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A psychological process through whichunsatisfied wants or needs lead to drives thatare aimed at goals or incentives.

The Basic Motivation Process

Unsatisfiedneed

Drive toward goalto satisfy need

Attainment of

goal (needsatisfaction)

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Maslows theory rests on a number of basicassumptions:

Lower-level needs must be satisfied beforehigher-level needs become motivators

A need that is satisfied no longer serves as amotivator

There are more ways to satisfy higher-level thanthere are ways to satisfy lower-level needs

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International Findings: Haire study indicated allthese needs were important to the respondentsacross cultures

International managers indicated the upper-level needs wereof particular importance to them

Findings for select country clusters (Latin Europe, UnitedStates/United Kingdom, and Nordic Europe) indicatedautonomy and self-actualization were the most important and least satisfied needs for the respondents

Another study of managers in eight East Asian countriesfound that autonomy and self-actualization in most cases alsoranked high

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Job-content factors such as achievement,recognition, responsibility, advancement,and the work itself

Job-context variables such as salary,interpersonal relations, technicalsupervision, working conditions, andcompany policies and administration

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Salary

Technical supervision

Company policies and administration

Interpersonal relations

Working conditions

Achievement

Recognition

Responsibility

Advancement

The work itself

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International findings:Two categories of International findings relate tothe two-factor theory:

One type of study consists of replications of Herzbergsresearch in a particular countryDo managers in country X give answers similar to those in Herzbergs original studies?

The others are cross-cultural studies focusing on jobsatisfactionWhat factors cause job satisfaction and how do these responses differ from country to country?

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Cross-cultural satisfaction studies Motivators tend to be more important to job

satisfaction than hygiene factors

For MBA candidates from four countries rankedhygiene factors at the bottom and motivators at thetop

For lower- and middle-management personnelattending management development courses inCanada, the United Kingdom, France, and Japan jobcontent may be more important than job context

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Characteristic profile of high achievers:

They like situations in which they takepersonal responsibility for finding solutions toproblems.

Tend to be moderate risk-takers rather thanhigh or low risk-takers.

Want concrete feedback on their performance.Often tend to be loners, and not team players.

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International Findings:

Achievement motivation theory must be modified to meet thespecific needs of the local culture:

The culture of many countries does not support highachievement

Anglo cultures and those that reward entrepreneurial effortdo support achievement motivation and their human

resources should probably be managed accordingly

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International Findings: Employees in Asia and the Middle East often readily accept

inequitable treatment in order to preserve group harmony

Men and women in Japan and Korea (and Latin America) typicallyreceive different pay for doing the same work due to years of cultural conditioning women may not feel they are treatedinequitably

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Equity Theory

When people perceive they are being treatedequitably it will have a positive effect on their

job satisfaction

If they believe they are not being treated fairly(especially in relation to relevant others) theywill be dissatisfied which will have a negativeeffect on their job performance and they willstrive to restore equity.

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A process theory that focuses on how individuals go aboutsetting goals and responding to them and the overall impact of this process on motivation

Specific areas that are given attention in goal-setting theoryinclude:

The level of participation in setting goals Goal difficulty Goal specificity The importance of objective Timely feedback to progress toward goals

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Unlike many theories of motivation, goal setting has beencontinually refined and developed

There is considerable research evidence showing thatemployees perform extremely well when they are assignedspecific and challenging goals that they have had a hand insetting

Most of these studies have been conducted in the UnitedStates few have been carried out in other cultures

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International Findings :

Norwegian employees shunned participation and preferred tohave their union representatives work with management in

determining work goals

Researchers concluded that individual participation in goalsetting was seen as inconsistent with the prevailing Norwegianphilosophy of participation through union representatives

In the United States employee participation in setting goals ismotivational it had no value for the Norwegian employees inthis study

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A process theory that postulates thatmotivation is influenced by a persons belief that

Effort will lead to performance Performance will lead to specific outcomes, and

The outcomes will be of value to the individual

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MOTIVATION( FORCE) =

VALENCE * EXPECTANCY * INSTRUMENTALITY

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Expectancy theory predicts that high performance followed by highrewards will lead to high satisfaction

Does this theory have universal application? Eden found some support for it while studying workers in Israel

Matsui and colleagues found it could be successfully applied in Japan

Expectancy theory could be culture-bound international managersmust be aware of this limitation in motivating human resources sinceexpectancy theory is based on employees having considerablecontrol over their environment (a condition that does not exist inmany cultures)

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