10. Methods and Apparatus; Mathematics of Interest to EcologistsJournal of Animal Ecology, Vol. 40, No. 3 (Oct., 1971), pp. 799-801Published by: British Ecological SocietyStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3466 .

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Abstracts 799

Free, J. B. (1968). The foraging behaviour of honeybees (Apis mellifera) and bumblebees (Bombus spp.) on blackcurrant (Ribes nigrum), raspberry (Rubus idaeus) and strawberry (Fragaria x ananassa) flowers. J. appl. Ecol. 5, 157-68.

Behavioural observations showed that bees could pollinate all three plant species. Bumblebees were commoner on blackcurrants than honeybees, but the situation was reversed on raspberry and strawberry. Diurnal rhythms of activity on the plants are described, both in the number of bees involved, and in the collection of pollen or nectar.

Free, J. B. (1968). The behaviour of bees visiting runner beans (Phaseolus multiflorus). J. appl. Ecol. 5, 631-8.

TIhe foraging behaviour and daily foraging routine of bees are described and discussed in relation to pollination.

Hinkson, R. S., Smith, L. T. & Kese, A. G. (1970). Calcium requirement of the breeding pheasant hen. J. Wildl. Mgmt, 34, 160-5.

Egg production was greatest with a diet containing 2 5% calcium, lower for a diet of 1-8 or 0 9%, and lowest with a diet of 3-7V.

Humphries, D. A. & Driver, P. M. (1970). Protean defence by prey animals. Oecologia, 5, 285-302.

Irregular and unpredictable movements are commonly exhibited by animals during flight from a pre- dator. Such movements are termed 'protean', and this aspect of escape is enhanced with increasing num- bers in group displays. Protean escape prevents a predator from learning and combating the prey tactics, and by confusing the predator delays its reactions. This irregularity is therefore not accidental but has been selected for.

Jorgensen, C. D. (1968). Home range as a measure of probable interactions among populations of small mammals. J. Mammal. 49, 104-12.

A technique is presented for estimating the probability of interaction in space, using home range measurements. The assumptions and limitations of the technique are discussed.

Kevan, P. G. & Shorthouse, J. D. (1970). Behavioural thermoregulation by High Arctic butter- flies. Arctic, 23, 268-279.

Behavioural thermoregulation by butterflies is briefly reviewed. High Arctic butterflies select basking substrates and precisely orientate their wings with respect to the sun to use direct insolation to elevate their body temperatures. Three behaviour patterns are discussed for the five species found on northern Ellesmere Island, N.W.T., Canada, and these are related to wing morphology, venation, colour patterns, hairiness, and physiology. Some experiments show the importance of behavioural thermoregulation.

Stoklosowa, S. (1970). Further observations on the sexual dimorphism in the skin of Salmo trutta trutta in relation to sexual maturity. Copeia 1970, 332-9.

Histological studies of the skin of the sea trout Salmo trutta trutta show marked differences according to season and sex.

10. METHODS AND APPARATUS; MATHEMATICS OF INTEREST TO

ECOLOGISTS Anderson, J. M. & Healey, I. N. (1970). Improvements in the gelatine-embedding technique for

woodland soil and litter samples. Pedobiologia, 10, 108-20. This technique has now reached the stage where Collembola and mites can be identified in gelatine sec-

tions, and their microhabitats determined by a method which approaches direct observation. Population estimates obtained by use of this method compare favourably with those from high-gradient extractors, especially for adults.

Bishop, R. A. & Barratt, R. (1969). Capturing waterfowl in Iowa by night-lighting. J. Wildl. Mgmt, 33, 956-60.

In shallow marshland, a two-man team was able to catch an average of thirty-one ducks per night.

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800 Abstracts

Bremond, J.-C., Gramet, Ph., Brough, T. & Wright, E. N. (1968). A comparison of some broad- casting equipments and recorded distress calls for scaring birds. J. appl. Ecol. 5, 521-9.

High fidelity equipment elicited better responses than low fidelity equipment, but weather (especially wind) and quality of the distress call could affect the results.

Brennan, R. D., Wit, C. T. de, Williams, W. A. & Quattrin, E. V. (1970). The utility of a digital simulation language for ecological modeling. Oecologia, 4, 113-32.

The program is illustrated using examples of a predator-prey system, competition, and management of a buffalo herd.

Brown, N. S. (1970). Eye lens weights as indicators of age in rock doves. J. Wildl. Mgmt, 34, 656-7. The method is useful only up to an age of about 100 days.

Burger, G. V., Greenwood, R. J. & Oldenburg, R. C. (1970). Alula removal technique for identify- ing wings of released waterfowl. J. Wildl. Mgmt, 34, 137-40.

This method can be used with 1-day-old ducklings, and appears to be successful.

Cohen, D. (1968). A general model of optimal reproduction in a randomly varying environment. J. Ecol. 56, 219-28.

