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Psychology 2020 Psychology 2020

Unit 1Unit 1

Science, Research & EthicsScience, Research & Ethics

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The Science of PsychologyThe Science of Psychology

Psychology is a very broad subject that Psychology is a very broad subject that covers:covers:• Human behaviorHuman behavior• Nonhuman behaviorNonhuman behavior• Physiological processes and structures related Physiological processes and structures related

to behaviorto behavior• Conceptual processes used to explain behaviorConceptual processes used to explain behavior

A scientific approach is used in Psychology A scientific approach is used in Psychology to advance our knowledge of the subject to advance our knowledge of the subject matter.matter.

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Scientific and Nonscientific Scientific and Nonscientific ApproachesApproaches

Scientific approaches emphasize Scientific approaches emphasize gaining knowledge through direct gaining knowledge through direct observation and experimentation.observation and experimentation.• This is the “empirical” approachThis is the “empirical” approach

Nonscientific approaches rely on Nonscientific approaches rely on intuition, inference, hearsay etc. intuition, inference, hearsay etc. rather than direct observation and rather than direct observation and experimentation.experimentation.

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Scientific and Nonscientific Scientific and Nonscientific ApproachesApproaches

Scientific approaches are skeptical and Scientific approaches are skeptical and critical and emphasize the following in critical and emphasize the following in their data collection methods:their data collection methods:• Systematic and controlled observationsSystematic and controlled observations• Accurate and precise measuring instruments Accurate and precise measuring instruments

that produce valid and reliable measurementsthat produce valid and reliable measurements• Testable hypotheses involving clear, Testable hypotheses involving clear,

operationally defined termsoperationally defined terms• Unbiased and objective reports of research Unbiased and objective reports of research

findingsfindings

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Scientific and Nonscientific Scientific and Nonscientific ApproachesApproaches

Nonscientific approaches are accepting Nonscientific approaches are accepting and uncritical. They often involveand uncritical. They often involve• Casual, uncontrolled observationsCasual, uncontrolled observations• Inaccurate and imprecise measuring Inaccurate and imprecise measuring

instruments that produce invalid and unreliable instruments that produce invalid and unreliable measurementsmeasurements

• Untestable hypotheses involving ambiguous Untestable hypotheses involving ambiguous termsterms

• Biased and subjective reports of the Biased and subjective reports of the phenomena being studied.phenomena being studied.

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The Advantages of using a Scientific The Advantages of using a Scientific

Approach in PsychologyApproach in Psychology The scientific method provides The scientific method provides

specific rules for gathering, reporting specific rules for gathering, reporting and evaluating information.and evaluating information.

This method encourages objectivity This method encourages objectivity through replication.through replication.

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Goals of ScienceGoals of Science

Description of behaviorDescription of behavior• Number of questions answeredNumber of questions answered..

Prediction of behaviorPrediction of behavior• Good language skills predicts greater success Good language skills predicts greater success

in school.in school. Determining Causes of behaviorDetermining Causes of behavior

• Pulling the lever produces $100.Pulling the lever produces $100. Explanation of behaviorExplanation of behavior

• Mental retardation often results from genetic Mental retardation often results from genetic abnormalitiesabnormalities. .

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Practice QuestionsPractice Questions

Three of the goals of science are to Three of the goals of science are to describe, predict and describe, predict and explain explain behavior. behavior.

Label each of the following a either Label each of the following a either DescriptionDescription, , PredictionPrediction or or ExplanationExplanation::

Plants that are played music will grow more than plants Plants that are played music will grow more than plants that are not played music. that are not played music.

Differences in assigned guilt ratings between attractive Differences in assigned guilt ratings between attractive and unattractive defendants are due to a physical and unattractive defendants are due to a physical attractiveness stereotype. attractiveness stereotype.

Alcohol consumption decreases a driver’s reaction time. Alcohol consumption decreases a driver’s reaction time.

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Determination of CauseDetermination of Cause

Temporal precedenceTemporal precedence• The causal event must come before the event it The causal event must come before the event it

causes.causes. Covariation of cause and effectCovariation of cause and effect

• When the causal event is present we see the When the causal event is present we see the effect more often than not.effect more often than not.

Alternative explanations have been Alternative explanations have been eliminated.eliminated.• It has been determined that nothing other than It has been determined that nothing other than

the causal event could be responsible for the the causal event could be responsible for the observed effect.observed effect.

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Types of ResearchTypes of Research

Basic ResearchBasic Research• Asks fundamental questions about the Asks fundamental questions about the

nature of the subject.nature of the subject.• Empirically tests key theoretical conceptsEmpirically tests key theoretical concepts

Applied ResearchApplied Research• Asks questions related to practical Asks questions related to practical

problems.problems.• Empirically tests and/or evaluates Empirically tests and/or evaluates

potential solutions.potential solutions.

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Steps to Doing ResearchSteps to Doing Research

1.1. Review the theory and research Review the theory and research related to an area of interest.related to an area of interest.

2.2. Formulate a hypothesis.Formulate a hypothesis.3.3. Design a study to test the hypothesis Design a study to test the hypothesis

and make a prediction about the and make a prediction about the outcome of the study.outcome of the study.

