cultural DimensionsCultural Dimensions
Adapted from Table 12–6: Cultural Dimensions in Japan, Sweden, and the United States
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Motivation AppliedJob Design, Work Centrality, and Rewards
Sociotechnical Job Designs
The objective of these designs is to integrate new technology into the workplace so that workers accept and use it to increase overall productivity
New technology often requires people learn new methods and in some cases work faster
Employee resistance is common
Effective sociotechnical design can overcome these problems
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Motivation AppliedJob Design, Work Centrality, and Rewards
Sociotechnical Job Designs Some firms have introduced sociotechnical designs for better
blending of their personnel and technology without sacrificing efficiency General Foods
Autonomous groups at its Topeka, Kansas plant Workers share responsibility and work in a highly democratic
environment Other U.S. firms have opted for a self-managed team approach
Multifunctional teams with autonomy for generating successful product innovation is more widely used by successful U.S., Japanese, and European firms than any other teamwork concept
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Motivation AppliedJob Design, Work Centrality, and Rewards
Work Centrality
The importance of work in an individual’s life can provide important insights into how to motivate human resources in different cultures Japan has the highest level of work centrality Israel has moderately high levels The United States and Belgium have average levels The Netherlands and Germany have moderately low levels Britain has low levels
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Motivation AppliedJob Design, Work Centrality, and Rewards
Work Centrality
Work is an important part of most people’s lifestyles due to a variety of conditions Americans and Japanese work long hours because the cost of
living is high Most Japanese managers expect their salaried employees who
are not paid extra to stay late at work, and overtime has become a requirement of the job
There is recent evidence that Japanese workers may do far less work in a business day than outsiders would suspect
Value of Work
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Motivation AppliedJob Design, Work Centrality, and Rewards
Work Centrality
In recent years, the number of hours worked annually by German workers has been declining, while the number for Americans has been on the rise. Germans place high value on lifestyle and often prefer leisure
to work, while their American counterparts are just the opposite.
Research reveals culture may have little to do with it A wider range of wages (large pay disparity) within American
companies than in German firms creates incentives for American employees to work harder.
Value of Work
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Motivation AppliedJob Design, Work Centrality, and Rewards
Work Centrality
Impact of overwork on the physical condition of Japanese workers One-third of the working-age population suffers from chronic
fatigue The Japanese prime minister’s office found a majority of those
surveyed complained of Being chronically tired Feeling emotionally stressed Abusive conditions in the workplace
Karoshi (“overwork” or “job burnout”) is now recognized as a real social problem
Value of Work
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Motivation AppliedJob Design, Work Centrality, and Rewards
Job Satisfaction
EU workers see a strong relationship between how well they do their jobs and the ability to get what they want out of life U.S. workers were not as supportive of this
relationship Japanese workers were least likely to see any
connectionThis finding suggest difficulties may arise in
American, European, and Japanese employees working together effectively
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Motivation AppliedJob Design, Work Centrality, and Rewards
Job Satisfaction
An emphasis on flexibility. An emphasis on control.
Cooperation built on intuition and pragmatism.
The habit of analyzing things in such great depth that it results in “paralysis through analysis.”
An emphasis on cooperation, trust, and personal concern for others.
The avoidance of risk taking and the feeling of distrust of others.
Viewing work as a challenging and development activity.
Viewing work as a necessary burden.
A more holistic, idealistic, and group thinking approach to problem solving.
Logical and reason-centered, individualistic thinking.
Moving toward …Moving away from …
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Motivation AppliedJob Design, Work Centrality, and Rewards
Managers everywhere use rewards to motivate their personnel Some rewards are financial in nature such as salary
raises, bonuses, and stock options
Others are non-financial such as feedback and recognition
Significant differences exist between reward systems that work best in one country and those that are most effective in another
Reward Systems
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Motivation AppliedJob Design, Work Centrality, and Rewards
Incentives and Culture
Use of financial incentives to motivate employees is very common Countries with high individualism When companies attempt to link compensation to
performance Financial incentive systems vary in range
Individual incentive-based pay systems in which workers are paid directly for their output
Systems in which employees earn individual bonuses based on organizational performance goals
52
Motivation AppliedJob Design, Work Centrality, and Rewards
Incentives and Culture
Many cultures base compensation on group membership Such systems stress equality rather than individual incentive
plans An individually based bonus system for the sales
representatives in an American MNC introduced in its Danish subsidiary was rejected by the sales force because
It favored one group over another Employees felt that everyone should receive the same size
bonus Indonesian oil workers rejected a pay-for-performance
system where some work teams would make more money than others
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Motivation AppliedJob Design, Work Centrality, and Rewards
Incentives and Culture
Workers in many countries are highly motivated by things other than financial rewards The most important rewards in locations at 40 countries
of an electrical equipment MNC involved recognition and achievement
Second in importance were improvements in the work environment and employment conditions including pay and work hours
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Motivation AppliedJob Design, Work Centrality, and Rewards
Incentives and Culture
French and Italian employees valued job security highly while American and British workers held it of little importance
Scandinavian workers placed high value on concern for others on the job and for personal freedom and autonomy but did not rate “getting ahead” very important
German workers ranked security, fringe benefits, and “getting ahead” as very important
Japanese employees put good working conditions and a congenial work environment high on their list but ranked personal advancement quite low
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Motivation AppliedJob Design, Work Centrality, and Rewards
Incentives and Culture
The types of incentives that are deemed important appear to be culturally influenced
Culture can even affect the overall cost of an incentive system Japanese efforts to introduce Western-style merit pay systems
typically lead to an increase in overall labor costs Companies fear that reducing the pay of less productive
workers’ may cause them to lose face and disturb group harmony
Hence, everyone’s salary increases as a result of merit pay systems