The optimization of reproductive behaviour in a randomly varying environment is represented by a simplified model. The results include the conditions for dominance and a method for computing an optimal mixed strategy.

Connolly, G. E., Dudzin'ski, M. L. & Longhurst, W. M. (1970). The eye lens as an indicator of age in the black-tailed jack rabbit. J. Wildl. Mgmt, 33, 159-64.

Gives good results up to an age of about 2 years.

Conway, G. R., Glass, N. R. & Wilcox, J. C. (1970). Fitting nonlinear models to biological data by Marquardt's algorithm. Ecology, 51, 503-7.

A mathematical paper dealing with the fitting of non-linear parameters to give the best least square fit.

Cowan, R. L., Hartsook, E. W., Whelan, J. B., Long, T. A. & Wetzel, R. S. (1970). A cage for metabolism and radioisotope studies with deer. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 33, 204-8.

Details of construction and operation are given.

Eberhardt, L. L. (1969). Population estimates from recapture frequencies. J. Wildl. Mgmt, 33 28-39.

Data from populations of known size are compared to estimates obtained from live-trapping. An im- proved formula is proposed for estimating the populations, and modifications in trapping techniques are also suggested.

Edwards, C. A., Whiting, A. E. & Heath, G. W. (1970). A mechanized washing method for separa- tion of invertebrates from soil. Pedobiologia, 10, 141-8.

The machine described is capable of handling several samples rapidly, and is shown to be efficient for earthworms, molluscs, larger arthropods, and soil Collembola.

Hair, M. E., Alexander, J. E. & McLaughlin, J. J. A. (1968). An inexpensive apparatus for sampling shallow water. Limnol. Oceanogr. 13, 718-9.

A simple, inexpensive device for taking water samples at fixed heights above the bottom in shallow water only, using a hand pump.

Jacobsen, V. H. (1970). A simple tool for collecting burrowing animals in submerged areas. Limnol. Oceanogr. 15, 646-8.

A simple, traditional tool used by Danish fishermen for collecting lug-worms for bait is described. It is very efficient for the rapid capture of such species, and can be used when as little as five centimetres of

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Abstracts 801

water overlie the sediment. It offers many advantages over the conventional digging, and can be used in up to 1 m of water.

Lawton, J. H. & Richards, J. (1970). Comparability of Cartesian diver, Gilson, Warburg and Winkler methods of measuring the respiratory rates of aquatic invertebrates in ecological studies. Oecologia, 4, 319-24.

All methods appeared equally suitable for ecological work.

Maitland, P. S. (1969). A simple corer for sampling sand and finer sediments in shallow water. Limnol. Oceanogr. 14, 151-6.

A simple hand-operated device is described, for use in water to a depth of 5 m, giving an undisturbed core of up to 20 cm in length.

Menzies, R. J. & Rowe, G. T. (1968). The LUBS, a large undisturbed bottom sampler. Limnol. Oceanogr. 13, 708-14.

A new benthic collecting device which satisfies most of the criteria for a successful soft-bottom quantita- tive sampler, is described. Three sizes have been developed, the smallest sampling an area of 617 cm2 and the largest 2490 cm2. Each brings to the surface an undisturbed sample, and retains the vagrant epifauna that is frequently lost in other types of grab. Although designed primarily for deep-sea sampling it will work perfectly well in shallow water.

Moore, W. H. (1968). A light-weight pulsed D.C. fish shocker. J. appl. Ecol. 5, 205-8. The machine is capable of fishing in a wide range of conductivities in fresh water.

Panlik, G. J. & Robson, D. S. (1969). Statistical calculations for change-in-ratio estimators of population parameters. J. Wildl. Mgmt, 33, 1-27.

A general unified approach is developed for estimating population abundance ... applicable when a population can be classified into two categories ... and a number of well-known population estimation techniques are shown to be special cases of the general formulae presented (from authors' summary).

Ricklefs, R. E. (1970). The estimation of a time function of ecological use. Ecology, 51. 508-13.

A model for relating the outcome of a series of events (capture or escape of prey, for example) to the probability, time and outcome of each kind of event.

Schiemer, E. W. & Schubel, J. R. (1970). A near-bottom suspended sediment sampling system for studies of resuspension. Limnol. Oceanogr. 15, 644-6.

Describes an apparatus for pumping water samples at five fixed heights above the bottom (12, 25, 50, 100 and 200 cm). All of the sampling tubes are purged continuously, and samples are selected with a special six-way valve.

Smith, M. H. (1968). A comparison of different methods of capturing and estimating numbers of mice. J. Mammal. 49, 455-62.

A mark and release technique using live traps is compared with capturing mice by digging out their burrows. In general the former method over-estimated males and underestimated females.

Stoddart, L. C. (1970). A telemetric method for detecting jackrabbit mortality. J. Wildl. Mgmt, 34, 501-7.

The device used was a simple one, and enabled rabbits to be detected at a range of up to 14 km from towers 25 m high.

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