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Steps to Doing ResearchSteps to Doing Research

4.4. Conduct the study and collect the Conduct the study and collect the necessary data.necessary data.

5.5. Evaluate the data in terms of the Evaluate the data in terms of the prediction and the hypothesis.prediction and the hypothesis.

6.6. Adjust the theory as needed based on Adjust the theory as needed based on the new data and report your findings.the new data and report your findings.

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Initial Stages of ResearchInitial Stages of Research

Almost all research begins with Almost all research begins with some form of a question.some form of a question.• I wonder if writing summary notes of I wonder if writing summary notes of

reading assignments facilitates the reading assignments facilitates the understanding of what was read?understanding of what was read?

The questions are then restated as a The questions are then restated as a research hypothesisresearch hypothesis• Summarization of complex information Summarization of complex information

facilitates understanding of that facilitates understanding of that information.information.

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The Research HypothesisThe Research Hypothesis

A A researchresearch hypothesishypothesis is a tentative is a tentative statement about a relationship between statement about a relationship between two or more variables.two or more variables.

Examples of hypotheses: Examples of hypotheses: • Defendant attractiveness will influence jury Defendant attractiveness will influence jury

decisionsdecisions• Children from single-parent homes will be more Children from single-parent homes will be more

independent.independent.• Regular exercise will reduce depression.Regular exercise will reduce depression.

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VariablesVariables A variable is any event or behavior or A variable is any event or behavior or

characteristic that can change (have more characteristic that can change (have more than one value).than one value).• Examples of variables are amount of exercise, Examples of variables are amount of exercise,

level of attractiveness, level of independence, level of attractiveness, level of independence, weight, etc.weight, etc.

A “relationship” between variables means A “relationship” between variables means that as one variable changes the “related” that as one variable changes the “related” variable also changes.variable also changes.• For example “as the amount of aerobic exercise For example “as the amount of aerobic exercise

increases, the person’s weight decreases” increases, the person’s weight decreases” demonstrates a relationship between exercise and demonstrates a relationship between exercise and weight.weight.

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The Research HypothesisThe Research Hypothesis

Hypotheses must be testable.Hypotheses must be testable. The concepts used must be operationally The concepts used must be operationally

defined.defined.• Operationally defining a concept means that the Operationally defining a concept means that the

way you measure a concept is how you define it.way you measure a concept is how you define it. ““attractive” is operationally defined as receiving a attractive” is operationally defined as receiving a

rating above 7 on a 10 point scale.rating above 7 on a 10 point scale. ““independent” is operationally defined as “completing independent” is operationally defined as “completing

a specified task with no prompts or instructions”.a specified task with no prompts or instructions”.

How would you operationally define How would you operationally define “depression”?“depression”?

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Generating Research IdeasGenerating Research Ideas

Challenging common senseChallenging common sense Observe the world around you Observe the world around you

looking for regularities and asking looking for regularities and asking whywhy

Reviewing past researchReviewing past research Solving practical problemsSolving practical problems Testing theoriesTesting theories

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TheoriesTheories Organize and explain existing data.Organize and explain existing data. Lead to insights that generate new studies Lead to insights that generate new studies

and new data.and new data. Are supported when new data are Are supported when new data are

consistent with the theory.consistent with the theory. Must be revised when new data are Must be revised when new data are

collected that reveal weaknesses in the collected that reveal weaknesses in the theory.theory.

May be replaced by newer theories that May be replaced by newer theories that provide better explanations for the data.provide better explanations for the data.

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Drawbacks of Theory-Based Drawbacks of Theory-Based ResearchResearch

Theory may divert attention away from Theory may divert attention away from other important issues and problems.other important issues and problems.

Theory may provide a wrong way of Theory may provide a wrong way of looking at the world and may prevent us looking at the world and may prevent us from finding more accurate ways of from finding more accurate ways of viewing phenomena.viewing phenomena.

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APA Research ArticlesAPA Research Articles

AbstractAbstract• Short summary of the research article for Short summary of the research article for

library indexing purposes.library indexing purposes. IntroductionIntroduction

• Describes the research problem, reviews Describes the research problem, reviews related past research, provides current related past research, provides current research question and rationale.research question and rationale.

MethodMethod• Describes subjects, research procedures and Describes subjects, research procedures and

materials.materials.

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APA Research ArticlesAPA Research Articles

Results Results • Describes results and portrays them in Describes results and portrays them in

statistical tables and/or graphs.statistical tables and/or graphs. DiscussionDiscussion

• Relates results to research and hypotheses Relates results to research and hypotheses cited in the Introduction , discusses the cited in the Introduction , discusses the implications of these results and suggests implications of these results and suggests future directions for research.future directions for research.

ReferencesReferences• Lists the sources of all research cited in the Lists the sources of all research cited in the

previous sections.previous sections.

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Example APA Style Research Example APA Style Research PaperPaper

Pace et al. (1985)Pace et al. (1985) Identify the:Identify the:

• PurposePurpose• General methodGeneral method• ResultsResults• Discussion highlightsDiscussion highlights